Planning an individual lesson or a sequence of lessons

Choosing assessment activities

How are assessment activities chosen?

An assessment means collecting information about a student’s academic performance
to make judgements about how they are learning. A teacher can decide to assess their
students formally or informally. Formal assessments are done by using tests and
examinations whereas an informal one can be carried out during a lesson by
monitoring and observing the students while they do the classroom activities as
normal. Doing an informal assessment is a good way to check how the students are
progressing with their learning. However, it is not possible for a teacher to assess all her
learners at all times during the lessons. Carrying out formal assessments is a good
method to retrieve more information about the individual students’ progress.

The first thing that needs to be done when planning an assessment is to consider our
reasons for assessing the students. Once this is done, we can make the decision when
to assess them and how often to do it. We can also select what methods of assessment
are the best and decide what we are going to use.

The differences between formal and informal assessments

The differences between formal and informal assessments can be summarized under
the headings of assessment tasks, marking and purpose:

Formal assessment Informal assessment

· Normal classroom teaching

· Tests and learning activities
Assessment tasks · Examinations · Homework tasks

· Learners receive grades (%, · Teacher keeps records of

Marking A-F, Pass/Fail, etc.) progress but does not give grades

· Feedback for the teacher

· To assess overall language (i.e. to find out how successful our
ability (proficiency test) teaching has been)

· To assess learning at the end · To help us improve our

of a course (achievement test) procedures or choose different
materials or activities for future
· To assess learning at the end lessons
of part of a course (progress test)
· Feedback for learners about
· To decide if learners can what they can do and what they
Purpose continue to the next level still need to work on

Formal Assessments
A formal assessment can usually consist of tasks that have single answers. For example,
multiple choice questions, true/false questions). These are easy to mark. Using objective
 test tasks like these will give the teacher information about her students’ knowledge of
particular language items and certain areas of language skills. Sometimes, certain
formal assessments make use of more real-life tasks. For example, oral interviews,
letters and essays. Using these, the teacher can obtain more information about
students’ general ability to use the language in written and spoken form.When a class
test is being prepared, it is essential to add a few varied tasks. This is because the
teacher can get a good mental image of her students’ strengths and weakness. She can
also test the main things that she has taught to her students.
It is important to select different assessment tasks with great care for younger students
and to make sure that the tasks are familiar. They should not be too difficult for the
student or too abstract.

Informal Assessment

The informal assessments that are done in classes depend on a few things. They are:

 The number of students in the class

 The students’ ages. Informal assessments are useful for younger students.
Formal test tasks are usually too complicated for them to understand.

 How frequently formal tests or examinations are given.

 The language skills that the teacher needs to assess

The students must know that they are being assessed and how and when it is
being done.

In order to do an informal assessment of productive skills in classes where there

is a large number of students, it is necessary to assess small number of students
in different lessons. The teacher can then record her opinions on a record sheet
or she can otherwise fill in a check list.
Informal assessments of receptive skills can be done by checking the students’
answers to certain reading or listening tasks. Notes should be taken on their
individual performance.
Separate assessments of students’ grammatical and lexical knowledge can be
created by using a variety of language games or quizzes. It can also be done by
monitoring practice activities. The teacher must make a note of the errors that
are made occasionally. Then, the teacher can give the feedback to the students
or otherwise to the entire class. The teacher may also go back to the problems
later when doing a revision lesson.

The teacher may also want to assess the things in a student such as motivation
and effort. This can be done by observation and also by talking to individual
students about their learning.

It is crucial that the teacher keep records of informal assessment. This is

important especially in classes where there are larger numbers of students. The
importance of this is so that the teacher has the information about her students
so that if a report or feedback is necessary on the students’ progress, it can be
given. The records do not need to be very complicated. They can be simply
 done records with headings for grammar, language skills, vocabulary,
motivation and the general progress of the learner.

Informal assessments need to be planned in the same way as the teaching is planned.

The nerd baby says ...

 Some of the same methods can be used for both informal and formal
assessments. For example, the students’ spoken language can be assessed in an
interview. Where productive skills are concerned, the students’ performance
needs to be judged against the clear descriptions of different levels of skill,
whether or not the assessment is formal or informal. The descriptions given may
be general ones of speaking or writing. They may also give separate
descriptions of alternative subskills. Given below are two example for speaking
which have been designed to assess a wide ability range.

Example 1
5. Speaks very well – very few errors.
4. Speaks quite well – some errors, but message is always clear.
3. Has some difficulties in speaking – frequent errors and not always
clear.
2. Has serious problems in speaking – only very limited ability to
communicate.
1. Almost unable to communicate.

Example 2

Accuracy Fluency Pronunciation

Speaks
fluently
without
hesitation
or
Grammatical and searching Very
5 lexical accuracy extremely for words. clear; stress and intonation help
high. to make meaning clear.
Some
hesitation
and
something
Quite accurate; some has to
errors, but meaning is search for Generally clear; reasonable
4 always clear. words. control of stress and intonation.

Quite
hesitant;
Frequent errors; meaning limited Frequent errors; not always
3 is not always clear. range of clear enough to understand.
vocabulary
 and
structures.

Extremely
hesitation;
very
limited
Very frequent errors: range of
difficulty in making language Very frequent errors; often
2 meaning clear. available. very difficult to understand.

1 Almost unable to communicate.

Reference resources

ources of information about language and about teaching that can be referred to for
assistance in lesson preparation are all called reference resources. They can
include reference materials, like dictionaries, grammar books, books and articles about
methodology in the magazines of teachers, the teacher’s book that accompanies a
course book which has the answers and teaching ideas and even certain websites
which can be found on the internet. Sometimes, reference resources can include
people and are consulted by knowing where and how we can find the information we
need.
Importance of a reference resource

There are many reasons to use reference resources when planning a lesson. Here are
some of the main reasons:

Checking the form and the use of grammatical structures

In certain grammar books that are written for teachers’ use, there are very detailed
explanations whereas in others, which are made for students’ various levels, use
simple language needed to give important information about grammatical structures.
Grammar books for students can usually aid us in seeing the information that our
students need on grammatical structures and we can discover appropriate methods of
describing or explaining grammar to them. Grammar books that are organized in
alphabetical order or have a detailed index or a table of contents, are the easiest to use
for our reference. Some books contain practice exercises which can be helpful for
teachers and the students as well.

Checking the pronunciation, spelling and use of lexical items

Teachers would find that advanced learners’ dictionaries are the most useful
dictionaries to have since they have example sentences and also information about
how to use words and the form of the words as well. Mostly, these are found on CD-
ROM or otherwise online on the publishers’ websites. Some dictionaries which
are Bilingual have also electronic dictionaries which are useful for students when they
need to find a word that they do not know in English. Bilingual dictionaries are
dictionaries that have explanations of the word meanings in the learner’s own
language. However, these dictionaries do not give very detailed information on how to
use a particular word. Therefore, it is better that students check the words they want to
know in a monolingual dictionary. These are dictionaries that have explanations of
word meanings in the language which the learners are learning. Like learner grammar
books, learner dictionaries are very useful for teachers to find the most appropriate
ways of defining words and giving example of how to use them.
Developing one’s own understanding of the language
There are several books that teachers can use to increase language awareness (i.e.
what we understanding about how language works) as well as awareness of how to
teach the particular language. These books usually contain tasks that can be done by
the individual alone or with a partner. They also usually have detailed explanations,
comments and answers.
Anticipating the students’ difficulties
To help us anticipate certain language problems that our students may have, we can
find reference materials about students’ errors useful. Usually, most of the difficulties
with grammar or vocabulary are because of interference from L1. Some books or
articles which have information about particular differences between the student’s L1
and English can aid the teacher to understand the problems.

Looking for new approaches to teaching lessons and new classroom activities
If a teacher wants to find new approaches or activities or if she wants to give her
students something that is different to what is given in their course book, there is a
great number of supplementary materials. These are additional materials that can be
used along with the course book. They usually focus on grammar, vocabulary and
certain skills. There is also a great of teachers’ resource books which contain good
ideas and materials for various lesson types. Some of these books may give the
teacher a wide range of activities for the students with extra grammar or
communicative practice (e.g. while others concentrate on a certain type of a classroom
activity). Usually these books contain clear indexes and give valuable information on
timing, preparation, level and so on. There are also many websites available nowadays
with free content for teachers on different teaching topics.
Finding out how to use the material given in the course book
Suggestions on how to use the course book material are usually given in the teachers’
books. If some lesson ideas in the book do not match with a particular teaching
situation, it recommended to still have a look at them and keep them in mind since it
would be useful to adapt them.

Getting advice about certain lesson or teaching materials

Colleagues may be able to give valuable advice from their experience if they have
taught at a similar level or used the same materials. There would be times when a
colleague’s method may not suit our own. However, it may give us ideas or help us to
think on how we go about with our planning.

The nerd baby says ....

 Certain grammar books and dictionaries have clear and concise explanations or

examples. Therefore, if we want to check a language item, it would be a good idea to

look at multiple reference resources.

 As some words stop being used over time and new words are created, language

changes. Grammatical usage changes too with this. A good method of keeping oneself

update is to use grammar books and dictionaries that have been published recently.

 Normally, dictionaries that we find on CDs have several additional features like practice

activities, collocation searches and audio recordings of the pronunciation which makes

it easier.
  A lot can be learned from the experiences of other teachers. There are many regular

articles by teachers explaining successful lessons that they have taught in teachers’

magazines.

 Sometimes, it is easier to check a website for information than to find books or articles.

There are numerous websites which offer free resources and ideas for teachers. Some

also have simple programs for making resources for the classroom like cross-words and

gap-fill exercises. Visiting one of the websites that has lists of links to useful teaching

resources on the internet is a very good way to find materials.

The selection and use of teaching aids

How are aids selected and used?

The resources and equipment which are there for the teachers to use in the classroom and the
resources that the teachers can bring into the classroom are what we call aids. Aids can be
cassette recorders, CD players, video recorder, visual aids (these are pictures to help the
students to understand better), overhead projectors (an overhead projector is something that has
a light in it. It makes pictures appear larger on a screen), realia and even the teacher him/herself!
To use aids, we must first think about the main aims and the subsidiary aims of our lesson.
Then, we can choose the most suitable aids for us.

Have a look at the table below. It is a list of equipment found in the classroom. Can you think of
any other purposes than the main teaching purpose for each item in the table?

Classroom equipment Main teaching purpose

Writing up planned vocabulary, grammar examples
Blackboard/whiteboard and explanations

Overhead projector (OHP) Displaying prepared exercises

on transparencies (plastic sheets)
Cassette recorder/CD player Listening practice

Video recorder Listening practice with added visual information

Computer Grammar exercises

Language laboratory
(i.e. A room where learners can listen to recordings
and record themselves) Grammar drills

All the aids mentioned in the table above may be used for several purposes. Here are some
examples of purposes:
Blackboard/whiteboard
l Writing words and ideas that come up during the
lesson
l Drawing or displaying pictures
l Building up ideas in diagrams, word maps, etc
Video recorder
l For information gap tasks (with one learner
viewing and one just listening)
l Viewing without sound and guessing the language

l For learners to write answers l Pausing and predicting the language (i.e. Saying
what you think is coming next)
l For whole-class compositions l With a camera, filming learners’ performance

Computer
l Narrative building with a word processor
l Supplementary materials for coursebooks
l Online language tests
Overhead Projector
l Displaying results of group work l Using online dictionaries

l Building up information by putting one l Using CD-ROMs

transparency on top of another
l Covering up or gradually uncovering parts of the
transparency
l Displaying pictures and diagrams on photocopiable
transparencies
l Email exchanges
l Online communication (chatting)
l Online newspapers and magazines
l Project work using the internet

Language laboratory
Cassette recorder/CD Player l Pronunciation practice
l Presenting new language in dialogues and stories
l Extensive listening
l Giving models for pronunciation practice
l Monitoring and giving feedback to individual
l Recording learners’ oral performance learners
l Listening for pleasure l Developing speaking skills

Other aids and their uses

Realia

These are real objects that can be easily brought into the classroom and used to teach vocabulary
and like prompts for practisinggrammatical structures for building up dialogues and narratives,
as well as for games and quizzes. Realia can also be real texts, such as menus, leaflets,
brochures, timetables, etc.
Flashcards

These are used for teaching individual words or as prompts for practising grammatical
structures.
Puppets
These are very good especially for younger students. The teacher can introduce new language in
dialogues using puppets. The children can make own simple puppets too.
Charts

Posters and wallcharts can be used to exhibit bigger pictures that have more detail. They can
also be used to display multiple pictures which explain a story or show objects that are related to
each other in a lexical set. Wallcharts are drawings or graphs which can be displayed on the
classroom wall. Phonemic charts show phonemic symbols and the positions in the mouth
through which alternate sounds are made. The teacher may point at the symbols in a way so that
the students will be prompted to correct their pronunciation. Charts can also be used to exhibit
diagrams, drawings and tables of irregular verbs or even to build up a dictionary for the class.
The Teacher

Through the use of hand gestures, facial expressions and miming (to mime is to make an action
that conveys meaning without the use of words), the teacher can obtain vocabulary items, clarify
meanings and create a context. It is possible to build up a set of signals (for example, finger
correction) that the students can learn to recognize as prompts to rectify their mistakes.
The nerd baby says ...
 The black/whiteboard should be divided into different sections for various purposes.
Here is an example:

Lesson materials (e.g.

pictures, key
Reference material grammatical
(e.g. key lexis, model structures, dialogues, Vocabulary notepad
sentences, grammar etc.) at different stages for noting all new
rules, etc.) of the lesson. words.

Diagrams such as the one given above may be incorporated into a teacher’s lesson plan for
different stages of the lesson.
 Aids such as charts, flashcards and transparencies for the overhead projector are aids
that can be prepared early, to help the teacher to ensure that the lesson procedures match
the teacher’s aims. Aids like these can be saved and used again in the future.
 Any equipment to be used must be checked before the start of the lesson. A note of
where the recordings start should be made by using the counters on cassette and video
recorders so that the place can be found easily when the teacher rewinds them.
 If computers or the language laboratory is to be used, it is very important to prepare in
advance. All the instructions and the sequence of activities need to be planned out with
great care.
Selection and use of coursebook materials

How are coursebook materials selected and used?

All the materials we can find in a course book package that we use in the classroom are called
coursebook materials. We use them to present and practice language and to improve the
students’ language skills.

Often, a coursebook package contains a student’s book, a teacher’s book and sometimes
audio/video recordings. We can find the tapescripts of these recordings included with the book.
A tapescript is the written version of what is given in audio or video. Usually there is a
workbook or activity book as well, which is a book that contains practice material. Sometimes
we may find a CD included or extra material to be retrieved from a website.

Usually, teachers decide what materials to use (either coursebook or supplementary) on a ‘needs
analysis’. This means a study of the level of the students, their language needs and interests
which is done by using questionnaires, interviews or otherwise diagnostic tests. A ‘needs
analysis’ helps the teacher to create and update a class profile, an explanation of all the students
in the class, and it shows what the students have in common with each other and their
differences as well. Then, the teacher has to choose the material that is most suitable for the
class profile.

Selecting teaching materials from coursebooks

When we select teaching materials for our own classes, what are the questions we should ask?

Sometimes we may not have the option of selecting our coursebook. However, it is still possible
to choose what materials from the coursebook we can use. In order to decide whether and how
to use the coursebook wholly or partially depends on the responses to a few questions. The
questions are given below.

 Does the material we are planning to use look attractive for the students? Is it clear and
methodical and does it aid the students to develop an understanding of the context and
the meaning?
 Is the material organized well? Is it possible for the teacher and the students to follow
the logic of the material? Can we find out way around the page? Can we find a unit as
quickly and as easily as we want?
 Is the material culturally appropriate? Will the students find the context(s) familiar?
 Is it appropriate for the age of our students? Will it match their needs and interests?
 Will the students find the topics motivating? Are they appropriate for the age, gender,
experience as well as personal interests of our students?
 Is the content at the right level? Are the context and explanations clear enough for our
students to understand the new language?
 Does the material chosen give the students enough chances to make use of the
language?
If any of the above questions are answered with a ‘no’, then we have two options available for
us to choose from:

 We can either replace the coursebook material with materials from another resource
with the same focus/aim. An example of another resource would be a teacher’s website,
a book or supplementary materials.
 We can adapt the coursebook material. This means to alter it in a way that makes it
appropriate for our students.
How to adapt coursebook materials

There are a few ways of adapting material when it is not appropriate for a specific teaching
situation. In the table below are some ideas of how to do this.

Strategies Problems Possible solutions

 · The task or exercise is too short.
· The students need more
Extending material practice.
· The task of exercise is too long.
· The students don’t need so
Shortening material much practice.
· The task doesn’t suit the
learners’ learning style.
· You want a change of pace.
Changing the form of · The coursebook often repeats
tasks the same kind of task.
Changing the level of · The texts or tasks are too easy or e.g. break up a long text into shorter
the material too difficult.
· The activities in the units in the
book always follow the same
sequence.
· The learners need to learn or
Reordering material practice things in a different order.
· There is not enough practice
material in a particular unit.
· The learners need to revise
particular items.
Making use of all the · You want to preview material in
resources in the book a future unit.
The nerd baby says ...
· Write extra items, following the
same pattern.
· Use as much as you need, but do
not feel you have to use it all.
· Give different parts of the text or
task to different learners.
· Change the interaction pattern. E.g.
use a matching task as a mingling activity
(i.e. one in which learners move around
the class, in this case to find their
partners).
· Make material more challenging,
e.g. learners try to answer comprehension
questions before reading.
· Make material lesson challenging,
sections.
· Change the order of the material,
e.g. ask learners to cover up a page or
part of a page so that they will focus on
what you want them to do first.
· Use extra material from the book:
grammar summaries, word lists, lists of
irregular verbs, e.t.c.
· Give whole-book tasks, e.g.
searching through the book for texts,
pictures, language examples.
  The teacher may have good reasons to leave out part or the whole of a unit. However, it
is important to keep in mind that the coursebook is one of the most important, main
sources of learning (and revision) for the students. Therefore, if we leave our parts of
whole units of a coursebook too regularly, the students may be confused.
 The coursebook contains the main content necessary for the lesson. The extra material
that is given by the teacher or from the students themselves in some cases needs to be
more personalized. It is important to consider the coursebook content when it comes to
planning a lesson. We need think carefully about what we need to exclude or add. As an
example:
Coursebook provides: Teacher can provide additional:

· Situation/context · Warmer

· Pictures · Instructions

· Dialogues (conversations
between two people) and texts · Role-play

· Tasks and exercises · Homework tasks

 If the teacher needs to change the order of the material in the coursebook, she must
ensure that one task/exercise does not depend on a task or exercise that was given
previously.
 The order of activities in the coursebook can be changed to include variety in pace,
interaction pattern, sequence of skills practice, content, mood, the difficulty level etc.
 It is always important for the teacher to think very carefully about how she can make
the material visually appealing and interesting for the students. She can do this by using
mime, pictures, real objects such as food or clothes (known as realia), etc.