Mechanical Failures

Engineering Encyclopedia
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Mechanical Failures
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File Reference: COE10603 Mechanical Failures
Engineering Encyclopedia Materials & Corrosion Control
Mechanical Failures
CONTENTS PAGES
DUCTILE OVERLOAD FAILURES ......................................................................... 1

Tensile Properties ............................................................................................ 2
Ductile Fracture Mode..................................................................................... 4
BRITTLE FRACTURE CHARACTERISTICS.......................................................... 6

Brittle Fracture Mode ...................................................................................... 7
Hardness .......................................................................................................... 8
FATIGUE FAILURES................................................................................................ 9
Fatigue Fracture Mode .................................................................................. 10
Rolling Contact Fatigue................................................................................. 12
THE MOST FREQUENT FORMS OF WEAR FAILURE ...................................... 13

Metallic Wear ................................................................................................ 13
Metallic Wear Failure Mode .............................................................. 13
Abrasive Wear............................................................................................... 14
Erosion .......................................................................................................... 14
Cavitation ...................................................................................................... 15
THE MOST FREQUENT FORMS OF ELEVATED TEMPERATURE

FAILURES ............................................................................................................... 16
Overload ........................................................................................................ 16
Spheroidization .................................................................................. 19
Decarburization.................................................................................. 19
Quenched Microstructures ................................................................. 19
Internal Oxidization ........................................................................... 19
Grain Growth ..................................................................................... 19
Creep ............................................................................................................. 19
Stress Rupture................................................................................................ 21

Mechanical Failures
Thermal Fatigue ............................................................................................ 21

Embrittlement ................................................................................................ 22
GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................. 25
REFERENCES.......................................................................................................... 29
ADDENDUM ........................................................................................................... 30

Mechanical Failures
DUCTILE OVERLOAD FAILURES
Mechanical failures occur when the design capabilities of the component or equipment are
exceeded. The root cause of failure might be the poor design of the component or equipment,
or a ductile overload. In other cases, metallurgical variations such as heat treatment may have
caused the material to weaken, and the subsequent inability to meet design requirements.
Another possibility might be the accidental installation of the wrong material. Mechanical
failures may also result from excessive corrosion (as discussed in COE 106.02) or defects (to
be discussed in COE 106.04). The types of mechanical failures covered in this Module
include ductile overload, brittle fracture, fatigue, wear, and elevated temperature failure.
A brief mechanical metallurgy review is useful to develop a basic understanding of failures

that are caused by mechanical ductile overload. Pure tensile rupture occurs when the load is
perpendicular to, and distributed uniformly across, the minimum cross-sectional area. Three
additional modes of loading are used to describe most ductile overload failures. These modes
depend on the way the crack surfaces move relative to each other (Figure 1). Although Modes
II and III can be important in some cases, most stress analyses involve Mode I, which is
related to tensile properties.
Mode I Mode II Mode III

(Tensile) (Shear) (Tearing)
Figure 1. Loading modes for fracture
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Mechanical Failures
Tensile Properties
The tensile test load-elongation curve for a typical engineering alloy is shown in Figure 2(a).
The linear portion of the curve demonstrates elastic behavior; the nonlinear portion exhibits
plastic deformation that is indicative of a ductile material. By comparison, a brittle material
ruptures with little or no plastic deformation at or near the yield load, Figure 2(b).
Figure 2. Uniaxial Tension Test Load-Elongation Curves

(a) Ductile Material
(b) Brittle Material
The most important parameter in mechanical metallurgy is stress which is defined as follows:
s = P/A (1)
where P = Load, in units of force
and A = Cross-sectional area normal to the load.

Mechanical Failures
In the elastic region, stresses obey Hooke’s Law. For a stress that is in the y-direction,
σy = Eεy (2)
where E = Modulus of Elasticity
and εy = Elastic strain (elongation) in the direction of the

applied stress, σy.
No simple relationship exists for the plastic region; the shapes of the load-elongation curves
vary considerably for different alloys.
The most common tensile data values that are used in mechanical metallurgy include:
• Yield Strength: Stress at the onset of plastic deformation (yield load divided by
original cross-sectional area of specimen).
• Ultimate Tensile Strength: Stress corresponding to the maximum load on a

load-elongation (tensile) curve (maximum load divided by original cross-
sectional area of specimen).
• Percent Elongation: Extension of a specimen during a tensile test, expressed in

percent of original gage length.
L f - Lo
Elongation, % = x 100 (3)
Lo
where Lo = original length
Lf = final length
• Percent Reduction in Area: Loss that occurs in cross-sectional area during a

tensile test, which is expressed in percent of original cross-sectional area.
Ao - Af
Reduction in Area, % = x 100 (4)
Ao
where Ao = Original cross-sectional area of specimen gage length
and Af = Final cross-sectional area at location of fracture.

Mechanical Failures
Ductile overload failures seldomly occur as simple tensile fractures. Often bending or twisting
is involved which makes the stress distributions more complex and difficult to analyze. In
such cases the failure analyst should solicit the expertise of stress analysts. Mechanical failure
does not necessarily involve fracture. For example, if a rotating shaft is bent, it essentially has
failed even though it is not fractured.
Ductile Fracture Mode
Ductile failures exhibit singular, transgranular cracks with significant plastic deformation that
is indicated by necking or thinning. When viewed at high magnifications in the scanning
electron microscope, fracture surfaces exhibit ductile dimples (also called microvoid
coalescence or fibrous rupture) that are formed by void formation and rupture as shown in
Figure 3. Purely tensile rupture results in circular dimples as shown in Figure 3(a) and
Figure 4. When fracture occurs the dimples are elongated. The direction of elongation can
provide clues about the mode of fracture, as well as the crack direction. For shear rupture,
Mode II (Figure 3b), as well as Mode III, the dimples point in opposite directions on opposite
fracture faces. In Mode I tensile fracture, the elongated dimples on both faces point to the
crack origin (Figure 3c).
Figure 3. Ductile Fracture Characteristics

Mechanical Failures
Figure 4. Microvoid Coalescence (Scanning Electron Fractograph)

Mechanical Failures
BRITTLE FRACTURE CHARACTERISTICS
Brittle fracture occurs in materials that are incapable of plastically deforming. The tensile
curve for a brittle material, Figure 2(b), illustrates that failure occurs with little or no plastic
deformation.
The area under a tensile curve represents toughness which is the ability of a material to absorb
energy. Clearly, a brittle material that fails shortly beyond the material yield point absorbs less
energy than a ductile material that undergoes a large amount of plastic deformation.
Although toughness can be determined from a tensile curve, values are more specifically
expressed as notch toughness (the ability of a material to absorb energy in the presence of a
flaw). Notch toughness values in Newton-meters (foot-pounds) are obtained from high strain
rate impact tests that use Charpy V-notch (CVN) or similar specimens. The Charpy V-notch
impact test is one of various impact tests, where a notched bar specimen is broken by a single
impact of the falling pendulum while the energy absorbed is measured by the subsequent
upward rise of the pendulum.
Ferritic steels exhibit a ductile to brittle transition as they are cooled. Impact tests are
commonly performed over a range of temperatures to determine the limits for ductile
behavior. Data shown in Figure 5 illustrate that brittle fracture is likely if rapid loading occurs
below approximately 0 °C (32 °F). It should be noted that austenitic materials do not exhibit a
ductile-brittle transition.

Mechanical Failures
250
200
Energy
150
N-m
100
50
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150

Temperature, °C
Figure 5. Ductile-Brittle Transition Curve for a Low Carbon Steel
When members are impact or shock loaded, especially at low temperatures, brittle fracture
can occur at stresses that are below those that normally cause ductile overload failure. Once
cracking initiates at a defect or notch in a brittle material, the cracks typically propagate until
complete failure occurs. Even though the load may have dissipated, cracking continues with
little or no driving force. The catastrophic nature of brittle fracture is exemplified by broken
glass.
Brittle Fracture Mode
Brittle fracture occurs with several characteristic features that depend on factors such as
material condition and type of loading. Visually, brittle fracture failures may exhibit one or
more cracks, with little distortion. Fracture faces are typically flat and are sometimes marked
with chevrons or herringbone patterns. The patterns often point to the origin of the fracture.

Mechanical Failures
Depending on whether grain boundaries were preferentially embrittled, brittle fractures may
be intergranular or transgranular. When cracking is transgranular, scanning electron
fractographs exhibit cleavage or flat, faceted fracture faces, as shown in Figure 6. Less
distinguishable fracture faces are commonly referred to as quasi-cleavage.
Figure 6. Cleavage Fracture (Scanning Electron Fractograph)
Hardness
Hardness is a measure of the ability of a material to resist surface penetration. Hard materials
are usually more prone to brittle fracture, and many failures are traced to material that was too
hard for the application. Techniques that harden the surface such as carburizing and nitriding,
are often employed for wear resistance; however, they create brittle layers. Brittle fracture in
the form of spalling can occur when the surfaces are hardened excessively, or overloaded.
The use of hardness testing in failure analyses will be covered further in COE 106.06 and
COE 106.07.

Mechanical Failures
FATIGUE FAILURES
Mechanical fatigue is a common form of failure for rotating equipment. Fatigue occurs as a
result of cyclic stressing, usually at stress levels below the yield strength. The S-N curve,
Figure 7, illustrates the number of cycles-to-failure for a material at various stresses. The
endurance limit is the maximum stress below which an infinite number of cycles can be
withstood without cracking. At higher stresses, cracking can be expected after a given number
of cycles. When equipment operations result in stress/cycle conditions above the plot in
Figure 7, failure will occur.
600
500
Stress MPa
400
300 Endurance Limit
200
100
0
103 104 105 106 107 108
Cycles to Fracture
Figure 7. S-N Curve for a Typical Carbon Steel
Fatigue cracks commonly initiate at small defects at, or slightly below, the surface of the
component. The defects result in stress risers that intensify the load. Sharply machined
corners, poor welds, and corrosion pits also concentrate stresses and serve as initiation sites.
Once a fatigue crack initiates, propagation occurs at an increasing rate as cycling continues.
Final failure usually occurs when the remaining cross section of the component is overloaded.

Mechanical Failures
Fatigue Fracture Mode
Fatigue failures macroscopically exhibit a flat region where fatigue cracking progressed. A
ductile (or brittle) rupture zone is exhibited where final overload occurred. One or more
fatigue origin points may be distinguished by beach marks, which radiate out in a clamshell
appearance on the fracture surface, as illustrated in Figure 8.
Figure 8. Schematic Illustration of Beach Marks on Fatigue Fracture Surface
The bands that comprise the beach marks often represent the load/cycle history during fatigue
cracking. Regions of the fatigue fracture also may appear to be polished or worn due to
repeated flattening behind the crack tip. High cycle, low stress fatigue commonly results in
large fatigue fracture zones. Low cycle, high stress fatigue exhibits small fatigue fracture
zones and larger overload rupture regions.

Mechanical Failures
Fatigue cracks propagate transgranularly with little or no deformation. Although not always
visible, fatigue striations are the most distinguishing characteristic of fatigue fracture
(Figure 9). These parallel marks appear on fracture surfaces when they are viewed at high
magnifications. Fatigue striations appear roughly perpendicular to the direction of crack
propagation. Each striation represents crack advance for one stress cycle.
Figure 9. Fatigue Striations in Aluminum Alloy (Scanning Electron Fractograph)

(Reference No. 2)

Mechanical Failures
Rolling Contact Fatigue
A unique form of mechanical fatigue, sometimes considered a form of wear, occurs in gears
and bearings. When gears or bearings with hardened surfaces are cyclically overloaded,
repeated elastic deformation of the base metal, or core, results in subsurface fatigue crack
growth. This is shown metallographically in Figure 10(a). Eventually, spalling of the
hardened surface layer occurs, as shown in Figure 10(b). When the base metal is too soft to
support normal operating loads, spalling can occur very rapidly.
Figure 10. Fatigue Spalling of Alloy Steel Gear Tooth

Mechanical Failures
THE MOST FREQUENT FORMS OF WEAR FAILURE
Wear is commonly defined as the unintentional deterioration of a material that results from
use. Some parts are expected to wear and be replaced in accordance with a maintenance
schedule. Neglected maintenance often causes serious failures that are related to wear.
General types of wear include metallic wear or adhesive wear, abrasive wear, erosion, and
cavitation. (Erosion corrosion was covered in COE 106.02.)
Metallic Wear
Metallic wear is caused by metal to metal contact. Generally, metallic wear is also known as
adhesive wear. Mechanistically, metallic wear involves welding small surface areas that are in
contact under pressure, and result in the subsequent fracture of the weaker material. Typical
terms that are associated with metallic wear include the following:
• Sliding wear - A general term that is used to describe wear of parts that rub
parallel to each other. In some cases the net effect is polishing of one or both
parts, described as scuffing or scoring.
• Galling - An extreme case of rubbing surfaces with localized welding and

subsequent tearing apart of the weaker material.
• Seizing - An extreme case of galling where damage becomes so extensive that

the parts freeze or lock up.
• Fretting - Wear that occurs when surfaces that contact each other oscillate at
small amplitudes. Debris formed by this action cause abrasive wear. Often
corrosion contributes to the problem.
Metallic wear failures can be caused by improper design, fabrication, or installation. The use
of improper materials and overloading during operation causes failures. Improper lubrication
or loss of lubricant commonly results in metallic wear failures.
Metallic Wear Failure Mode
Visually, metallic (adhesive) wear is not readily distinguishable from corrosion or other forms
of surface damage. Damage that is in areas with obvious metal-to-metal contact, such as
nonlubricated parts, may suggest adhesive wear.
Fractographically, metallic wear exhibits a ductile or brittle appearance in areas of microweld

fracture. Fretting wear may exhibit roughened areas with compacted debris.
Metallographically, metallic wear may exhibit smeared or deformed metal. Since metal
transfer is common, chemical analysis of transferred metal often is used to confirm metallic
wear.

Mechanical Failures
Abrasive Wear
Abrasive wear occurs when the surface is ploughed or gouged by particles. It generally
involves hard particles forced against and moved along a surface, as in the case of grinding a
metal with an abrasive wheel. Often, wear debris from adhesive wear cause subsequent
abrasive wear.
Abrasion often occurs when lubricating oils are contaminated. Oil sample contaminant
analyses may provide information on the source of contamination.
Abraded surfaces commonly exhibit scratches in the direction of relative motion.

Fractographic examination may reveal embedded particles, that can be analyzed. Filter packs
also provide samples from which contaminating particles can be identified.
Erosion
Erosion results from impact on a surface by particles or fluids. Erosion is sometimes confused
with abrasion. Milder forms of erosion are manifested by light polishing due to fluids that
pass a surface. Sand blasting and waterjet drilling are more severe cases of erosion. Abrasion
generally involves hard particles that are forced against and moved along parallel to a surface.
High velocity is not necessarily required. In erosion, high velocity impact that is at an angle to
the surface plastically deforms and ultimately sweeps away the metal, as illustrated in
Figure 11.
Figure 11. Particle Impact Causing Erosion
The appearance of eroded surfaces depends on the size, hardness, angle, and velocity of the
impinging material. Fine particles can cause a smooth, almost polished surface, and liquid
impingement can result in roughened surfaces characteristic of metal fracture. In the latter
case, erosion often has associated corrosion (erosion corrosion) and the features are as
discussed in COE 106.02.

Mechanical Failures
In general, erosion may be expected to occur at tight bends and high velocities where
turbulence occurs. Soft materials are especially prone to damage when they are impacted at
low angles, and hard materials are more prone to damage at high impact angles. Since
refractories and hardfacings are used to combat particulate erosion, lost refractory or
hardfacing problem areas are especially prone to erosion.
Cavitation
Cavitation is a distinctive form of erosion damage that is caused by the implosion of bubbles
that are formed when the local pressure in a flowing liquid drops below the vapor pressure.
When the bubble encounters increased ambient pressure, collapse can occur with a stress
pulse intense enough to damage the surface.
Cavitation can destroy protective films as shown in Figure 12. This destruction causes
repeated reformation of the passive layer and corresponding metal loss. The repeated stress
pulses from cavitation may also work harden metal surfaces until cracking and metal loss
occurs. In some cases, cavitation can be related to erosion–corrosion.
1 2 3
4 5 6
Figure 12. Schematic Representation of Cavitation on Passive Metal
Cavitation typically occurs on propellers, impellers, and the internal bore of water-cooled
compressor rods. Visually, cavitation appears to be an eroded or gouged region. Higher
magnifications reveal microcraters, and in harder materials, microcracks.

Mechanical Failures
THE MOST FREQUENT FORMS OF ELEVATED TEMPERATURE FAILURES
Elevated temperature failures include overload, creep, fatigue, and embrittlement. High
temperature overload and fatigue failures are similar to low temperature failures; however,
certain characteristics differ as discussed below. Creep and high temperature embrittlement
typically involve microstructural changes.
Overload
The tensile properties of metals normally decrease with increasing temperature; a useful range
is approximately one-half the melting point. Typical tensile curves for stainless steel at
various temperatures are shown in Figure 13.
Figure 13. Stress-Strain Curves for Type 304 Stainless Steel at

Various Temperatures
(Reference No. 1)

Mechanical Failures
The table in Figure 14 lists typical tensile properties for low carbon steel. A dramatic loss in
yield and tensile strength at approximately 704 °C (1300 °F) is evident.
Figure 14. Elevated Temperature Tensile Properties of Low Carbon Steel

(Reference No. 6)
Elevated temperature overload failures of components occur when the tensile strength is
exceeded because of increased pressure, increased temperature (lower tensile strength), or
both. Common elevated temperature tensile overload failures occur when metals are rapidly
heated (for example, by flame impingement of boiler tubes) or rapidly overpressurized during
an upset.

Mechanical Failures
Elevated temperature failures that are purely tensile overload typically exhibit one rupture (no
secondary fractures). Significant elongation or thinning is commonly observed. Boiler tubes
exhibit wide open or large fishmouth ruptures, as shown in Figure 15.
Figure 15. Overload Rupture of Carbon Steel Boiler Tube

(Reference No. 5)
Rupture along weld seams is normal for overload failures, especially if welds are of poor
quality or are preferentially corroded. In extreme cases, temperatures may not be excessive,
but the remaining net cross section may be insufficient for operating stresses that are due to
corrosion or defects.
While ambient temperature tensile failures are transgranular, high temperature failures may be
transgranular, intergranular, or mixed mode. As temperatures increase, the tendency for
intergranular cracking increases. Elevated temperature fracture surfaces are usually covered
with oxide corrosion products and usually do not provide useful information. If oxidation is
nonuniform across the fracture, it may suggest that fracture occurred over a substantial period
of time, which indicates another fracture mechanism such as fatigue may have been operative.
The thickness of oxides on surfaces that are exposed to elevated temperatures in the vicinity
of the failure may provide an indication of the amount of time at rupture temperature, if such
evidence is not masked by continued operation or fires after rupture. Similarly, the
microstructure of the steel may also provide an indication of exposure temperatures.
The figure on the first page of the Addendum shows an overview of the microstructural
features that are manifested by overheating to various temperatures. Microstructural
examinations, conducted in the metallurgical laboratory as discussed in COE 106.07, are used
in failure analyses to determine causes of failures due to losses in mechanical properties as
well as establishing temperatures to which equipment have been exposed. Some of the more
common microstructural changes, shown in the Addendum, are discussed below.

Mechanical Failures
Spheroidization
When carbon and low alloy steels are heated in the range from 590 °C to 704 °C (1100 °F to
1300 °F), the carbides in the microstructure change from a plate-like shape to round
(spherical) particles by a process called spheroidization. Spheroidized microstructures are not
especially degraded, but such evidence is a good indicator of possible excessive temperatures
in some equipment.
Decarburization
At higher temperatures, 732 °C (1350 °F) and above, decarburization can occur.
Decarburization is the loss of carbon in steel to the surface by diffusion. Decarburized steels
have low strength and fail easily.
Quenched Microstructures
If steels heated above approximately 732 °C (1350 °F) are cooled rapidly (quenched),
quenched microstructures which have low toughness can result. Quench cracking, discussed
in COE 106.04, can also occur.
Internal Oxidization
As temperatures increase further, internal oxidization can occur. This form of high
temperature corrosion results from oxygen diffusion into the steel with the formation of
oxides, usually at grain boundaries.
Grain Growth
At even higher temperature, above approximately 870 °C (1600 °F), grain growth, which is
the enlargement of the grains or crystals that make up the metal, can occur. Large grains
improve creep strength, but low-temperature mechanical properties are degraded.
It should be noted that all changes, with the possible exception of the quenched structure, are
time dependent. For short time exposures, higher temperatures than illustrated are necessary
to produce changes.
Creep
Thermal creep is the time-dependent strain that results from stress at elevated temperatures.
When a tensile specimen is tested at constant load (below the load corresponding to ultimate
tensile strength) and constant temperature, time-dependent elongation occurs as illustrated in
the creep curve, Figure 16. Three major elongation stages include (1) primary creep which is
characterized by a decreasing strain rate, (2) secondary creep at constant strain rate, and (3)
tertiary creep where strain rate accelerates to failure.

Mechanical Failures
Creep failures are characterized visually by multiple surface fissures in the strained region.
The fissures account for much of the total strain; actual dimensional changes (for example,
necking) are negligible. Fissuring begins to occur in the stage II creep region; damage from
fissuring increases when the member enters stage III, as illustrated in Figure 16.
Fracture
I II III
Primary Secondary Tertiary
Creep (Steady State) Creep
Creep D
A - Isolated Cavities
C B - Oriented Cavities
C - Microcracks
D - Macrocracks
B
A
Exposure Time
Figure 16. Typical Creep Curve Illustrating Microstructural Damage (Fissuring)
Since creep fissures occur at grain boundaries, it is not surprising that creep failures occur
intergranularly, occasionally with associated intergranular oxidation. As a general rule, creep
becomes a problem at temperatures that exceed approximately one-half the absolute melting
temperature of the metal. At temperatures above 0.5 Tm (where Tm=temperature of melting),
time-dependent microstructural changes (in addition to fissuring) occur in the metal which aid
in the failure analysis, particularly in temperature determination.

Mechanical Failures
Stress Rupture
When a highly stressed member elongates-to-failure in a relatively short period (for example,
days or weeks) the failure may be described as stress rupture. Although there is no specific
rule, stress rupture generally is believed to fall between creep and tensile rupture with respect
to stress and time, as illustrated in Figure 17.
UTS
Tensile Rupture
increasing increasing
σ Time
Stress Rupture
Creep
Figure 17. Stress/Time Relationships for Tensile Rupture, Stress

Rupture, and Creep
Thermal Fatigue
Thermal fatigue is a common form of failure that occurs in equipment that operates at
elevated temperatures. Although other stress variations (such as pressure fluctuations) may
play a minor role, the cyclic stresses that cause thermal fatigue primarily result from thermal
fluctuations and accompanying thermal expansion and contraction. Cyclical stresses can
result from small, frequent thermal fluctuations, or large, occasional thermal fluctuations,
such as during shutdowns.
Visually, thermal fatigue failures often exhibit surfaces with parallel fissures, or a checkered
appearance that is referred to as “mud cracking”.
Thermal fatigue cracks exhibit microscopic features similar to mechanical fatigue cracks:
straight, flat, unbranched cracks. Since grain boundaries are weaker at elevated temperatures,
there is more likelihood of intergranular fracture features.

Mechanical Failures
Detailed fractographic features of fatigue cracks often are obscured by oxidation (corrosion
product), or deposits such as coke. A distinctive feature of many thermal fatigue cracks is the
penetration of oxide or deposits into the cracks, that cause a wedge-opening effect as shown
in Figure 18.
Figure 18. Wedge-Opened Thermal Fatigue Cracks
Embrittlement
Metal alloys, particularly steels, are susceptible to various forms of embrittlement when they
are exposed to high temperatures for prolonged times. Most embrittlement mechanisms
involve some form of precipitation, usually at grain boundaries.
Some of the more common types of elevated temperature embrittlement that are caused by
precipitation are:
• Blue brittleness, which occurs in carbon and low alloy steels heated near
315 °C (600 °F).
• Temper embrittlement of hardenable alloy steels that is caused by prolonged

exposure in the 400 °C to 565 °C (750 °F to 1050 °F) temperature range.
• 400 °C to 500 °C embrittlement of ferritic stainless steels that is caused by

heating in the 400 °C to 500 °C (750 °F to 930 °F) temperature range.
• Sigma phase embrittlement of alloy and stainless steels that is caused by

prolonged exposure at 560 °C to 950 °C (1050 °F to 1742 °F).

Mechanical Failures
Other, less common forms of embrittlement that are associated with precipitation include
strain-age embrittlement, quench-age embrittlement, stress relief embrittlement, and creep
embrittlement.
Intermetallic compound embrittlement results from the formation of brittle phases in grain
boundaries during elevated temperature exposure. For example, prolonged heating of
galvanized steel at temperatures slightly below the zinc melting point can result in diffusion of
zinc into the steel via the grain boundaries. Intermetallic compound formation then causes
embrittlement.
Elevated temperature embrittlement generally degrades materials, but does not necessarily
result in failures. During operation, many forms of embrittlement are inconsequential; at
elevated temperatures most metals remain ductile. However, during periods at low
temperatures, impact or shock loading may result in brittle failure. Similarly, thermal cycling
often causes failure.
Embrittled metal failures usually resemble brittle fracture, which was discussed previously.
Most macroscopic features are similar to low temperature brittle fracture. However, materials
embrittled by high temperature exposure tend to exhibit intergranular fracture, rather than
transgranular cleavage.
In some cases metallographic analysis can be used to identify the precipitates in embrittled
material. For example, sigma phase particles are often large and recognizable by optical
metallography when proper etching techniques are used, as illustrated in Figure 19.
Figure 19. Sigma Phase Embrittlement in Type 321 Stainless Steel

Mechanical Failures
Selected area analysis of the particles by techniques discussed in COE 106.07 can be used to
further identify the particles as the high chromium sigma phase. It is evident from Figure 19
that sigma phase easily can be mistaken for creep fissures.
Often the precipitates in thermally embrittled alloys are submicroscopic and not easily
identified. Mechanical testing is often used in failure analyses to confirm suspected forms of
embrittlement. Tensile test ductility values can be used to indicate embrittlement by
comparison with unexposed material test values or nominal values. In the case of sigma phase
embrittlement, tensile data are not significantly changed, but impact data can be used to reveal
significant toughness losses.

Mechanical Failures
GLOSSARY
abrasive wear Wear that is caused by ploughing or gouging of a surface by

(abrasion) particles.
beach marks Macroscopic bands on a fatigue fracture surface that radiate out
in a clamshell appearance from the point of crack initiation.
blue brittleness Embrittlement of carbon and low alloy steels that is caused by
heating in the temperature range near 315 °C (600 °F).
brittle fracture Fracture that occurs with little or no plastic (permanent)

deformation.
cavitation Wear damage that is caused by collapse of bubbles near a

surface.
chevron marks Herringbone pattern that can be observed on some brittle

fracture surfaces. Generally, the pattern points to the area of
crack initiation.
cleavage fracture Brittle fracture with a flat appearance. Cracking occurs

transgranularly along cleavage planes.
creep Elevated temperature time-dependent strain that results from

stress.
ductile fracture Fracture that occurs after significant plastic deformation
ductile overload failure Mechanical failure that is caused by exceeding the load bearing
capability of the component.
elastic deformation Reversible strain in the linear region of a tensile curve that is by
stresses below the yield strength.
endurance limit Stress below which a material can withstand an infinite number
(fatigue limit) of cycles without fatigue cracking.
erosion Wear that is caused by impact on a surface by particles or fluids.
fatigue Fracture process involving crack initiation and propagation due

to cyclic stressing.

Mechanical Failures
fatigue striations Microscopic parallel marks on fatigue fracture surfaces. Fatigue

striations are roughly perpendicular to the direction of crack
propagation; each mark represents crack advance for one stress
cycle.
ferrite Ductile phase in steel that consists of iron and dissolved carbon.
400 °C to 500 °C Embrittlement of ferritic stainless steels that is caused by heating

embrittlement in the 400 °C to 500 °C (750 °F to 930 °F) temperature range.
(Also referred to as 885 °F embrittlement.)
fretting Wear that occurs when surfaces in contact with each other
oscillate at small amplitudes.
galling An extreme case of rubbing surfaces with localized welding and

subsequent tearing apart of the weaker material.
grain growth Growth of grains or crystals in a metal that is caused by

prolonged exposure at elevated temperature.
hardness Resistance of a material to surface penetration which is

expressed in arbitrarily defined scales.
intermetallic compound Embrittlement that results from formation of brittle phases in

embrittlement grain boundaries during elevated temperature exposure.
metallic wear (adhesive Wear that is caused by metal-to-metal contact, with welding and
wear) disbonding as a principal mechanism.
microvoid coalescence Ductile fracture mode that is characterized by dimples or

(ductile dimpling, depressions.
fibrous rupture)
notch toughness The ability of a material to absorb energy in the presence of a

flaw.
pearlite Microstructural constituent of steel that consists of ferrite and

iron carbide, typically in a plate-like structure
percent elongation Extension of a specimen during a tensile test that is expressed in

percent of original gage length.
percent reduction in Loss in cross-sectional area during a tensile test that is

area expressed in percent of original cross-sectional area.

Mechanical Failures
plastic deformation Permanent strain caused by stresses exceeding the yield strength.
quasi-cleavage Brittle fracture mode that is less distinct than pure cleavage
fracture.
rolling contact fatigue Subsurface fatigue of gears and bearings that results in spalling
of the hardened surface layer.
seizing An extreme case of galling where damage becomes so extensive

that the parts freeze or lock up.
sigma phase Embrittlement of alloy and stainless steels that is caused
embrittlement by formation of sigma phase at temperatures ranging
from 560 °C to 950 °C (1050 °F to 1742 °F).
sliding wear A general term used to describe wear of parts rubbing parallel to
each other.
spalling (exfoliation) Breaking away of chips from a material surface.
spheroidization Formation of globular carbides from pearlite in steel at elevated

temperature.
strain Change in size (length) of a member as a result of stress.
stress Load (force) applied to a member divided by cross-sectional area

of the member perpendicular to the force.
stress rupture Relatively short time rupture due to accelerated creep.
submicroscopic So small as to be beyond resolution at conventional optical

microscopic magnifications.
temper Embrittlement of hardenable alloy steels that is caused
embrittlement by prolonged exposure in the 371 °C to 427 °C (700 °F
to 800 °F) temperature range.
thermal fatigue Elevated temperature fatigue where cyclic stresses result from
thermal fluctuations.
toughness The ability of a material to absorb energy.
ultimate tensile Stress corresponding to the maximum load on a load-elongation

Mechanical Failures
strength (tensile) curve.
wear Unintentional deterioration of a material that results from use.
yield strength Stress at the onset of plastic deformation.

Mechanical Failures
REFERENCES
1. American Society for Metals (ASM), “Mechanical Testing”, Metals Handbook,

Vol. 8, Ninth Edition, Metals Park, Ohio, USA, 1985.
2. American Society for Metals (ASM), “Fractography”, Metals Handbook, Vol.

12, Ninth Edition, Metals Park, Ohio, USA, 1987.
3. E. Rabinowicz, Friction and Wear of Materials, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
New York, New York, USA, 1965.
4. American Society for Metals (ASM), Source Book on Wear Control

Technology, Metals Park, Ohio, USA, 1978.
5. D. N. French, Metallurgical Failures in Fossil Fired Boilers, John Wiley and

Sons, New York, New York, USA, 1983.
6. United States Steel Corporation (currently USX), Steels for Elevated

Temperature Service, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, 1983.
7. Nalco Chemical Company, Introduction to Boiler Metal Failure Analysis,

Bulletin 61, Naperville, Illinois, USA.
8. R. D. Port and Harvey M. Herro, The Nalco Guide to Boiler Failure Analysis,
McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, New York, USA, 1991.

Mechanical Failures
ADDENDUM
Grain Growth
Intergranular Oxidation
°C °F
816 1500
Quenched Structure
760 1400
Decarburization
704 1300
649 1200
593
Spheroidization
538 1000
482 900
Changes in microstructure of
metals are a function of time
and temperature. The higher
the temperature, the shorter 427 800
the time required to bring
about a structural change.
Under 427° C (800° F) change
normally takes longer than the
service life of the equipment.

Mechanical Failures

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

DUCTILE OVERLOAD FAILURES ......................................................................... 1

BRITTLE FRACTURE CHARACTERISTICS.......................................................... 6

THE MOST FREQUENT FORMS OF WEAR FAILURE ...................................... 13

THE MOST FREQUENT FORMS OF ELEVATED TEMPERATURE

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Thermal Fatigue ............................................................................................ 21

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

DUCTILE OVERLOAD FAILURES

A brief mechanical metallurgy review is useful to develop a basic understanding of failures

Mode I Mode II Mode III

Figure 1. Loading modes for fracture

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

Figure 2. Uniaxial Tension Test Load-Elongation Curves

and A = Cross-sectional area normal to the load.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 2

and εy = Elastic strain (elongation) in the direction of the

• Ultimate Tensile Strength: Stress corresponding to the maximum load on a

• Percent Elongation: Extension of a specimen during a tensile test, expressed in

where Lo = original length

• Percent Reduction in Area: Loss that occurs in cross-sectional area during a

where Ao = Original cross-sectional area of specimen gage length

and Af = Final cross-sectional area at location of fracture.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

Ductile Fracture Mode

Figure 3. Ductile Fracture Characteristics

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

Figure 4. Microvoid Coalescence (Scanning Electron Fractograph)

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

BRITTLE FRACTURE CHARACTERISTICS

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150

Figure 5. Ductile-Brittle Transition Curve for a Low Carbon Steel

Brittle Fracture Mode

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

Figure 6. Cleavage Fracture (Scanning Electron Fractograph)

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

300 Endurance Limit

Figure 7. S-N Curve for a Typical Carbon Steel

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 9

Fatigue Fracture Mode

Figure 8. Schematic Illustration of Beach Marks on Fatigue Fracture Surface

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 10

Figure 9. Fatigue Striations in Aluminum Alloy (Scanning Electron Fractograph)

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 11

Rolling Contact Fatigue

Figure 10. Fatigue Spalling of Alloy Steel Gear Tooth

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 12

THE MOST FREQUENT FORMS OF WEAR FAILURE

• Galling - An extreme case of rubbing surfaces with localized welding and

• Seizing - An extreme case of galling where damage becomes so extensive that

Metallic Wear Failure Mode

Fractographically, metallic wear exhibits a ductile or brittle appearance in areas of microweld

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 13

Abraded surfaces commonly exhibit scratches in the direction of relative motion.

Figure 11. Particle Impact Causing Erosion

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Figure 12. Schematic Representation of Cavitation on Passive Metal

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 15

THE MOST FREQUENT FORMS OF ELEVATED TEMPERATURE FAILURES

Figure 13. Stress-Strain Curves for Type 304 Stainless Steel at

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 16

Figure 14. Elevated Temperature Tensile Properties of Low Carbon Steel