Redox Reactions

In terms of ... Oxidation Reduction

Oxygen Gain Loss
Hydrogen Loss Gain
Electrons Loss Gain
Oxidation State Increase Decrease

 Reducing agent
o Substance that bring about reduction.
o Itself oxidised.
 Oxidising agent
o Substance that bring about oxidation.
o Itself reduced.
 Tests for reducing agent: using oxidising agents
o Acidified aqueous potassium manganate (VII)
 Purple solution to colourless solution
o Acidified aqueous potassium dichromate (VI)
 Orange solution to green solution
 Test for oxidising agent: using reducing agent
o Aqueous potassium iodide
 Colourless solution to brown solution
 Add starch: brown solution to dark-blue solution

Haber Process
 Optimal conditions:
o Temperature of 450°C
 Why not higher temperature?
 Reduce yield of ammonia
 Why not lower temperature?
 Slow rate of reaction
o Pressure of 200 atmospheres
 Why not higher pressure?
 Dangerous – explosion
 Expensive – maintain high pressure & buy equipment
 Why not lower pressure?
 Reduce yield of ammonia
o Iron catalyst
 What is the purpose?
 Increase rate of reaction
 Source of nitrogen: fractional distillation of liquefied air.
 Source of hydrogen: cracking of petroleum, electrolysis of seawater.
 Equation: 3H2 + N2  2NH3
o Reversible reaction: forward reaction and a backward reaction occurring
simultaneously.
o Unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen are passed over the catalyst again to avoid
wastage.
Speed of Reaction
 Measures how fast the reaction takes place.
 Determined by gradient of graph at that particular time.
Speed
of
reaction

At the At the
During
beginning end

How: fastest How: decreasing

Why: Why:
How: stops
- concentration of - concentration of
Why:
aqueous reactants aqueous reactants
highest decreases - limiting reactant used
up
- surface area of solid - surface area of solid
reactant is largest reactant decreases
 Done by measuring a variable at regular time intervals.
o Measuring gas volume: for light gases e.g. Hydrogen
 Set-up:

 Graph of volume of gas produced against time

o Measuring mass: for heavy gases e.g. Carbon Dioxide

 Set-up:

 Graph of mass of flask and its contents against time

 Graph of loss in mass of flask and its contents against time

  Reaction only occurs if:
o Reacting particles collide
o Collision energy greater than activation energy
 Parts of graph:
o Horizontal line – determined by no. of moles of limiting reagent
o Curve – determined by factors affecting rate of reaction
 Factors affecting rate of reaction:
 Concentration
 Catalyst
 Size of solid reactants
 Pressure of gases
 Temperature
Causes
Factors Effect
What happens? Leads to?
Concentration High concentration No. of effective Faster rate of
leads to more collisions per unit reaction.
particles per unit time increases.
volume.
Catalyst Presence of catalyst More particles will Faster rate of
 Speeds up rate provides an collide with sufficient reaction.
of reaction alternative route for activation energy.
 w/o being reaction to take place No. of effective
chemically at lower activation collisions per unit
changed at end energy. time increases.
Size of solid Smaller particle size No. of effective Faster rate of
reactants increases surface collisions per unit reaction.
area for contact time increases.
between reacting
particles.
Pressure of gases When pressure is No. of effective Faster rate of
increased, there are collisions per unit reaction.
more particles per time increases.
unit volume.
Temperature At higher No. of effective Faster rate of
temperature, collisions per unit reaction.
particles have more time increases.
kinetic energy and
move faster.
More particles have
activation energy.
Introduction to Organic Chemistry
 Organic chemistry – study of carbon containing compounds.
 Hydrocarbon – compounds containing hydrogen and carbon atoms only.
o Contain hydrogen and carbon atoms only
o Atoms are covalently bonded
o Compounds
 Functional group – an atom or group of atoms that is responsible for chemical
properties of an organic compound.
 Homologus series – family of organic compounds which has the same functional
group, each successive member differ in composition by a –CH2 group.
o Each member can be represented by a general forumula.
o All members have similar chemical properties.
o Physical properties change gradually with increasing Mr.
Functional Group
Homologus Series
Structure Name
N.A.
Alkane
(alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons –single bonds)
Carbon-carbon double
Alkene C=C
bond
Alcohol O-H Hydroxyl
O
||
Carboxylic acid C-O-H Carboxyl

 Naming organic compounds

o Prefix – no. of carbon atoms
No. of carbon atoms Prefix
1 Meth-
2 Eth-
3 Prop-
4 But-
5 Pent-
6 Hex-
7 Hept-
8 Oct-
9 Non-
10 Dec-
o Suffix – homologus series
Homologus series Suffix
Alkane -ane
Alkene -ene
Alcohol -ol
Carboxylic acid -oic acid
 Full structural formula – shows the way in which atoms are bonded to each other in a
molecule.
o Each carbon atom has 4 bonds.
o Each oxygen atom has 2 bonds.
o Each hydrogen atom has 1 bond.
Alkanes
 Saturated hydrocarbon – only single carbon-carbon covalent bonds.
 General formula: CnH2n+2 where n is the no. of carbon atoms.
 Physical properties: As the no. of carbon atoms increase,
o Boiling points: increase
Explanation
 As no. of carbon atoms increase
 Van der Waal forces become stronger
 More energy needed to overcome these forces
 M.p. and b.p. increases
o Viscosity: increase
Explanation
 As no. of carbon atoms increase
 The carbon chains becomes longer
 And get tangled up more easily
 Slowing down rate of flow
o Flammability: decrease
Explanation
 As no. of carbon atoms increase
 Percentage of carbon atoms in molecule increase
 More oxygen gas required for complete combustion
 Flammability decreases
 (Flame becomes smokier due to incomplete combustion)
 Combustion:
o Complete combustion
 Alkane + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water
o Incomplete combustion
 Alkane + oxygen  carbon (soot) + carbon monoxide + water
o As no. of carbon atoms increase, the amount of energy released per
gram of fuel decrease (energy density).
o Good fuel
 High energy density
 High flammability
 Easy to store and transport
Alkenes
 Unsaturated hydrocarbon: contain carbon-carbon double bond.
 Functional group: C-C carbon-carbon double bond.
 General formula: CnH2n where n is the no. of carbon atoms.
 Physical properties: As no. of carbon atoms increase,
o Boiling points: increase
Explanation
 As no. of carbon atoms increase
 Van der Waal forces become stronger
 More energy needed to overcome these forces
 M.p. and b.p. increases
o Viscosity: increase
Explanation
 As no. of carbon atoms increase
 The carbon chains becomes longer
 And get tangled up more easily
 Slowing down rate of flow
o Flammability: decrease
Explanation
 As no. of carbon atoms increase
 Percentage of carbon atoms in molecule increase
 More oxygen gas required for complete combustion
 Flammability decreases
 (Flame becomes smokier due to incomplete combustion)
 Cracking:
o Process in which a large long-chain alkane molecule is broken into smaller
molecules.
o Equation: Large alkane  smaller alkene + smaller alkane or hydrogen gas
o Conditions:
 High temperature (450 to 500°C) – break bonds & faster rate of
reaction
 Catalyst (aluminium oxide, silicon(IV) dioxide) – faster rate of reaction
o Purpose of cracking:
 Higher demand for smaller hydrocarbon molecules than bigger
hydrocarbon molecules.
 Cracking matches the demand for lighter fractions, increasing profits
for the oil industry.

Describe formation of Terylene from monomers. Your answer should explain the terms
polyester and condensation polymer. (3)
 Terylene is formed from dicarboxylic acid and dialcohol molecules. (1)
 It is a condensation polymer because the monomers have functional groups on both
ends. Water is thus removed during the reaction. (1)
 When the monomers join, an ester linkage is formed. Thus it is known as a polyester. (1)

Nylon is formed using dicarboxylic acid and diamine molecules.

It is a condensation polymer because the monomers have functional groups at both ends.
Water is removed during the reaction.
When monomers join together, an amide linkage is formed. Thus nylon is a polyamide.