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Unit-III
[Electromagnetic and
Static Relays]
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It is to cause a prompt removal from service of any element of a power system when it suffers
a short circuit or when it starts to operate in any abnormal manner that might cause damage or
otherwise interfere with the effective operation of the rest of the system. The relaying equipment
is aided in this task by circuit breakers that are capable of disconnecting the faulty element when
they are called upon to do by the relaying equipment.
The basic connections of a protective relay and healthy trip circuit are indicated below
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i) Reliability: The most important requisite of protective relay is reliability since they supervise
the circuit for a long time before a fault occurs; if a fault then occurs, the relays
must respond instantly and correctly.
ii)Selectivity: The relay must be able to discriminate (select) between those conditions for which
prompt operation is required and those for which no operation, or time delayed
operation is required.
iii)Sensitivity: The relaying equipment must be sufficiently sensitive so that it operates reliably
when required under the actual conditions that produces least operating tendency.
iv) Speed : The relay must operate at the required speed. It should neither be too slow which
may result in damage to the equipment nor should it be too fast which may result
in undesired operation.
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11 Auxiliary
Control Panels
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3. 4 The types of Relays based on various sensing mechanism are indicated below:
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The basic parameters of the three-phase electrical system are voltage, current, frequency and
power. All these have pre-determined values and/or sequence under healthy conditions. Any shift
from this normal behavior could be the result of a fault condition either at the source end or at
the load end. The relays are devices, which monitor various parameters in various ways and this
chapter gives a brief outline of their principles of operation.
Electromechanical relays
Static relays (analog and digital).
The electromechanical relays had been dominating the electrical protection field until the
use of silicon semiconductor devices, becoming more common. The use of static relays in the
early stages were more due to the advantages like lower weight, non-moving mechanical parts,
reduced wear and tear, etc. However, the initial static relays had not been overwhelmingly
accepted in the electrical field also due to their ‘static’ nature. Further, the reliability of
electronic components in the initial stages had been unsatisfactory due to the quality issues and
their ability (or inability) to withstand source fluctuations and ambient temperature conditions.
However, the reliability of electronic components improved subsequently, and the advent of
digital electronics technology and microprocessor developments gave a completely different
picture to the use of static relays. The earlier analog relays have been slowly replaced with
digital relays, and today’s protection technology is more inclined towards use of digital relays,
though the electromechanical relays are still preferred in certain applications, with cost being one
of the main reasons. The use of static analog relays is not so common.
As the name implies, it is a relay monitoring the current, and has inverse characteristics
with respect to the currents being monitored. This (electromechanical) relay is without doubt one
of the most popular relays used on medium- and low-voltage systems for many years, and
modern digital relays’ characteristics are still mainly based on the torque characteristic of this
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type of relay. Hence, it is worthwhile studying the operation of this relay in detail to understand
the characteristics adopted in the digital relays
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in the secondary winding which in turn sets up a flux in B. Fluxes A and B are out of
phase thus producing a torque in the disk causing it to rotate. Now, speed is proportional
to braking torque, and is proportional to driving torque. Therefore, speed is proportional
to I².
It can be seen that the operating time of an IDMTL relay is inversely proportional to a
function of current, i.e. it has a long operating time at low multiples of setting current and a
relatively short operating time at high multiples of setting current. The characteristic curve is
defined by BS 142 and is shown in below figure. Two adjustments are possible on the relay,
namely:
1. The current pick-up or plug setting: This adjusts the setting current by means of a plug
bridge, which varies the effective turns on the upper electromagnet.
2. The time multiplier setting: This adjusts the operating time at a given multiple of setting
current, by altering by means of the torsion head, the distance that the disk has to travel before
contact is made.
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Distance Relays
• Respond to phasor ratio of input voltage &
input current to relay (V/I)
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Construction
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R-X Diagram
• Can use
impedance or R-X
diagram to analyze
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relay operation
1. Plot relay
characteristic
2. Plot impedance
“seen” by the
relay (Z relay)
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Impedance Relay
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Offset Mho
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Offset Mho
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Non-Directional
Not appropriate to work alone
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Reactance Relay
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Non-Directional
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Distance Relays
• Operating Time
– Induction Cup: High
Speed
• Adjustments
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– Reach: Tapped
Transformer
• Rises or lowers voltage on
restraining coil
• Range of Z to cover down
the line
– Offset: Tapped Reactor
• For offset Mho, adjust ZT
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PT Connections-Phase Distance
Relays
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VLLin 115kV
PTRLL = = = 103
VLLout 115V
VLGin 66.4kV
PTRLG = = = 577 → 600
VLGout 115V
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CT Connection to Op Coils
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3 Phase Fault
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Relay setting
based on Positive
Sequence
Impedance (Z1)
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Zones of Protection
Zone 2
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Zones of
Protection
Zone 3
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• Advantage
– Lots of fault coverage
• Disadvantage
– Characteristic gets
close to ZLOAD
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danger
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Zone 3 so big
that ZLOAD gets
inside of it
Angle Impedance
relays to blind
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Load
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A-B Relay
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C-A Relay
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Basic Operation
• Operating force produced by out-of-phase
fluxes
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φ1 = 2Φ1 sin(ωt )
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φ2 = 2Φ 2 sin(ωt + θ )
φ1 + φ2 = φOP α NiOP
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By Lenz’s
Law, currents
are induced
as to oppose
the fluxes
(Eddie
Currents)
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M=F x r
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Operating Force
φ1 = 2Φ1 sin(ωt )
φ2 = 2Φ 2 sin(ωt + θ )
Each flux pierces rotor & induces voltage which
causes current to flow, therefore AC only.
dφ1
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iφ1 α α Φ1 cos(ωt )
dt
dφ
iφ 2 α 2 α Φ 2 cos(ωt + θ ), dF = idl × B
dt
F α φ ⋅i
FOP = F2 − F1
FOP α φ2 ⋅ iφ 2 − φ1 ⋅ iφ1
FOP α Φ1Φ 2 (sin(ωt + θ ) cos(ωt ) − sin(ωt ) cos(ωt + θ ))
FOP α Φ1Φ 2 sin(θ ) Important when designing a relay
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Operating Force
FOP α Φ1Φ 2 sin(θ )
Design angle is fixed, therefore a
constant force
Φ1 = Φ 2 α NiOP
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iOP = 2 I OP sin(ωt + θ )
FNET = k I N 2 I OP
2
− kS
At pick-up
FNET = 0 = k I N 2 I OP
2
− kS
1 kS
I OP = = I PU
N kI
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Definition
• Pick-up occurs when
FOP>FRES
• IPU is the current at which
this occurs
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Settings
• To change induction
disk settings
– Change N and I
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Example:
FOP = kφ ( NI OP )
2
FOP=100 units of pick-up
k=1
NI=1x10
=2x5
=5x2
=10x1
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Time Dial
(Inverse Time)
Is a means to control the time of operation
• A dial which changes the starting position
of the moving contact
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Device # 51
I OP I OP
I MPU = = αφ
I PU I TAP
and
Fαφ2
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(1 multiple of PU)
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Disadvantages
• Can not be used on DC
• Operating value effected by frequency
• Reset time is long
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available
• Can be made to operate from
– one quantity
– sum or differences of two quantities
– product of two quantities times the sine of angle
between fluxes produced by such quantities
• Can be operated continuously picked up
• High drop out (IDO = 0.95IPU)
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• Stable characteristics
• Rugged construction
Disadvantages
• Can not be used on DC
• Operating value effected by frequency
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Directional Relays
• Two major types of directional relays
– Current-current
– Current-voltage
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direction
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Operating principle
• Recall for single
Phase angle between fluxes
quantity
FOP = kφ Φ1Φ 2 sin(θφ )
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shaded unshaded
• 2 fluxes produced
from 1 operating
quantity
• For a 2 quantities:
Φ1 produced by I1 (operating )
Φ 2 produced by I 2 ( polarizing )
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Current-Current Directional
Operating quantity is I1 (current)
Polarizing quantity is I2 (current)
T = kφ Φ1Φ 2 sin θφ
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T = k I I1 I 2 sin θ , θ = θφ
•Maximum torque at 90 degrees (TMAX)
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2 R∠45° Current
I 2C = kI 2 ∠ − 45° division
T = kΦ1Φ 2C sin θφ
operating
T = k I I1 I 2C sin θφ
θφ = θ − (−45°) = θ + 45°
I 2C = kI 2 , k I' = kk I polarizing
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General Current-Current
Directional Relay Max torque for I 1
T = k I I sin(θ − φ )
'
I 1 2
θ − φ = θΦ
I1 →
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Operating quantity
I2 → Polarizing quantity
θ → Between I and I 1 2
Not given
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General Current-Current
Directional Relay
Max torque
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T = k I' I1 I 2 sin(θ − φ )
τ − φ = 90° ⇒ φ = τ − 90°
T = k I' I1 I 2 sin(θ − (τ − 90°))
T = k I' I1 I 2 sin(90° + (θ − τ ))
T = k I' I1 I 2 cos(θ − τ )
TNET = TOP − TRES = TOP − k S spring
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Operating Characteristic
T = k I' I1 I 2 cos(θ − τ )
T = k I' I1 I 2 sin(θ Φ )
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variable
θΦ θ −τ TOP
0 or 180 90 or -90 0
- Contacts opening
− 180 < θ Φ < 0 90 < θ − τ < 270
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T = Φ1Φ 2C sin(θ − φ )
φ1 proportional to I1
φ2C proportional to I 2C
T = k I I1 I 2C sin(θ − φ )
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T = kV I1V sin(90 + (θ − τ ))
T = kV I1V cos(θ − τ )
TNET = kV I1V cos(θ − τ ) − k S
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Polarizing
quantity
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Quad Connection
Faulted Phases Operating Polarizing
Quantity Quantity
Note: VA can’t be used
A-B Relay IA VBC since a fault in Phase
A gives VA=0
B-C Relay IB VCA
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