11 Encouraging

Immigration
Chapter How did the massive immigration to Canada near the turn of the
INQUIRY twentieth century affect the complex identity of our country?

Key
▲

Immigration and Identity

CONCEPT
As people grow older, we change. We see new places, make new friends, and meet
new challenges. All these experiences influence who we are. The same thing
happens to a country. Over time, the characteristics that seem to describe it change.
Canada is a different country today from the Dominion of Canada of a hundred
years ago. It’s also different from what it will be a hundred years from now.
One of the important factors that change a country’s identity is immigration.
Many people come from other places to live in Canada. They change the makeup
of the country. They bring their own ideas and customs. These become a part of
life in Canada. In this way, the newcomers add to what it means to be Canadian.

Coming to Western Canada

At first, Canada did not attract many immigrants. The trip from other continents
was very long. Most people who did come to North America went to the United
States. Then, in the 1890s, things changed. Newcomers flooded the West.
Over the next 20 years, many different groups of immigrants came to
Western Canada. In this chapter, you will learn more about a few of these groups.
You’ll learn why they left their home countries and why they chose Canada. As
you read, think about how they added to the character of our country.

242
Encouraging Immigration Chapter Chapter
11 11

Honing
Your Skills
Do you like to “wow”
your audience? The
Skill Check feature
in this chapter
shows you how to
Design a Multimedia
Presentation. This
skill is important to
your studies because
it will enable you to
communicate what
you know effectively.
The project at the end
of the chapter will
ask you to design a
multimedia
presentation about
the cultural pluralism
of the West.

Think
▲

Examine the graphic at left. It includes the
First Peoples, the Canadiens and English
AHEAD Canadians, the Métis, and some of the
immigrant groups that lived in Western
Canada in the early twentieth century.
a) Brainstorm some contributions each of
these groups made to Canada.
b) Another band could be added to the
rainbow to include immigrant groups that
have come to Canada more recently. To
find out who they are, go to the website
for Statistics Canada.
c) Brainstorm some contributions these
recent citizens are making today.
d) Canadians from which of these groups live
in your community today?
e) Draw a different graphic to illustrate the
cultural mix in your community.

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VOICES VOICES
AND VISIONS
AND VISIONS A Story of Canada

SKILL CHECK: Design a

Multimedia Presentation
ultimedia can turn a boring presentation into an exciting experience. By the end of
M this chapter, you’ll have learned a lot more about the pluralistic nature of Canada.
When you tell others about what you’ve learned, don’t just read them a report. Try
livening it up. Make social studies come alive with visuals, sounds, videos, and music.

Choosing the Media for Dramatization

Your Presentation
Any presentation can be a multimedia
presentation. You just need to use more
than one form of media. For example,
spruce up a bulletin-board display with
illustrations, graphs, and a tape recorder
set up to play traditional music. Make
people pay attention to your
spoken presentation by
showing a “slide
show” of digital
photographs. Look
at this concept
web. It shows a
few of the forms
of presentation
you could use.
Then read about
what you might do
with each to make it
truly multimedia.
Video or DVD
Create a documentary or a
What form of presentation commercial. Write the
would you choose to illustrate dialogue. Include
Canada’s pluralistic society?
costumes, props, scenery,
Brainstorm different types of
and sound effects. These
media you could incorporate,
make the video authentic.
with examples (for example,
Present your documentary
drawings of immigrants’
or commercial on the
homes).
computer or television.
Write an original script and present a
play. Build a set and design costumes. Use
music and sound effects to bring the play
to life. Videotape it or present it live.
Website
Design a website on your topic. First,
sketch out the web pages for your site,
with one sheet of paper for each web
page. The home page will need links to
sub-pages. Decide what photographs, text,
sound clips, cartoons, or video clips
would enhance your site. Provide a list of
links to useful websites on your topic,
including libraries, museums, and
archives. If your school has the
technology, create your website.
Computer Presentation
Create a slide show with text, sound,
graphics, and video clips. You could use
PowerPoint, HyperStudio, AppleWorks, or
another program.
Audiotape or CD
Become a radio broadcaster. Present an
interview, a radio drama, a book on tape,
or a newscast. Include sound effects,
music, and personal interviews.

244
Encouraging Immigration Chapter Chapter
11 11

The Need for Immigrants

I n 1881, 4 381 256 people lived in
Canada, including 108 547 Aboriginal
people. Nearly 89 per cent of Canadians
were of British or French descent.
Focus The vast majority of them lived in
Why did Canada the East.
need immigrants? In the West, the First Nations
and Métis were struggling to adjust
to a life changed by the railway. Also in the
West were the Canadiens. Through the fur
trade, they had explored this region. Some
had established farms. Then there were the
English Canadians. The English had come
from Eastern Canada, Britain, and the
United States.
All in all, there weren’t very many
people in the West. In this section, you will
see who wanted more people in the West,
and why. You will learn that migration
within Canada was not enough to do the job.
What did Laurier need? People. Laurier
could not build a thriving country without
more people. In particular, he wanted
newcomers to start farms in the West. As you
learned in Chapter 9, a strong farm economy
in the West would help the whole country.
Laurier also needed more workers for
all the country’s growing industries. Mines
were producing three times more gold,
copper, and coal in 1914 than they were in
1896. The West was producing ten times
more wheat. Many factories opened.
Note that Laurier already had people
who could have taken some of these
jobs: the First Nations and Métis.
People didn’t even think of that
possibility. Why would this be so?

In 1881, Canadiens made up 41.5 per

cent of the non-Aboriginal population
of the North-West Territories. English
Canadians made up 41.2 per cent.

Don’t forget that the glossary and a dictionary are

both useful sources of information. If there is a term in
this section that is not familiar to you, look it up!

The Laurier Factor
Sir Wilfrid Laurier was Canada’s first French
Canadian prime minister. Laurier’s most
famous remark was “The twentieth century
belongs to Canada.” He meant that Canada’s
economy would soon get very big. He
thought Canada would become a great
nation.
Figure 11.1 Wilfrid Laurier (at centre) on the
campaign trail in 1908. Laurier spoke both French
and English. His Francophone parents had sent
him to English-language schools. Looking at the
photograph, think about how knowing both
English and French could help a Canadian
politician. How could it enable us to be more active
citizens? Are there other languages to learn that
would help us be better citizens?

245
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AND VISIONS
AND VISIONS A Story of Canada

Year Immigrants Year Immigrants Year Immigrants

1890 75 067 1899 44 543 1908 143 326

1891 82 165 1900 41 681 1909 173 694
1892 30 996 1901 55 747 1910 286 839
1893 29 663 1902 89 102 1911 331 288
1894 20 829 1903 138 660 1912 375 756
1895 18 790 1904 131 252 1913 400 870
1896 16 835 1905 141 465 1914 150 484
1897 21 716 1906 211 653
1898 31 900 1907 272 409
Source: David J. Hall, “Room to Spare,” Horizon Canada, 1985, vol. 7, no. 76, p. 1803.

Figure 11.2 The number of immigrants entering Canada, 1890 to 1914. Most of the immigrants that came to
the country from 1890 to 1914 went to the West. How many people came to Canada in Laurier’s first year in
office (1896)? How many came in his last year (1911)?

Laurier succeeded in bringing more
people to Canada, as you can see in Figure
11.2. How did he do it? His government
doubled the amount of railway track, making
travel into the West easier. It advertised for
immigrants in far-off countries. Government
agents went overseas to find interested
groups. Canada offered them special
treatment. Some groups, for example,
received large tracts of land.
Partners in the Effort ]
The government worked hard to attract
people to Canada. As you’ll see in this
chapter, it was not the only organization
eager to bring newcomers to the country.
Some private companies got involved. They
▲
bought land in the West and sold it to
immigrants at a profit.
Church groups took an interest. They
wanted to build religious communities in a
new land. They liked Canada’s policy of
religious freedom.
The railway companies were involved,
too. The government gave them land for
building the railway. For example, the
Canadian Pacific Railway owned land along
109 Street and Jasper Avenue in Edmonton. It
still owns land in downtown Calgary. In total,
the CPR got about 100 000 square kilometres
of prairie land. This is almost as big as the
area of the island of Newfoundland. Other
rail companies got more than 20 000 square
kilometres. All the companies made big
profits by selling their land.

Think It 1. a) Write “A Pluralistic Society” at the centre
of a concept web. Put the groups who
Through wanted immigrants to move to Canada
on the second level. Put the reasons they
wanted these immigrants to come to the
West on the next level.
b) Describe another way to present this
information.
2. Graphs make an excellent addition to a
multimedia project. Look at the statistics in
Figure 11.2.
a) What type of graph would best display
this data visually? Why? (See Skill
Check: Use Statistics to Create Graphs
on page 124.)
b) What trends do you see?

246
Encouraging Immigration
Canada Calling
Y ou’ve learned that the Canadian
government wanted immigrants. It
was very successful in bringing them here.
In this section, you’ll look at the
Focus strategies the government used
How did the to persuade newcomers to come
Canadian government west.
encourage immigrants
to come to Canada
from Europe?
Spreading the
Word
The person in charge of immigration to
Canada was Clifford Sifton. Sifton was a
Member of Parliament from Manitoba. He
was also the Minister of the Interior from
1896 to 1905.
Sifton started a publicity campaign.
The goal was to attract people to Canada.
You know how products are advertised
today. In the same way, Canada was
advertised as a good place to live.
• Millions of posters and pamphlets were
made in many languages.
• The government brought foreign
journalists to Canada. They toured the
country. They wrote newspaper stories
about it when they returned home.
• The government sent speakers around
the world. They spread the word about
the great Canadian West.
Some of Canada’s efforts seem a little
odd. In 1907, a huge buffalo died at the
Banff zoo. The government had it stuffed
and sent to the Canadian office in London,
Notice how lists with bullets (•) make it easy to
understand several key points. Think about how you
could use these kinds of lists in your own work.
Chapter Chapter
11 11
Figure 11.3 Clifford Sifton, 1907. Some people
didn’t like Sifton’s policies. Even so, no one
questioned his loyalty to the Prairies. Do you think
Francophones already in the West would have
agreed with his policies? Why or why not?
England. Here it stood in the front window
as a symbol of the West. Later, it was
displayed at fairs all over Europe. This
strategy worked. It got people excited.
Would it work today?
Who the Government Targeted
Sifton sent advertisements to three regions.
• The United States. American farmers
knew how to farm on the prairies. By the
1890s, though, the United States was
running out of good farmland. The ads
sent there called Western Canada “the
last, best West.”
• Great Britain. Most Canadians were of
British origin. Some of them wanted
other Britons to move here. They thought
this would strengthen the British
character of the country.
• Eastern Europe. Sifton believed that
farmers from Eastern Europe were ideal
settlers for the prairies. They were
experienced at growing crops. They
would put up with the hardships of
pioneer life. He also believed they would
assimilate to English culture.
247
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AND VISIONS
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CASE Land for Sale!

STUDY
False advertising is using ads to mislead people. Was the Canadian government
guilty of false advertising? Examine these government ads to find out.

WANTED B ECAUSE of the dry-

ness of the inland
beneficial. Sleighing
parties of pleasure
climate, the cold is are arranged for the
14,000 men to build Railways in Canada. much less noticeable period of the full
than a stranger might moon, and the sound of
100,000 men to take, cultivate and own expect. Less snow falls the sleigh bells is a

FPO
farms in Canada. on the prairies than merry one. The snow
in the East, and on protects the autumn-
Highest wages in Railway work. account of the dryness sown wheat from the
of the air, it brushes frost and aids ... the
160 acres of the best land in the world free. off one’s coat like farmer in hauling his
dust. produce to market,
The industrious Everywhere the and so contributes
poor man’s chance.... appearance of snow is alike to business and
hailed as seasonable and pleasure.

Figure 11.4 A re-creation of an ad that appeared

in a 1908 pamphlet. It was called Canada: Work,
Wages, Land: The Railway Route to a Free Farm.
Who would be interested in this information?
Figure 11.5 A description of Canada that appeared in a 1906
pamphlet. It was called Twentieth-Century Canada. What
feeling do you get when you read this? Which phrases are
exaggerations? Which don’t tell the whole story? Reword
the passage to make it more accurate.

Respond
How realistic are
the images of
Canada on this
page? Find examples Figure 11.7 A young woman dressed
of misleading up as Canada. She appeared at a rural
information. What Figure 11.6 Two posters distributed fair in Exeter, England, in 1907. Her
information was around 1910. Compare the two posters. bicycle is decorated with sheaves of
left out? How are they alike? How are they wheat. What kind of effect might this
different? Is either misleading? How? form of publicity have had on people?

248
Encouraging Immigration Chapter Chapter
11 11

Betrayal of the Promise of The Trap []

Confederation
For many immigrants, the move to the West
Sifton and the government most wanted was “a trap.” Life here was much harder
new citizens who either spoke English or than the advertisements had led them to
would learn it. The government did not try believe. When homesteaders arrived in the
to convince Canadiens from Québec to West, they needed to build shelter before
move west. Farmland was scarce in Québec, winter. On much of the prairie there are few
yet the government did not advertise there. trees, so most newcomers made sod houses.
It did not offer free rail tickets. These were made of slabs of soil, grass, and
The government had a vision of grass roots cut from the prairie. After a
Canada as one nation with one language. downpour, it would
Over the years, Francophones began to feel continue to “rain” Tech Link
betrayed. Hadn’t Confederation made inside for days. Only Look on the Voices
Canada officially bilingual? Why wasn’t the later, when they had and Visions CD-ROM
government trying to make the West a place more money and to learn about the
for both Anglophones and Francophones? time, did homesteaders long hours and
Within a few decades, Francophones were build more permanent, tedious work involved
far outnumbered in the West. They began wood-frame houses. in a task we take for
to feel a great pressure to learn English, Few had money to pay granted today—
especially after the use of French stopped for the trip back home. making bread.
being protected.

VOICES
It was sometimes said that Sifton had an “open-door” policy. This meant that
everyone was welcome to come to Canada.

“ I do not care what language a man speaks, or what religion he professes, if he

is honest and law-abiding, if he will go on that land and make a living for
himself and his family, he is a desirable settler.
”
Source: Debates, House of Commons, July 1899.

Did Canada really have an “open door”? Let’s look at the facts. The government
advertised in the United States, Britain, and Eastern Europe. It did not advertise in
Québec or Asia, and it advertised very little in France and Belgium. Also, Sifton
wanted certain types of people to enter the country.
Respond
“ I think a stalwart peasant in a sheep-skin coat, born
on the soil, whose forefathers have been farmers for
ten generations, with a stout wife and a half-dozen
What kind of
people did Sifton
really want to attract
to Canada? Who did
children, is good quality. A Trades Union artisan who
he think would not
will not work more than eight hours a day … is, in my be suitable? Do you
judgement, … very bad quality.
”
Source: Maclean’s Magazine, April 1922.
agree with Sifton’s
reasoning? Explain.

249
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AND VISIONS
AND VISIONS A Story of Canada

VOICES
Mary Louisa Cummins and her husband, Colin, came
from England. They moved to Saskatchewan.

“ At the time, the CPR was plastering the country

with fascinating pictures of glorious wheat fields on
the great western prairies. There was a fortune for
everyone in three years, not to mention glittering
promises of practically free land. Hopes were high.
So we, poor fools, fell into the trap.
”
Source: Don Gillmor and Pierre Turgeon, Canada: A People’s History,
vol. 2 (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 2001), p. 13.
Figure 11.8 A sod house in the Camrose area of
Alberta, likely about 1900. It had a dirt floor. What
would be the benefits or drawbacks of raising
young children in this house?

Perhaps potential immigrants to

Canada would have been better off if
they had viewed Canada’s ads
critically. Are you media savvy? Look
at this screen capture of a 2005 Travel
Alberta web page. Think about it
critically. What is it trying to get you
to do? Does it exaggerate? Does it
leave out information? Do you believe
everything it says?
▲

Think It 1. The government hoped to attract
immigrants from three regions in the
Through early 1900s. What were they?
a) Make a three-circle Venn diagram to
compare these regions.
b) Write two sentences saying why these
areas were targeted, and not others.
c) What media did the government use to
attract immigrants?
2. Imagine you’re working on a government
campaign to promote Alberta today.
a) Prepare two posters. On one, show
an Alberta that would be an ideal
destination for immigrants. On the other,
show an Alberta that is more realistic.
b) Which one do you think your boss will
choose? Why?
3. On paper, design a website to advertise
Canada. Alternatively, write the script for a
radio or television commercial. First,
brainstorm possible text, pictures, sounds,
and video clips you might include.

250
Encouraging Immigration
Push and Pull Factors
T he government promoted Canada
vigorously. Was that enough? In this
section, you’ll find out that the people who
came here had good reasons for
Focus leaving their homelands. They also
Why did the had good reasons for choosing
government’s Canada.
immigration policy
succeed?
Reasons for
Emigrating]
Why were Canada’s new
Tech Link immigrants looking for a place
To see a wagon where they could make a better
train of new life? For many, the conditions in
homesteaders their homelands made them
travelling north of want to leave. The factors that
Edmonton, open push people to leave their
Chapter 11 on your homelands are called push
Voices and Visions factors. The newcomers to the
CD-ROM. West were affected by a variety
of push factors. Here are the
main ones.
• Population growth. Europe was going
through a dramatic increase in population.
There were not enough jobs for everyone.
There was not enough land to farm.
• Religious persecution. A persecuted
person is one who is treated badly
because of his or her beliefs. Several
groups of people in Eastern Europe were
persecuted for their religious beliefs.
“Emigrant” and “Immigrant”
Emigrant and immigrant are similar terms, but they
mean different things. Emigrants are people who
leave their homelands. They become immigrants
when they come to live in a new land. New
Ukrainian Canadians, for example, emigrated from
Ukraine. They immigrated to Canada.
Chapter Chapter
11 11
• Political persecution. Several groups of
people were persecuted for their political
beliefs.
• Natural disaster. Famine, such as the
Irish potato famine of 1847 (which you
read about in Chapter 6), can lead people
to leave their homes.
• Affordable travel. Steamships made
voyages shorter and cheaper. After 1896,
a worldwide economic depression drew
to a close. With the return of better times,
people could afford to move.
Figure 11.9 A family of Scottish immigrants. They
arrived at Québec City in 1910. This was their first
stop on a long journey to the prairies. What would
it take to convince you and your family to move to
a different country? What would hold you back?
Reasons for Immigrating
to Canada []
Near the turn of the twentieth century,
millions of people were on the move.
Europeans were moving to the United States,
Australia, New Zealand, and South America.
Why did some of them choose Canada?
Canada offered plenty of reasons. Factors that
influence people to choose a certain country
are called pull factors. Here are the main pull
factors that drew people to Canada.
251
 VOICES VOICES
AND VISIONS
AND VISIONS
• Free land. Everyone could afford the
inexpensive, plentiful land offered in
Western Canada.
• Jobs. The developing West needed
shopkeepers, coal miners, school
teachers, and so on.
• Completed railway. Immigrants who
became Western farmers would be able
to sell their grain in Eastern markets.
• Better machinery. Farms produced more
crops with better farm machinery.
Figure 11.11 Sources for immigrants to
Canada, 1901–1911. From which two
places did most immigrants come before
the First World War? Is a pie graph a good
way to present this information? Why or
why not?
Source: Daniel Francis, et al. Canadian Issues (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 23.
▲
Think It 1. Imagine you are a young man who can’t
find work in Scotland. Write an entry in
Through your journal in which you try to decide
whether or not to immigrate to Canada.
Mention the push and pull factors you
might be thinking about. Alternatively,
present a soliloquy (a scene in which a
character talks to himself or herself ).
Include sound effects to make your scene
realistic.
252
A Story of Canada
• Improved farming techniques. Newly
developed kinds of wheat were better
suited to the prairie climate.
• Growing demand for wheat. As the
demand for wheat grew, so did the price.
A wheat-farming family could do well.
• Religious and political freedom. Canada
allowed people to hold their beliefs.
• Friends and family. Some people chose
Canada to be close to friends and family
already here.
Figure 11.10 Examples of push and pull
factors. Think of an instance where push
and pull factors work together.
2. Some push and pull factors can be
controlled. Others cannot. A huge tsunami
slammed into the shorelines of Southeast
Asia in December 2004. It pushed many
people to leave their ruined communities.
Many push and pull factors influenced the
people who came to Canada at the turn of
the twentieth century. List them. Which
were created by policies in Canada? Which
could the government not control?
Encouraging Immigration
Churches and Immigration
C hurches and religious groups took a
special interest in immigration. They
believed that the Canadian West offered a
chance for their members to have a better
life. In some cases, church members were
being persecuted for their
Focus religious beliefs in their home
What strategies countries. The Doukhobors, for
did missionaries example, were pacifists. Even so,
and religious the Russian government wanted to
communities use force them to fight in the army.
to attract Canada offered them a safe haven.
immigrants to It seemed to be a place where they
Western Canada? could follow their faith in peace.
The Barr Colony[]
Anglican Church leaders helped many
British Anglicans come to Canada. (The
Anglican Church is the Church of England.)
One of these leaders was a Canadian-born
Anglican minister named Isaac Barr. In
1902, he placed an ad in British
newspapers. It called for people who
wanted to go to Canada. Barr thought that
Figure 11.12 Barr colonist camp in Saskatoon, April 1903. The
government frantically put up these tents when the Barr colonists
came unprepared. It provided them with wagons for the rest of the
journey. Before Barr left Canada for good, the newcomers tried to
pelt him with eggs. Why would they be so angry?
Chapter Chapter
11 11
the Canadian West should be filled with
English-speaking Anglicans. He thought this
would strengthen its “British” character. His
advertisement said, “Let us take possession
of Canada. Let our cry be ‘Canada for the
British.’ ”
Barr acquired a large tract of land on
the border of Saskatchewan and Alberta. In
1903 he led a party of 2684 men, women,
and children from England. He did not plan
the expedition well. To begin, the ship he’d
arranged for, the SS Lake Manitoba, could
carry only 900. He crammed everyone
aboard anyway. After the colonists arrived
in Saint John, they discovered that no rail
transport had been organized. Reverend
George Lloyd stepped in and made the
arrangements. The immigrants ended up
losing most of their luggage. They had to
travel with few supplies by ox cart from
Saskatoon. But the immigrants came from
industrial towns. They didn’t know how to
drive oxen. The journey was a disaster, and
many gave up.
Finally the colonists forced Barr to
resign. They replaced him with Lloyd, who
was experienced in the West. Lloyd helped
the newcomers at every step. The colonists
named their main town Lloydminster.
The Hutterites []
The Hutterites are a Protestant religious
group with a unique identity. Their religious
beliefs inspire them to live collectively in
isolated communities and to refuse to fight
as soldiers—they are pacifists. In Russia, the
Hutterites had been persecuted for their
beliefs, including their belief in pacifism. In
1864, they fled to South Dakota in the
United States.
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VOICES VOICES
AND VISIONS
AND VISIONS A Story of Canada

Things were fine until the First World
War. Then Americans began to view the
Hutterites with suspicion. The Hutterites
spoke German, the language of the enemy.
Further, the Hutterites refused to take up
arms. So other Americans took the
Hutterites’ cattle and sheep. They made the
whole community feel unwelcome.
The Hutterites decided to move to
southern Manitoba and Alberta. They would
be permitted to avoid military service. They
would be allowed to teach their children in
their own schools. A few instances of
discrimination did not discourage them.
Today, about 25 000 Hutterites live in
Alberta in about 60 colonies.

CASE A Different Settlement Pattern

STUDY
Can a religious belief affect geography? Let’s think about settlement patterns.
Settlement patterns are the way human dwellings are arranged. They are part
of human geography.
Respond Most early farming families on the prairies lived on large farms.
Draw two Each family lived far away from other people.
diagrams. Draw
The Hutterites lived differently: they had a communal lifestyle.
one to show the
settlement pattern That means that there was no private property. Everyone in the
of Hutterite farming colony owned everything. That included farm equipment, books,
colonies. Draw toys, and even bank accounts. A group of elders made all important
another to show decisions.
the pattern that This way of life affected the settlement pattern of Hutterite
was more common
colonies. About 100 to 130 people lived in each colony. A colony was
in the West. (See
page 197 in known as a bruderhofe. Everyone lived together in a small village. All
Chapter 9.) the houses and the dining hall were in the centre of the village. The
farm buildings lay on the perimeter of
the village. All around the village were
the colony’s farmlands.
For the most part,
Hutterite colonies Tech Link
function the same Open Chapter 11
way today. on your Voices and
Visions CD-ROM to
see an aerial view of a
Hutterite colony.

Figure 11.13 Hutterite women at work in modern

times in Lethbridge, Alberta. What are they doing?
How is this scene the same as it would have been
had the photo been taken early in the last century?
How is it different? Hutterites still live separately
from the rest of Canadian society. How would this
affect the lives of Hutterite teenagers?

254
Encouraging Immigration Chapter Chapter
11 11

British Home Children ] Two types of groups set up these

Between 1867 and 1924, 100 000 British
children were sent to Canada. They
travelled on ships and by train, sometimes
all on their own. They hoped to join
Canadian families.
ventures:
• religious organizations—for example, the
Church of England Waifs and Strays
Society
• charitable organizations—for example, the
Society for the Suppression of Juvenile
Vagrancy

CASE Dr. Barnardo’s Children

STUDY
Were the home children lucky to come to Canada?
Irish-born Thomas Barnardo was a young medical student in London,
England. He saw many children who were orphans or whose parents were too
poor to care for them. They had to make their own way in the world by
working, begging, or stealing. Many slept in the street. Some lived in
workhouses, where they worked long hours for no pay.
Dr. Barnardo felt he must help these “lost” children. In 1870, he opened
his first “home” where boys could live and receive some education. In time, a
series of Barnardo’s homes opened for boys and girls.
England did not offer much of a future for these children. On the other
hand, Canada needed more young workers. Further, many Canadian families
were willing to adopt these children. Barnardo believed that Canada offered
these youngsters a better life. He began sending some of
the children to live with families in Canada. The families Respond
were supposed to look after the orphans and make sure
What is the issue?
they went to school. Many children went to live on farms What would each of
in the West. Here they worked hard to pay for their keep. these people think
It was hoped that they would grow up to become about the issue?
homesteaders with farms of their own. • a worker at a
Barnardo home
in England
• a child taken
from her
penniless mother
• an orphan
welcomed into a
Canadian family
• a farmer hoping
for more help on
the farm
Figure 11.14 A group of Barnardo children, 1905. They’re on the dock in Saint • a teenager forced
John, New Brunswick. About 1000 Barnardo children came to Canada every year to work long
from 1883 to 1914. Would immigration like this be allowed today? Explain. hours on the farm

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VOICES VOICES
AND VISIONS
AND VISIONS A Story of Canada

VOICES
Consider the statements of these home children. Describe what you think would be the best
experience for a home child. What would the worst be like?

“ In April 1907 I was called into a conference of

the family. I was 15 years old, nearly six feet tall
and weighed 160 pounds—pretty skookum.
will take everything away from you.” “Well,” I
said, “They won’t get my doll,” and I threw it
out the open window. I seemed to realize then
They asked me how I would like to go out to
western Canada and help to open up the
country. Well, after reading all the books of that
that I was really alone and I started to cry.
”
—Girl, name withheld

time about the Golden West—full of Indians,

cowboys and Mounties—I naturally agreed.
“ I was sent out to Arrow River in Manitoba, where
Who wouldn’t at that age? …
I feel it has been a privilege to have had a
hand in opening up the country.
” —Dave J. Brims
I was put on contract to this farmer for seven
years. …
Those seven years were hell. I was beat up
with pieces of harness, pitchforks, anything that
came in handy to hit me with I got it. I didn’t get
enough to eat. …

“ My first recollections of Canada are travelling

on the train through Québec to Montréal. We
They would buy me shoes that wouldn’t fit. I
used to cry with the pain. My feet are still crippled
were sitting three in a seat with the window
open. I had a doll, and the little girl next to me
said, “You know when you get to Canada they
over that.
” —Charles W. Carver

Source: All quotations from Phyllis Harrison, ed.,

The Home Children: Their Personal Stories (Winnipeg:
Watson & Dwyer Publishing Ltd., 1979), pp. 59, 84–85, 90.
▲

Think It Many groups of immigrants came to Canada
because of the influence of a religious
Through organization. Choose one such group.
a) What did the religious organization do to
encourage the move?
b) Think of other push and pull factors
affecting your group.
c) Create a push–pull diagram for your group
by following the model in Figure 11.10 on
page 252.

Francophones in the West

A s you have learned, Francophones had
lived in the West for generations.
They were the first non-Aboriginal
Leaving Their Mark
The Canadiens and Métis named rivers,
Focus people in the West. They had been
lakes, and regions. You can see the
How did Francophone presence in the many streets
trading furs and living off the land
Francophones and parks with French names. Many of the
here since 1730. In this section,
contribute to communities we live in have French names,
you will learn ways in which
the overall such as Batoche and Bellegarde in
Francophones put their mark on
development of Saskatchewan, and Beaumont, Morinville,
the West.
Western Canada? St. Paul, and Lac La Biche in Alberta.

256
Encouraging Immigration
You can see the mark left on the land
by the early Francophone farmers. For
example, the farms on the Red and
Saskatchewan Rivers are quite distinct. They
are long and narrow, with houses near the
water. In other words, they are similar to the
farms of the seigneurial system of New
France.
Many Canadiens went west as
missionaries. The Sisters of Charity are a
good example. They are better known as
the Soeurs Grises (Grey Nuns). They started
a convent and school in St. Boniface. They
started the hospital at Lac Sainte-Anne in
1859. Francophone villages and towns grew
near the French Catholic missions. These
included Lac Sainte-Anne, St. Albert, and
St. Boniface. By the 1880s, the West had
many Francophone communities.
Early Francophone businesses gave
people jobs and helped get the economy
rolling. For example, the West Canadian
Collieries operated coal mines in the
Crowsnest Pass area of Alberta. It was
owned by business interests in France and
run by local Francophones. Revillon Frères,
the second-most important fur-trading
Chapter Chapter
11 11
company, had a major warehouse in
Edmonton. In Albertville, Saskatchewan, a
group of Francophone residents formed
Saskatchewan’s first credit union in 1916.
Internal Migrants [
Many Canadiens and English Canadians
moved westward during the period of
massive settlement from about 1890 to
1914. People who move from one region to
another within one country are called
internal migrants.
At first, many Canadien migrants felt
welcome. They were confident that
Manitoba was meant to be bilingual. They
were attracted to the educational system. It
was modelled on the Québec system, which
allowed for Catholic (Francophone) schools.
People had the right to speak French in the
courts and in government. Many Canadiens
moved to Edmonton. Here 60 per cent of
the non-Aboriginal population spoke French
by 1880.
As time went by, Canadiens began to
see that the government would rather make
the West Anglophone. Fewer migrants from
Québec moved West.
The newspaper L’Ouest canadien
began publishing in Alberta in 1898. It
was founded to encourage people
from Québec to move west.
Figure 11.15 Le Musée de St-Boniface, built
1845–1851. The goal of the museum is to collect
and safeguard artifacts related to early Canadien
and Métis life in the West. The building began as
the convent of the Grey Nuns and the first hospital
in the West. It also served as a boarding school. It
is the oldest building in Winnipeg and the largest
oak log structure in North America. How would
Western Francophones have felt about having this
centre in their midst?
257
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AND VISIONS
AND VISIONS A Story of Canada

entity
IdIdentity
One Very Canadien Community: St. Boniface
What makes a community a cultural centre?
St. Boniface is a very important centre for Francophone artists, authors, publishers,
and festivals. It is the largest Francophone community west of Montréal. St. Boniface
became part of Winnipeg 30 years ago. It began, however, more than 150 years
earlier. In 1818, Bishop Provencher came here to set up a mission.
Today, St. Boniface has a population of 18 000. A majority of the people who live
here are fluent in both French and English. You can see the Canadien character of
the community by strolling through the town. The street signs for the many lovely,
tree-lined streets are in both French and English. Many business signs are in French,
and when you go into the shops, you will find a distinctive Francophone atmosphere.

Taking a Stroll through Old St. Boniface

Walking along avenue de la Cathédrale, you come upon St. Boniface Basilica. At the
end of the evening Mass or liturgy (celebrated in French), you will see crowds pour
out of the basilica! (Attending church is important to many Franco-Manitobans.)
Walking along boulevard Provencher, you will come upon cozy bistros,
Respond chocolatiers, and tiny clothing shops. Right on boulevard Provencher is the
You have read
Centre culturel franco-manitobain. It works to make sure everyone in Manitoba
about many signs
has a chance to experience Francophone culture.
of vitality in the
Francophone
community of
St. Boniface. Form
a small group.
Share signs of the
vitality of various
groups within your
community.

Figure 11.16 St. Boniface Basilica with the

grave of Louis Riel in the foreground. The
original cathedral was built around 1908.
It burned down in 1968. When the
cathedral was rebuilt, the community
saved the original stone front. Why would
they do that?
Figure 11.17 St. Boniface, which is now part of
Winnipeg. Old St. Boniface was built at the turn
of the twentieth century. Norwood is a lovely
residential neighbourhood. Describe where
St. Boniface is in relation to downtown Winnipeg.

258
Encouraging Immigration Chapter Chapter
11 11

Boosting the Westerners tried to lure these people back

Francophone Population]
It soon became clear that internal migration
would not be enough to keep the
Francophone community strong. The
Canadiens saw that they might become a
tiny minority.
The Catholic Church took on the job of
attracting more French Catholics to the
West. It gave a number of priests the task of
attracting them. Father Jean-Baptiste Morin
alone drew 2475 Francophone migrants to
Alberta from 1891 to 1899.
Between 1860 and 1900, half a million
Canadiens from Québec had moved south
to New England (on the east coast of the
United States). This was about a third of the
Québec population. Most went because of
the many jobs in factories. Francophone
to Canada. For example, they made a
special edition of the newspaper Le Courrier
de l’Ouest in 1907. It was distributed in
Québec, the Eastern United States, and
France.
Francophone settlers came from
Belgium and France, as well. One group of
French army officers was led by Colonel
Armand Trochu. In 1905, they started Le
Ranch Sainte-Anne (St. Ann Ranch Trading
Company) northeast of Calgary. The
surrounding town became Trochu.
In 1886, the Francophone population
of the prairies was about 16 000 people.
Half of them were Métis. By 1921, that
number had climbed to 137 000.
Francophones made up about 7 per cent of
the population of the prairies.

ography
BiBiography
Gabrielle Roy (1909–1983) He talked about beautiful rich
land and all the Canadian
Gabrielle Roy was born in St. Boniface, the
West where we should hurry
youngest of 11 children. Roy grew up to be a
to go and get established
world-famous author. Three of her books won
before the Scots and English,
the Governor General’s Award, which is Canada’s
who were arriving in droves
top literary prize. Her most famous book was
in those days. He told us the
Bonheur d’occasion, known in English as The Tin
whole country from ocean to ocean belonged to
Flute. Roy’s grandfather was a homesteader from
us, we of French blood, because of the French
Québec. Her father helped relocate migrants.
explorers who’d been all over it first. Our rights to
Roy remembers one of the Catholic priests who
our language and our religion would be respected.
convinced Québecers to go west:
Source: Gabrielle Roy, Enchantment and Sorrow: The Autobiography
of Gabrielle Roy (Toronto: Lester & Orpen Dennys, 1987), p. 16.
▲

Think It 1. Identify a community with Francophone What if a million Francophones had

roots in Alberta. Do some research to find
Through out about its beginnings. How did it help
the West develop?
2. Imagine that the government had tried
hard to attract Francophones to the West.
travelled to the West instead of 100 000?
a) How might various peoples already in
the West have reacted to such a policy?
b) Using a paragraph or poem format,
describe how the Canadian identity
would be different today.

259
 VOICES VOICES
AND VISIONS
AND VISIONS A Story of Canada

Focus Settling In
How did the flow
of immigration
influence the
T he newcomers in the West
lived through many years of
hardship. This section looks at the
thousands of kilometres to a foreign land.
Here they endured years of hardship. They
built their own homes. They ploughed under
character of
new prairie society that began to the prairie sod with animal-drawn ploughs.
Western Canada?
emerge. They struggled every year to bring in crops
of wheat in Canada’s short growing season.
What was special about all this? They
A Pluralistic Society did it alongside people from a wide variety
By 1911, more than 80 per cent of the of backgrounds. Many Canadians wondered
people living in the Western provinces had how all these people would get along.
been born outside Canada. They had left the Would they argue all the time? Would this
communities where they were born to travel be the beginning of a pluralistic society?

Ethnic Origin 1881 1901 1911

British* 2 548 514 3 063 195 3 999 081

French 1 298 929 1 649 371 2 061 719
German 254 319 310 501 403 417
Scandinavian 5 223 31 042 112 682
Aboriginal 108 547 127 941 105 611
Jewish 667 16 131 76 199
Ukrainian 0 5 682 75 432
Dutch 30 412 33 845 55 961
Italian 1 849 10 834 45 963

Figure 11.18 Some communities in the West Russian 1 227 19 825 44 376
by 1905. In 1871, there were only a few villages
Asian 4 383 23 731 43 213
west of Ontario. By 1914, there were about
600 towns and cities. What problems might these Polish 0 6 285 33 625
communities have had when they first developed?
Other European 5 760 23 811 97 101
Here’s a hint: first think of all the goods and
services you have access to in your community. Other** 64 980 49 121 52 263
Total 4 324 810 5 371 315 7 206 643
Tech Link * The British and French numbers include the many Canadians whose
To see several families had been in Canada for centuries.
historical photographs ** “Other” refers to people having ethnic origins besides those listed here.
of the early Ukrainian Source: Daniel Francis and Sonia Riddoch. Our Canada, second edition
(Toronto: Pippin Publishing, 1995), p. 59.
community in the
West, open Chapter 11 Figure 11.19 Ethnic origins of Canadians. Describe the trend you
on your Voices and see in this table. Which ethnic group grew the most from 1881 to
Visions CD-ROM. 1901? From 1901 to 1911? What type of graph would you choose to
display this data? Why?

260
Encouraging Immigration
VOICES
Points of View on Immigration
As you read, choose one quality that you think
each of the speakers might use to describe a
valuable Canadian citizen. What do you think
makes a valuable Canadian citizen?
Ralph Connor was a church minister and
author. He wrote about the changes in Western
Canada.
“ In Western Canada there is to be seen today
that most fascinating of all human phenomena,
the making of a nation. Out of [people] diverse
in traditions, in ideals, in speech, and in manner
of life … one people is being made.
”
Source: Ralph Connor, The Foreigner: A Tale of Saskatchewan
(Toronto: Westminster Co., Ltd., 1909).
J.S. Woodsworth was another church minister
who wrote about the West. He called
immigrants “strangers within our gates.”
“ Foreigners in large numbers are in our midst.
More are coming. How are we to make them
into good Canadian citizens?
”
Source: J.S. Woodsworth (James Shaver),
Strangers Within Our Gates (Toronto: University of
Toronto Press, 1909, 1972), p. 234.
In ethnically diverse Canada, people could be
cruel to people from other groups. Ka Kita Wa
Pa No Kwe, or Wise Day Woman, tells about
coping with bad treatment.
Chapter Chapter
11 11
Figure 11.20 A 1903 political cartoon. Which figure is
meant to be Canada? What song is the choir singing?
This song was once Canada’s unofficial anthem. Why is
the choir standing in wheat? What is the artist trying to
say about the changes taking place in Canada? What
groups of people were not included in the cartoon?
What does this say about Canadian society?
“ All the difficult times I had with the white
people did not make me condemn them. I just
figured I had to face whatever came along and
accept how we were going to be used by white
man. I made no fuss about it for the longest
time, I just took it all. Little did I know there
were some good people in this world besides
those who put me down and kept me low.
”
Source: Madeline Katt Theriault, Moose to Moccasins:
The Story of Ka Kita Wa Pa No Kwe (Toronto: Natural
Heritage/Natural History Inc., 1992), pp. 116–117.
Lily Chang’s grandfather came from China. He
helped build the Canadian Pacific Railway. She
remembers what he said about people learning
to get along:
“ These things, the coming together of different
cultures, they take time, like the flowering of a
cherry tree. And, like a cherry tree, when the
blossom comes it is a thing of beauty.
”
Source: “The Building of the CPR,” http://www.auraltrad.
com/goldrush/s-l/chang-e.html.
Respond
What question does Woodsworth ask?
Many people believed that assimilation
was necessary to create “good citizens”
and a strong country. What do you think
the various immigrants thought about
that? Would the Canadiens in the West
have a different perspective? Why?
261
VOICES VOICES
AND VISIONS
AND VISIONS
The Great Grain Growers]
The homesteaders living on the prairies
came from a variety of ethnic groups. Most
worked from sun-up to sundown, and they
knew their neighbours worked hard, too.
The homesteaders had something else in
common: nearly everyone was farming
wheat.
The Machinery
When homesteaders first arrived at their
land, they had to clear away brush. Then
they “broke” the hard sod with a team of
oxen and a plough. This prepared it for
seeding. After planting and a long summer,
the harvest was brought in by hand, too.
The grain was cut, tied into bundles, and
piled into stooks.
By the end of the nineteenth century,
new machinery was being produced that
made farming much easier. Steam-powered
tractors replaced horses and oxen. Farmers
used binders to harvest the wheat. A binder
cut the wheat, rolled it into bundles called
sheaves, and tied each sheaf with twine.
Farmers then used mechanical threshers to
separate the grain from the stalk. The
Figure 11.21 The photo on the left shows homesteaders breaking prairie sod. After a few decades, a
farmer’s fields looked more like the photo on the right. It was taken near Edmonton about 1910 and
shows a thresher at work, harvesting “prairie gold.” Compare and contrast the work required of the
farmers in these two photographs.
262
A Story of Canada
railway was there to carry the crop to
distant markets.
The Wheat
Early farmers used a type of wheat known
as Red Fife. It made excellent flour, but it
ripened late in the season. An early frost
could wipe out an entire harvest. Early in
the 1900s, Canadian government scientists
William Saunders and his son Charles
produced a new type of wheat. It was called
Marquis, and it ripened quickly. Marquis
wheat made it possible to open vast new
areas of the West for farming. For this
reason, Westerners called it “the discovery
of the century.”
The Exports
Wheat became the most important crop in
Canada. It was shipped around the world to
feed many people. The first shipment of
wheat left Manitoba in 1876. It was a tiny
cargo of 884 bushels of wheat. It travelled
to Ontario. By 1921, Canada produced
156 billion bushels of wheat, most of it from
the new prairie farms. Other grains, such as
barley and oats, added to the harvest. In the
West, though, wheat was king.
Encouraging Immigration Chapter Chapter
11 11

entity
IdIdentity
The Prairie Way
Most prairie families lived far apart. They worked in isolation. What kind of
community identity evolved from this?
Most prairie homesteaders didn’t see their neighbours for days and sometimes
weeks. So people learned to depend on themselves. Self-sufficiency is a proud prairie
trait. Even so, the homesteaders learned together that the best way to survive was to
help one another in times of need. The First Nations were probably the first to begin
this tradition.

It was about 1909. Jim Grey-Eyes was a well-established farmer on the Muskeg
Reserve.… One day, Grey-Eyes went riding along the Saskatchewan River and came to
the Doukhobor village of Petrofka. The Doukhobors had just recently come to Canada
from Russia, and they did not have any horses. What Grey-Eyes saw was twenty
women, big strong Doukhobor women, hitched up to a wooden walking plow cutting
furrows in the ground. Grey-Eyes watched for a while and then went home, rounded up
four of his horses, and took them plus harnesses and eveners to Petrofka the next day.
It was difficult to carry on a conversation because Grey-Eyes spoke only Cree and the
Doukhobors spoke only Russian, but he did his best.
Grey-Eyes left the horses there and went home. About a week later he returned to see
how they were making out. He was dismayed at the condition of the horses. They had
been overworked and underfed. At home, these animals were used to a daily ration of
oats, but here all they got was what they could forage on the prairie. The Doukhobors
had been so pleased with the amount of land that could be broken with the horses that
they had worked the animals far more than the horses could take. Grey-Eyes was so
mad that he took his horses home.
When he got home, he decided that help was needed. So he got another team of four
horses and took along his hired man, Mike Otterchild. He left Otterchild with the
Doukhobors for a short while to show the Doukhobors how to look after and work the
horses. A firm bond was established between the [Cree] and Doukhobor communities.
Nick Popoff, one of the Doukhobor leaders, came to visit Jim Grey-Eyes every year.

Tech Link Source: Shirley Bear, et al., … And They Told Us Their Stories, edited by Jack Funk
and Gordon Lobe (Saskatoon: Saskatoon Tribal Council, 1991), p. 80.
Look on the Voices
and Visions CD-ROM
In another form, this spirit of helpfulness showed itself in the
to see photographs
tradition of the community bee. Bees were held for any big
of the Doukhobors.
job that could be done quickly with a lot of workers. They
included barn-raising bees and quilting bees.
In 1998, grain farmer Scott Bonnor got his foot caught in the auger at the
bottom of his combine hopper. He was rushed to hospital, but his foot was mangled.

263
 VOICES VOICES
AND VISIONS
AND VISIONS A Story of Canada

Bonnor would not be able to harvest nearly 800 hectares (2000 acres) of grain on
Respond his farm. Westerner Mike O’Brien tells the story of the modern combine bee that
Homesteading helped Bonnor in a time of need.
families had
hardship and hard
work in common. The next Saturday, one week after the accident, six combines came together on
How would these Bonnor’s fields. By Sunday, there were 10. Over those two days, Bonnor’s
experiences neighbours took almost all of his crops off the fields. “They were still combining
encourage active themselves,” Bonnor said from his bed in the Regina General Hospital. “But they
citizenship? Do you gave up a day to work on our farm…. That took a lot of pressure off.”
think they helped
The neighbours’ wives brought food both days and turned the task into an
forge a unique
Western identity?
old-time social event. And it was “old-time.” Things like this have happened ever
Explain. What since farmers first planted their futures in this vast quilt of land. “It’s something
community money can’t buy,” Bonnor said. “It’s the people. The generosity of the people. You
traditions reflect a can’t get that just anywhere. We help each other. It was my time to get help.”
spirit of citizenship
in your community? Source: Mike O’Brien, Calling the Prairies Home: Origins, Attitudes, Quirks & Curiosities
(Vancouver: Raincoast Books, 1999), p. 2.
▲

Think It 1. Look at the artifacts below. Immigrants
brought these items to Canada in the early
Through twentieth century.
a) These items are an important part of
Canadian heritage. Why is that so?
b) Imagine that your family has decided to
move to another country. You are told
that there is room for you to bring only
one possession. Think about it. Will you
take something to remind you of the
place you have left? Or will you choose
something that will be useful in the
place you are going? Describe your
choice. Why did you choose this item?
c) Take a picture of your chosen item, or
make a drawing of it. Show this to the
class. Explain why you would bring it
with you to a new country.

Figure 11.22 A Ukrainian

chest. It carried family
belongings to
Saskatchewan in 1902.

Figure 11.24 A brass

Figure 11.23 A silk-lined
bassinet. An American
family brought it with them
when they moved to British
Columbia in 1908.
samovar (a type of tea-
kettle). A Russian army
officer carried it across
the ocean when he
came to Canada in 1917.

264
Encouraging Immigration Chapter Chapter
11 11

▲
Think It 2. Create a map like the one in Figure 11.18,
Through using GIS if possible. Label each
community with the major ethnic groups
(continued)
associated with it.
3. Various groups of immigrants came to
Western Canada near the turn of the
twentieth century. Investigate one group.
(Refer to Figure 11.19 for ideas.) Here are
six questions you might use to focus your
investigation:
• When did most of the people in this
group come to Canada?
• What were the push and pull factors
affecting their decision to move?
• Where in Canada did most of them
settle?
• What are two or three of this group’s
traditions or customs?
• What contributions has this group made
to Canada?
• What impact did this group have on
First Nations peoples, and vice versa?
Collect your information. Refer to the
chapter project to create a multimedia
presentation of your findings.
4. How did the massive immigration to Canada
near the turn of the twentieth century affect
the complex identity of our country?

Chapter 11 PROJECT The Prairie Patchwork Quilt

Find and Select]

T he West became the destination of choice
around 1890. Europeans, Americans, and
Eastern Canadians joined the First Nations there.
Together they become a prairie patchwork of
ethnic groups, religious groups, and language
groups. In this chapter project you will develop a
multimedia presentation. It will explore the
cultural pluralism of the West.
Focus
5. With your group, plan your presentation, and
decide what types of media you would like to
include.
6. On your own, collect multimedia segments for
the immigrant group you researched. For
example, you might collect or create visuals,
audio clips, or video clips.
7. Work together to create your “Patchwork Quilt”
presentation. A storyboard is a useful tool.

1. Refer to the research you completed in Think

It Through activity 3 above. You will use this
research to make your multimedia
presentation.
2. Form a group with three other students. Each
of you should have researched a different
immigrant group.
3. Brainstorm with your class. How does the
theme “Patchwork Quilt” reflect the Canadian
identity? How could you use this theme in a
multimedia presentation?
4. With your group members, decide what type
of multimedia presentation you want to
develop.
Prepare to Present []
8. Organize all the tools you will need for your
presentation. For example, you might need a
television, computer, stereo, or DVD player.
9. Rehearse your presentation to ensure a
smooth show.
Present and Reflect[]
Present your multimedia presentation to your
class. Return to your group and discuss the
finished project. How would you fix the glitches?
Were your choices of media suitable to the topic?
What would you do differently next time?

265