6.

Free body diagrams

Consider the tank shown being subjected to an internal pressure p. The length of the tank is L
and the wall thickness is t. Isolating the right half of the tank. The forces acting are the total
pressures caused by the internal pressure p and the total tension in the walls T.

7. Forces acting on it with sketch.

Hoop stress
Circumferential stress or hoop stress, a normal stress in the tangential (azimuth) direction;
Axial stress, a normal stress parallel to the axis of cylindrical symmetry; Radial stress,
a stress in directions coplanar with but perpendicular to the symmetry axis.

Longitudinal stress

Longitudinal stress is the stress in a pressure vessel wall, acting along the longitudinal axis
of the pressure vessel. And it is produced by the pressure of the fluid in the pressure vessel.

8. Design constraints
To design any pressure vessel we should need to take in to consideration the following
constrains
1. Operating temperature
2. Maximum pressure
3. Available space
4. Tendency of pressure fluctuations
5. Stress concentrations
6. Number of openings
7. Reaction between the pressurised gas and metal
8. Hazardous nature of gas
9. Expected service life

9. Factor of safety
The factor of safety is often specified in a design code or standard, such as American Society
of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) – pressure vessels, boilers

Factors which affect the factor of safety:

􀂉 Material strength basis:
􀂉 Brittle Materials – use ultimate strength
􀂉 Ductile Materials – use yield strength
􀂉 Manner or loading:
􀂉 Static – applied slowly; remains applied or is infrequently removed.
􀂉 Repeated – fatigue failure may occur at stresses lower than static load failure.
􀂉 Impact – high initial stresses develop.
• Possible misuse – designer must consider any reasonable foreseeable use &Misuse of
product.
• Complexity of stress analysis – the actual stress in a part isn’t always known.
• Environment – temperature, weather, radiation, chemical, etc
More factors:
􀂉 Hazard of failure – what happens if the parts fail? What are theconsequences?
􀂉 Costs – compromises sometimes have to be made. Never compromise forsafety when
danger to life and property exist.
􀂉 Weight – what market segment is this an issue?
􀂉 Market segment – how does factor of safety, N, different in these marketsegments?
􀂉 Truck/bus industry
􀂉 Off-highway industry
􀂉 Aerospace industry
We can use the following factors of safety:

10. Ergonomically Designed

To arrange pressure vessel ergonomically we need to make pressure vessel in such a way that
people can use it more efficiently and safely
1)
This is the example where the pressure vessel used for the welding is arranged in such a way
that it is highly mobilized and they are using four small cylinfers instead of one cylinder
which decrees its chance of the failure.

When we are dealing with highly toxic or highly hazardous gases we can bury pressure vessel
in the ground in bunker like arrangement so can the workers can be safe.
We can install different accessories to insure safety and apply protective coatings to make it
safe for the workers.

15. Failure Criteria to be considered.

According to ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code
The overall objective in determining the allowable stress limits is to ensure
That a pressure vessel does not fail within its established design life. The
Modes that are most likely to cause a failure, as identified by the ASME
Code, are as follows:2
_ Excessive elastic deformation including elastic instability
_ Excessive plastic deformation
_ Brittle fracture
_ Stress rupture or creep deformation (inelastic)
_ Plastic instability and incremental collapse
_ High strain and low cycle fatigue
_ Stress corrosion
_ Corrosion fatigue
The first failure mode, namely that of excessive elastic deformation, is generally related to
functional requirements. The aspect of elastic instability deals with the propensity of buckling
in thin shells. The aspect of excessive plastic deformation could lead to complete collapse as
outlined in the previous chapter. This failure mode requires that the analysis be addressed
from the standpoint of bursting and gross distortion from a single load application. The
failure mode associated with brittle fracture is related to the fracture toughness and is
addressed later in this chapter. The failure mode associated with stress rupture or creep is
appropriate for pressure vessels operating at high temperatures and as such will not be
discussed here. The failure associate with plastic instability and incremental collapse was
identified in the previous chapter as ratcheting causing progressive growth due to cyclic load
application and should be addressed at the analysis stage. The high strain and low cycle
fatigue is an important consideration for cyclic thermal loads. The crack initiation from
fatigue damage should be addressed in the analysis. The failure modes associated with stress
corrosion and corrosion fatigue are related to the environmental considerations as well as
mode of operation.

16. Software Based Analysis like FEA, Mesh Free, Boundary Element methods etc. with
photographs.

Here we can see the maximum stresses are acting near the edges of the vessels while the
openings acts as a stress concentrators which rises the stress locally.

17. Challenges to make design

1.Shell Design: Whether spherical or cylindrical, shells have to be constructed with the right
type of material and thickness. If a vessel shell is made of too thin of material for the pressure
contained, the shell may fail leading to possible fatalities. In addition, if the wrong material is
selected for the process, failures may result from this too. Also, the demands for vessels that
can take pressures higher than 10,000 psi are increasing, which is a challenge for high
pressure vessel manufacturers.
Solution: Once the requirements of the client are understood, a variety of solutions can be
used:
• Spherical shaped cylinders have almost twice the strength of cylindrical pressure vessels.
• Custom pressure chambers can be built for extremely high pressures.
• Vessel materials can be selected that have increased tensile strengths resulting from
specialized heat- treating processes.
2. Size:Expenses of high pressure vessels increase with the size, pressure, and configuration.
Many clients have custom demands, and many a time, the size and shape may be difficult to
produce.
Solution: Many high pressure vessel manufacturers have created in-house facilities for
design, fabrication, manufacture, and testing of components. This is often a better option than
third party outsourcing. It gives manufacturers the ability and option to come up with
solutions that will help create the final product in a timely fasion.
3. Nozzle Cracks: During operation it is possible that the nozzle of the pressure vessel can
crack. There are many reasons for this:
• The increase in temperature during normal operation
• A poor functioning support system
• Lack of adequate weld filler when welding the nozzle to the vessel
Solution:
• Create support systems that will allow the vessel to expand and contract.
• Use the correct weld filler when adding the nozzle
• Put the vessel through rigorous quality testing

18. New advance Research (Refer at least one research paper: Paper should be attached
with report)

Using composite materials in pressure vessels

1. Advantages:
2. Quality, rigidity and intensity of the vessel improves
3. Improvement in the fatigue life of the pressure vessel
4. Fiber used in composite material make the vessel somewhat protected against
overload.
5. More resistivity to oxide corrosion

Link for the research paper

https://www.scientific.net/AMR.321.218

19. Old and Resent applications with photographs and explanation

Pressure vessel possess the mammoth role in the history of mankind at the end of the
19th century the steam engine had catalyst the industrial revolution and pressure vessel is
the heart of
this revolution
 During the industrial revolution when mankind was more productive than evefr before the
pressure vessel had helped to transport industrial goods

Todsay in any of the major industry you can find the pressure vessel in one or many of
the following way
1. Hydraulic accumulators
2. Air compressor reservoirs
3. Gas cylinders
4. Boiler drum

And with the increasing automation pneumatic systems are becoming the hart of any
industry.

20. Scope of Optimization

Following optimization is tends to proposed for any pressure vessel design
1. Shape and size optimization
2. Optimization in the size of nozzles
3. Optimization for pressure
4. Optimization under fluctuating load
5. Optimize service life against constant higher temperature
6. Optimization of weight by using composite materials
7. Optimize the number of vessels
8. Optimize for better service life