Human Anatomy & Physiology I – Dr.

Sullivan
Unit VII– Bone Physiology
Chapter 7

I. Functions of Bone and the Skeletal System

a) There are 6 functions of the skeletal system
b) Support: Skeleton serves as structural framework by supporting soft tissues and providing
attachment sites for tendons of skeletal muscle and ligaments.
c) Protection: Protects internal organs from injury.
i) Cranium: brain
ii) Vertebrae: spinal cord
iii) Ribs: heart & lungs
d) Assistance in Movement: when muscles contract, skeletal bones move.
e) Mineral homeostasis: bones store several minerals, such as calcium & phosphorous. These can
be released from the bone to restore blood levels when needed.
f) Blood Cell Production: Red bone marrow in some bones functions in hematopoiesis, the
production of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
g) Triglyceride storage: Yellow bone marrow contains adipocytes, which store triglyceride.

II. Types of Bones

a) Bones are classified based on their shape and location
b) Long Bones: greater length than width
i) Contain large amounts of compact bone as well as spongy bone.
ii) divided into an Epiphysis, Metaphysis & Diaphysis
iii) i.e. humerus, femur, radius, ulna, fibula, tibia, metacarpals
c) Short Bones: Somewhat cube-shaped. Almost equal length and width
i) Spongy bone covered by a think layer of compact bone
ii) i.e. carpals of the wrist, tarsals of the foot
d) Flat Bones: thin, composed of two parallel plates of compact bone
i) Provide large areas for muscle attachment
ii) i.e. cranial bones of the skull, sternum, ribs, and scapulae (shoulder blades)
e) Irregular Bones: Have complex shaped that can’t be grouped into a category
i) Varying amounts of spongy and compact bone
ii) i.e. vertebrae, some facial bones (maxilla, mandible, etc.)
f) Sesamoid Bones: Develop in certain tendons where considerable stress and friction are common,
such as the palms or soles.
i) Most sesamoid bones are not named, with a couple of exceptions.
(1) i.e. Patella, pisiform of the carpals

III. Structure of Bone

a) Long bone: a bone whose length is greater than its width.
i) I.e. the humerus in the upper arm, the femur in the thigh
ii) Parts of a long bone:
(1) Articular cartilage: thin layer of hyaline cartilage on the end of the bone, covering the
epiphysis.
(2) Epiphysis: The distal or proximal end of the long bone
(3) Metaphysis: In mature bones, the metaphysis is the part of the bone that joins the
diaphysis to the epiphysis. In growing the bone, the metaphysis separated from the
 epiphysis by the epiphysial plate, which is a thin layer of hyaline cartilage that allows
the long bone to grow longer.
(4) Diaphysis: the bones shaft or body, the long cylindrical portion of the bone.
(5) Periosteum: A sheath of dense irregular CT surrounding the bones’ surface, which
allows the bone to grow in diameter, protects the bone, assists in fracture repair, helps
nourish, and helps attach to tendons and ligaments.
(6) Medullary Cavity: aka the marrow cavity, the space within the hollow diaphysis that
contains yellow bone marrow.
(7) Endosteum: thin membrane that lines the medullary cavity.
(8) Cortex: the outer layer of the bone surrounding the medullary cavity and the perimeter of
the entire bone. Made of compact bone.

IV. Histology of Bone Tissue, aka osseous tissue

a) Bone is CT and consists of matrix and cells.
b) The matrix
i) 25% Water
ii) 25% Collagen fibers
iii) 50% crystallized mineral salts (mostly hydroxyapetite consisting of calcium carbonate and
calcium phosphate)
c) The hydroxyapetite is deposited amidst the collagen fibers as they provide the framework of the
bone, it crystallized and harden, called calcification.
i) Calcification is initiated by osteoblasts
d) Crystallized mineral salts provide hardness to the bone and the collagen provides its flexibility.
e) There are four types of cells in bone tissue:
i) Osteogenic Cells: Stem cells from mesenchyme. They divide and the daughter cells become
osteoblasts.
ii) The only bone cells that undergo cell division
iii) Osteoblasts: Bone-building cells. Synthesize and secrete collagen fibers needd to build the
matrix.
(1) Initiate calcification; do not undergo cell division
(2) Osteoblasts eventually become trapped in their own secretions and become osteocytes.
iv) Osteocytes: mature bone cells, the main cells in bone tissue and maintain its metabolism (i.e.
exchange of nutrients and wastes with the blood)
(1) No cell division
v) Osteoclasts: large cells made up of monocytes and found within the endosteum.
(1) release powerful enzymes that digest the protein and mineral components of bone
tissue. This is called resorption of bone
(a) part of normal development, growth, maintenance and repair
(2) Wolff’s Law: Bone is deposited and resorbed in accordance with the stresses placed
upon it.
(a) the more stress put on a bone (weight bearing, physical activity, etc.) the more dense
that bone will become to accommodate those stresses. Also, the less stress put on the
bone, less dense the bone will become (move it or lose it).
(b) The trabecular pattern of bone will form and grow in the direction appropriate to
accommodate directional stresses.
f) Bone is not completely solid; it consistes of compact bone (80%) and spongy bone (20%).
i) Compact Bone: contains few spaces and forms the outer layer of the bone.
(1) Provides protection and support as well as resists the stresses produced by weight and
movement.
(2) A unit of compact bone is called an osteon or Haversian System.
 (3) Blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves enter from the periosteum through the
transverse perforating canals, which join with the longitudinal central or Haversian
canals.
(a) Concentric Lamellae: rings of hard calcified matrix around the central canal.
(b) Lacunae: small spaces between the lamellae containing osteocytes
(c) Canaliculi: radiating from the lacunae containing interstitial fluid.
ii) Spongy Bone (Figure 6.4): consists of trabeculae instead of osteons.
(1) The spaces between the trabeculae are filled with red bone marrow.
(2) Osteocytes lie on lacunae within the trabeculae
(3) Spongy bone makes up most of the bone tissue of short, flat, and irregular bones and
most of the epiphyses of long bones as well as the narrow rim around the medullary
cavity of the diaphysis of long bones
(4) Trabeculae of spongy bone are well organized in directions to resist stress that helps
bones transfer force to prevent fracturing.
(5) Spongy bone is light and helps support & protect the red bone marrow.
V. Blood and nerve supply of bone
a) Bone has a rich blood supply
b) Blood vessels pass into the bones from the periosteum
c) Periosteal Arteries and nerves supply the periosteum and compact bone via the perforated
canals.
d) Nutrient Artery: artery that enters the bone at the mid-diaphysis via the nutrient foramen, a hole
in the mid-diaphysis.
e) The metaphysic and epiphysis are sup[lied by metaphyseal and epiphyseal arteries, which are
branches off the arteries that supply the neighboring joints.
f) Nutrient veins, epiphyseal veins, and metaphyseal veins carry blood out of the bones after the
nutrients have been exchanged for waste products.
VI. Bone Formation
a) Ossification: the process by which a bone forms (aka osteogenesis)
i) A human embryo skeleton consists of bone-shaped fibrous CT and hyaline cartilage.
ii) At about the 6th or 7th week of embryonic development, ossification of this CT begins in one
of two patterns.
b) Intramembranous Ossification: bone forms directly on or within loose CT membranes
i) Occurs in the flat bones of the skull and lower jaw (mandible)
ii) The soft spots of the fetal skull remain soft to ease childbirth and harden via intramembranous
ossification later.
iii) There are four stages to intramembranous ossification
(1) The center of ossification develops: osteoblasts cluster to the area where the bone will
develop and begin to secrete the matrix.
(2) Calcification: Te matrix secretion stops, osteoblasts mature into osteocytes, and calcium
and other mineral salts are deposited and harden.
(3) Formation of trabeculae: Spongy bone is formed
(4) Development of the periosteum: the periphery of the bone develops into the periosteum
and a thin layer of compact bone forms around the spongy bone.
c) Endochondral Ossification: Bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage with bone
i) Occurs in 5 stages
(1) Development of the cartilage model: mesenchymal cells group together and form the
shape of the future bone and develop into chondroblasts, which secrete the matrix and
form the cartilage model
 (2) Growth of the cartilage model: Once the chondroblasts are buried in their own matrix,
they become chondrocytes. The model grows in length (interstitial growth) by division
of the chondrocytes and continued matrix secretion.
(a) Appositional growth: the way in which a bone grows in thickness, by the continued
deposition of new matrix around the periphery in the same method as
intramembranous ossification.
(3) Development of primary ossification center: the region where bone tissue will replace
most of the cartilage model in the diaphysis creating compact bone with a medullary
cavity.
(4) Development of secondary ossification centers: The region where spongy bone will
replace the cartilage model of the epiphysis without a medullary cavity.
(5) Formation of the articular cartilage and epiphyseal plate: the hyaline cartilage that
covers the epiphysis becomes the articular cartilage.
(a) Prior to adulthood, the hyaline cartilage remains between the epiphysis and the
diaphysis and within the metaphysis, called the epiphyseal plate, allowing the bone
to grow in length until adulthood.
VII. Bone Growth
a) Length: There are four zones of the epiphyseal plate
i) Zone of resting cartilage: the layer nearest the epiphysis; scattered chondrocytes anchoring
the epiphyseal plate to the bone of the epiphysis.
ii) Zone of proliferating cartilage: dividing chondrocytes arranged like stacks of coins on the
diaphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate.
iii) Zone of hypertrophic cartilage: chondrocytes arranged in columns. The lengthening of the
diaphysis is a result of dividing chondrocytes in the zone of proliferating cartilage and
maturation of the cells of the cells in this zone.
iv) Zone of calcified cartilage: consists of dead chondrocytes surrounded by calcified matrix.
(1) Osteoclasts dissolve the calcified cartilage while osteoblasts and capillaries from the
diaphysis invade the area.
(2) Osteoblasts lay down bone matrix to replace the calcified cartilage
v) This is the only way the diaphysis can increase in length. The bone on the diaphyseal side of
the epiphyseal plate continues to lengthen while more chondrocytes are proliferating on the
epiphyseal side to continue the process.
(1) Between 18-25, the epyphyseal cartilage stops dividing and the epiphyseal plates “close”.
(2) This leaves a radiographically visible epiphyseal line indicating that growth has stopped.
b) Thickness: appositional growth is the only way to grow in diameter
i) Bones grow in thickness by way of intramembranous ossification on the surface of the bone
ii) Meanwhile, osteoclasts carve out bone tissue in the medullary cavity, making it wider.
(1) This prevents the bone from getting too dense and heavy
c) Factors Affecting Bone Growth
(1) Many vitamins and nutrients are necessary for adequate bone growth during the
developmental years.
(2) Calcium, Phosphorous, Vitamin C, Vitamin K, and Vitamin B12 are all necessary for
normal bone growth
VIII. Bones & Homeostasis
a) Bone Remodeling: An ongoing process whereby osteoclasts carve out small tunnels in old bone
and osteoblasts rebuild it.
i) Happens throughout adulthood to prevent degeneration and to redistribute matrix arrangement
to resist new stresses.
ii) With the constant action of osteoclasts and osteoblasts, it’s important for them to stay
synchronized.
 iii) More osteoclastic activity compared to osteoblastic activity will result in too much resorption
of bone leading to a decrease in bone density and weakness.
iv) The opposite will result in bones becoming too thick, heavy, and brittle.
b) Fracture and repair of Bone
i) A fracture is ANY break in ANY bone.
ii) There are many common fracture types:
(1) Open or Compound Fracture: the broken end of the bone protrudes through the skin.
(2) Comminuted Fracture: the bone splinters at the fracture site, releasing smaller fragments
between the two main pieces.
(3) Greenstick Fracture: partial fracture in which one side of the bone fractures and the other
side bends.
(4) Impacted or Compression Fracture: one end of the fractured bone is forcefully driven into
the interior of the other side
(5) Pott’s Fracture: fracture of the distal end of the lateral fibula (lateral ankle) accompanied
by a teas of the medial ankle ligaments (deltoid ligaments)
(6) Colles’ Fracture: fracture of the distal radiuswith posterior displacement of the distal
fragment.
(7) Stress Fracture: a series of microfracture that cannot easily be seen on x-ray resulting
from repetitive stress to the injured area.
iii) Repair of a fracture: most fractures should be set and casted to prevent movement during
healing.
(1) Fracture Hematoma forms: a blod clot forms about 8 hours after fracture due to broken
blood vessels in the bone within the fracture line.
(a) The clot causes the blood flow to stop and cells die resulting in inflammation.
(2) Fibrocartilaginous Callus Formation: actively growing CT begins to form due to new
blood capillary formation around the fracture hematoma. This is called a procallus
(a) Eventually, the procallus is transformed into a fibrocartilaginous callus, a mass of
repair tissue that bridges the broken ends of bones.
(b) This takes about 3 weeks.
(3) Bony Callus Formation: the fibrocartilaginous callus is transformed into spongy bone by
osteoblasts and is referred to as a bony callus.
(a) This lasts about 3-4 months.
(4) Bone remodeling: dead portions of the broken fragment are resorbed by osteoclasts and
the periphery of the spongy bone callus is transformed into compact bone.
(a) The calcium and phosphorous needed to heal a fracture are deposited slowly and it
may take months for a fracture to fully heal.
(b) However, casting is usually not needed for the entire healing process.
i. Closed reduction: the broken bones is re-set manually without breaking the skin.
ii. Open reduction: surgery is necessary to set the bones properly and may require
fixation devices such as screws, plates, rods, and wires.