Application of Eurocode 7 For Earth Retaining Structures

4.
Application of Eurocode 7 for

Earth Retaining Structures
Eurocode 7 - 1 Eurocode 7 - 1
Eurocodes
Ref: Dr Ian Smith

Learning Objectives
Appreciate the traditional design philosophy
in geotechnical engineering and its
limitations.
Introduction to limit state design philosophy.
Key ideas and concepts behind Eurocode 7.
Able to apply Eurocode 7 principles in the

design of gravity retaining structures.
Rigid Wall Stability – Translation (effective stress)
+β
φ : soil friction angle
xa
φb or δ : friction angle
xs between base of wall
Ws and soil :
Pav
Ho xb Ww = weight of the wall
Pah
Ws = weight of the soil wedge
Ww za
Pav = vertical component of
Toe the active lateral force
x +θ b Heel Pah = horizontal component
xθ of the active lateral
N
force
B θb = inclination of the base
to horizontal
For an effective stress analysis
(FS)T = [(Ww + Ws + Pav )cos θb + Pah sin θb ] tan φb

Pah cos θb − (Ww + Ws + Pav ) sin θb
Rigid Wall Stability – Translation (effective stress)
+β
φ : soil friction angle
xa
φb or δ : friction angle
xs between base of wall
Ws and soil :
Pav
Ho xb Ww = weight of the wall
Pah
Ws = weight of the soil wedge
Ww za
Pav = vertical component of
Toe the active lateral force
x +θ b Heel Pah = horizontal component
xθ of the active lateral
N
force
B θb = inclination of the base
to horizontal
For an effective stress analysis
Alternative Definition of Factor of Safety
(FS)T = [(Ww + Ws + Pav )cos θb + Pah sin θb ] tan φb + (Ww + Ws + Pav ) sin θb
Eurocode 7 - 5 Pah cos θb Eurocode 7 - 5
Shortcomings of FOS
• No unique definition of FoS
• Different answers from different

definitions
• Physical meaning and purpose of

FoS is unclear.
• Is it a factor against uncertainty,

workmanship, soil behavior,
disturbance?
Alternative to FOS
Limit State Design Approach
Probability of
occurrence
mean value mean value
of load of resistance
Load Resistance Value of

Parameter
Load > Resistance
Eurocode 7 - 8
(undesirable) Eurocode 7 - 8
• Adoption of pessimistic values for the
leading parameters involved in the design:
strengths, loads and geometric features.
• This is done by applying partial factors to
the strengths and loads, and modifying the
geometric features.
• Check that the structure will not fail under

these pessimistic values.
Eurocode 7 (SS EN 1997−1:2010)
• SS EN 1997-1:2010 Part 1 – General
rules, focus on partial factored design
approaches
• SS EN 1997-2:2010 Part 2 – Ground
Investigation and Testing
• Singapore National Annex NA to SS
EN 1997-1:2010 Part 1 – General
Rules
• Singapore National Annex NA to SS
EN 1997-1:2010 Part 2 – Ground
Investigation and Testing
All 4 documents are needed for
proper Guidance on
Geotechnical Design and
Construction in Singapore
context Eurocode 7 - 10
Eurocode 7 (SS EN 1997−1:2010)
Eurocode 7 - 11
Eurocode 7 (EN 1997−1:2010)
Eurocode 7 is the world’s first

geotechnical design code to
share a common philosophy
with the design methodology for
structures.
Eurocode 7 (EN 1997−1:2004)
• 1st Eurocode 7 Group created in 1981.
• Representatives of the National Societies for
Geotechnical Engineering of the 10 EC countries.
• A first model code on general rules for geotechnical
design was published in 1990.
• However, difficult to reach a full European standard (EN)
acceptable to all members.
• Geotechnical design is unique – not the same as other
design practices in the construction industry.
• Models vary from one country to another, cannot be
easily harmonized (different geologies, local experience
or tradition)
• National Annex (NA)
Eurocode 7 - 13
Singapore Annex to Eurocode 7
Geotechnical Design Process
Processes Involved
Establish design values of actions
and geometrical data
Establish design values of ground

properties and resistances
Define limit that must not be

exceeded (e.g. bearing resistance)
Perform relevant geotechnical analysis
Show, by calculation, that limit will

not be exceeded
Geotechnical Design by Calculation
The design is all about
Actions (loads, forces, etc) and Material Properties (c’, φ’, etc)
Representative action Frep Characteristic material property, e.g. φ’, c’
Mulitplied by γF values Divided by γM values
Design action Fd Design material property, e.g. c’d
Geotechnical Analysis
Design effect of actions Ed Design resistance, Rd
Verify
Ed ≤ Rd
EC7: Limit States (Clause 2.4.7)
EQU— loss of equilibrium of the structure or the ground, considered as a
rigid body, in which the strengths of structural materials and the ground
are insignificant in providing resistance
STR— internal failure or excessive deformation of the structure or

structural elements, including e.g. footings, piles or basement walls, in
which the strength of structural materials is significant in providing
resistance
GEO— failure or excessive deformation of the ground, in which the

strength of soil or rock is significant in providing resistance
UPL— loss of equilibrium of the structure or the ground due to uplift by

water pressure (buoyancy) or other vertical actions
HYD— hydraulic heave, internal erosion and piping in the ground caused
by hydraulic gradients
EC7: Limit States for Retaining Structures (Section 9)
EC7: Principles and Application Rules (Clause 1.4)
1) Depending on the character of the individual clauses, distinction

is made in EN 1997-1 between Principles and Application Rules.
2) The Principles comprise:
— general statements and definitions for which there is no
alternative;
— requirements and analytical models for which no alternative
is permitted unless specifically stated.
3) The Principles are preceded by the letter P.
4) The Application Rules are examples of generally recognised
rules, which follow the Principles and satisfy their requirements.
5) It is permissible to use alternatives to the Application Rules
given in this standard, provided it is shown that the alternative
rules accord with the relevant Principles and are at least
equivalent with regard to the structural safety, serviceability and
durability, which would be expected when using the Eurocodes.
Example of Principle and Application Rules
9.4 Design and construction considerations (for retaining structures)

9.4.1 General
(1)P Both ultimate and serviceability limit states shall be considered
using the procedures described in 2.4.7 and 2.4.8.
(2)P It shall be demonstrated that vertical equilibrium can be achieved
for the assumed pressure distributions and actions on the wall.
(3) The verification of vertical equilibrium may be achieved by
reducing the wall friction parameters.
(4) As far as possible, retaining walls should be designed in such a
way that there are visible signs of the approach of an ultimate limit
state. The design should guard against the occurrence of brittle
failure, e.g. sudden collapse without conspicuous preliminary
deformations.
EC7 Terminology
There are some special terms used in EC7.

These include:
1. ‘Actions’,
2. ‘Effects’
3. ‘Resistances’.
What are Actions?
• The use of the word ‘action’ with the meaning adopted in
the Eurocodes is unfamiliar to English speakers. It might
be preferable to substitute the word ‘load’, provided that
this definition is sufficiently broad to include imposed
displacements as well as forces.
• In the Eurocodes, an ‘action’ is a force which is not a

‘reaction’. It is a force which is known at the start of a
particular calculation; its value is not derived within that
calculation. ‘Reactions’ are known as ‘action effects’.
EC7 : Actions – Partial factors
Fd = γF ⋅ Frep
EQU STR and GEO
Others tables are provided

for UPL and HYD
EC7 : Materials – Partial Factors
Xd = Xk / γM
EQU STR and GEO
EC7 :Resistances – Partial Factors
Partial factors may be applied either to ground properties (X) or
resistances (R) or to both, as follows:
Rd = R{γF Frep; Xk/γM; ad}
or
Rd = R{γF Frep; Xk; ad}/ γR
or
Rd = R{γF Frep; Xk/γM; ad}/γR
Set R1 specified
by Singapore NA
EC7 : Design Approaches 1, 2 & 3
Design Approach 1
Combination 1: A1 “+” M1 “+” R1 Singapore NA specifies using

Combination 2: A2 “+” M2 “+” R1 Design Approach 1 only
Design Approach 2
Combination: A1 “+” M1 “+” R2
Design Approach 3
Combination: (A1* or A2†) “+” M2 “+” R3
*on structural actions

†on geotechnical actions
Eurocode Actions (Clause 9.3.1)
— the weight of soil, rock and water;
— stresses in the ground;
— earth pressures and ground-water pressure;
— free water pressures, including wave pressures;
— ground-water pressures;
— seepage forces;
— dead and imposed loads from structures;
— surcharges;
— mooring forces;
— removal of load or excavation of ground;
— traffic loads;
— movements caused by mining or other caving or tunnelling
activities;
— swelling and shrinkage caused by vegetation, climate or
moisture changes;
— movements due to creeping or sliding or settling ground
masses;
— movements due to degradation, dispersion,
decomposition, self-compaction and solution;
— movements and accelerations caused by earthquakes,
explosions, vibrations and dynamic loads;
— temperature effects, including frost action;
— ice loading;
— imposed pre-stress in ground anchors or struts;
— downdrag.
Eurocode – Geometry (Clause 9.3.2.2)
(2) In ultimate limit state calculations in which the stability of a
retaining wall depends on the ground resistance in front of the
structure, the level of the resisting soil should be lowered below the
nominally expected level by an amount Δa. The value of Δa should
be selected taking into account the degree of site control over the
level of the surface. With a normal degree of control, the following
should be applied:
• for a cantilever wall, Δa should equal 10 % of the wall height above
excavation level, limited to a maximum of 0.5 m;
• for a supported wall, Δa should equal 10 % of the distance between the
lowest support and the excavation level, limited to a maximum of 0.5 m.
Support (strut)
d
d
∆a ∆a
∆a=0.1 d (max. 0.5 m)
Limit values of Earth Pressure (Annex C)
Charts for obtaining Ka and Kp values are

provided in Annex C, based on the nonlinear
(curved) failure surface.
We have seen some of these charts in our

earlier discussion on Active and Passive Earth
Pressures.
Favourable or Unfavourable?
Virtual back
of wall
Example Problem on Rigid Retaining Wall using EC7
A gravity retaining wall is required to retain 5m of soil. The backfill is
a coarse-grained soil with γsat = 18 kN/m3 , φ = 30°, δ = 20°. The
existing soil (below the base) has the following properties: γsat = 20
kN/m3 , φ = 28°.
A drainage system is provided as shown. The groundwater level is
4.5 m below the base of the wall.
0.6 m
drainage blanket
Assume the ultimate bearing capacity
of the existing soil is 350 kN/m2.
The unit weight of concrete is Backfill

φ = 30°
γc = 24 kN/m3. 5 m γ = 18 kN/m3
concrete sat
γ c = 24 kN/m3
Check the stability of the wall for the
EQU and GEO limit states based on
Design Approach 1 of the EC7 design Existing soil
methodology. 4.2 m
φ = 28°
γ sat = 20 kN/m3
Limit states to consider:
EQU limit state: GEO limit state: GEO limit state:

Overturning Sliding Bearing Capacity
Eurocode 7 - 32
Table 1 Partial Factor Sets for EQU, GEO and STR Limit States
Parameter Symbol EQU GEO/STR - Partial factor set
A1 A2 M1 M2 R1 R2 R3
Permanent action (G) Unfavourable γG, dst 1.1 1.35 1.0
Favourable γG, stb 0.9 1.0 1.0
Variable action (Q) Unfavourable γQ, dst 1.5 1.5 1.3
Favourable - - - -
Accidental action (A) Unfavourable γA, dst 1.0 1.0 1.0
Favourable - - - -
Coefficient of shearing resistance (tanφ') γφ' 1.25 1.0 1.25
Effective cohesion (c') γc' 1.25 1.0 1.25
Undrained shear strength (cu) γcu 1.4 1.0 1.4
Unconfined compressive strength (qu) γqu 1.4 1.0 1.4
Weight density (γ) γγ 1.0 1.0 1.0
Bearing resistance (Rv ) γRv 1.0 1.4 1.0
Sliding resistance (Rh) γRh 1.0 1.1 1.0
Earth resistance (Re) γRe 1.0 1.4 1.0
Example Problem on Rigid Retaining Wall
Step 1: Sketch the forces acting on the wall
H=5m x1 PaC (Coulomb)

W1
δ = 20°
PaR (Rankine)
x2 W2
z a = 5/3 m
O A
b1 =3.6 m b2 = 0.6 m
N (reaction from base)
EQU limit state: Overturning
From Table 1,
γG;dst = ___; γG;stb = ___; γQ;dst = ___; γφ’ = _____
A1 A2 M1 M2 R1 R2 R3
Favourable - - - -
Favourable - - - -
From Table 1,
γG;dst = ___;
1.1 γG;stb = ___;
0.9 γQ;dst = 1.5
___; γφ’ = _____
1.25
Determine the (i) design material properties, (ii) design actions, (iii) design effects
(i) Design Material Properties

(a) Backfill: φ' = tan−1 tan φ' = tan−1 tan 30° = 24.8°
d
γ φ' 1.25
tan δ tan 20°

δ d = tan−1 = tan−1 = 16.2°
γ φ' 1.25
With φ’d and δd , need to obtain KA.
Question: Rankine or Coulomb or Non-planar?
Can use charts in Eurocode 7 to obtain non-planar surfaces, based
on wall friction δ/φ = 2/3.
Design Example 1 (EC7)
From Table 1,
γG;dst = ___;
1.1 γG;stb = ___;
0.9 γQ;dst = 1.5
___; γφ’ = _____
1.25

(a) Backfill: φ' = tan−1 tan φ' = tan−1 tan 30° = 24.8°
d
γ φ' 1.25
tan δ tan 20°

δ d = tan−1 = tan−1 = 16.2°
γ φ' 1.25
With φ’d and δd , need to obtain KA.
Question: Rankine or Coulomb or Non-planar?
Kah = Ka cos δ = ____
⇒ Ka = Kah/cos δ = _____
Eurocode 7 - 39 ⇒ Kav = Ka sin δ = ____ Eurocode 7 - 39
Earth pressure diagrams based on design material parameters
σh = K ah γh
_____
= 0.35 x 18 x 5
=
Kav γh
σv = _____
= 0.10 x 18 x 5
=
EQU limit state
(ii) Design Actions
(a) Self weight of the wall (Permanent, Favorable Action) γG;stb = 0.9
(b) Active thrust from soil (Permanent, Unfavorable Action) γG;dst = 1.1
(c) Active thrust from surcharge (Variable, Unfavorable Action) γQ;dst = 1.5
(a) Self weight of the wall

Consider a unit length of wall.
W1 = b2Hγc x γG;stb = 5 x 0.6 x 24 x 0.9 = 64.8 kN
W2 = ½ b1Hγc γG;stb = ½ x 3.6 x 5 x 24 x 0.9 = 194.4 kN
W = W1 + W2 = 64.8 + 194.4 = 259.2 kN
W1
W2
EQU limit state
(ii) Design Actions
(b) Active thrust from soil

1
Pah:d (backfill) = σ hH x γG;dst
2
= (1/2) x 31.5 x 5 x 1.1
σh = Kah γh
= 86.6 kN/m
= 0.35 x 18 x 5
= 31.5 kPa
1
Pav:d (backfill) = σ vH x γG;stb
2
= (1/2) x 9 x 5 x 0.9 σv = Kav γh
= 20.25 kN/m = 0.10 x 18 x 5
= 9 kPa
EQU limit state
(iii) Design Effects of Actions (Overturning)
unfavorable actions is to cause the overturning
(a) The effect of the ___________
moment about the toe of the wall.
favorable actions is to mobilize the stabilizing
(b) The effect of the _________
moment to resist overturning.
The overturning moment = Pah:d x z a = 86.6 x 5/3 =
The resisting moment = 64.8 x 3.9 + 194.4 x 2.4 + 20.25 x 4.2

=
Stabilizing Moments __ Destabilizing Moments
⇒ EQU limit state is ________!
Overdesign factor Γ = ________________

To check for GEO limit state (sliding and

bearing) using Design Approach DA1, we have
to consider both combinations 1 and 2 of the
partial factors.
Combination 1: A1 “+” M1 “+” R1
We first consider combination 1.
A1 A2 M1 M2 R1 R2 R3
Favourable - - - -
Favourable - - - -
GEO limit state: Sliding
1. Design Approach 1 Combination 1 (partial factor sets A1+M1+R1)
From Table 1,
γG;dst = 1.35; γG;stb = 1.0; γQ;dst = 1.5; γφ’ = 1.0

Backfill: tan φ' tan 30°
φ'd = tan−1 = tan−1 = 30°
γ φ' 1 .0
tan δ tan 20°

δ d = tan−1 = tan−1 = 20°
γ φ' 1 .0
Kah = Ka cos δ = ____
⇒ Ka = Kah/cos δ = ____
⇒ Kav = Ka sin δ = ____
Design Example 1 (EC7)
GEO limit state: Sliding
Earth pressure diagrams based on design material parameters
σh = Kah γh
= 0.29 x 18 x 5
= 26.1 kPa
σv = Kav γh
= 0.11 x 18 x 5
= 9.9 kPa
GEO limit state
(ii) Design Actions

(a) Self weight of the wall
Consider a unit length of wall.

W1 = b2Hγc x γG;stb = 5 x 0.6 x 24 x 1.0 = 72 kN
W2 = ½ b1Hγc γG;stb = ½ x 3.6 x 5 x 24 x 1.0 = 216 kN
W = W1 + W2 = 72 + 216 = 288 kN
W1
W2
GEO limit state
(ii) Design Actions

(b) Active thrust from soil

1
Pah:d (backfill) = σ hH x γG;dst
2
= (1/2) x 26.1 x 5 x 1.35
σh = Kah γh
= 88.1 kN/m
= 0.29 x 18 x 5
= 26.1 kPa
1
Pav:d (backfill) = σ vH x γG;stb
2
= (1/2) x 9.9 x 5 x 1.0 σv = Kav γh
= 24.75 kN/m = 0.11 x 18 x 5
= 9.9 kPa
GEO limit state (sliding)
(iii) Design Effects of Actions (Sliding)

unfavorable actions is to cause the forward
(a) The effect of the ___________
sliding of the wall.
favorable actions is to mobilize the friction
(b) The effect of the _________
at the base of the wall to resist the sliding.
The driving or destabilizing force = the horizontal active force

pushing against the wall
= Pah:d =
The resisting or stabilizing force = the frictional resistance

along the base of the wall T
= N tan φb
=
=
GEO limit state (sliding)
(iii) Design Effects of Actions (Sliding)
Design resistance = ________
Total horizontal thrust = _______
Stabilizing Effect __ Destabilizing Effect
⇒ GEO limit state for sliding is ________!
Overdesign factor Γ = _____________
GEO limit state (bearing capacity)
(iii) Design Effects of Actions (Bearing Capacity)

The destabilizing moment = Pah:d x z a = 88.1 x 5/3 = 146.8 kNm/m
The stabilizing moment = 72 x 3.9 + 216 x 2.4 + 24.75 x 4.2

= 903.15 kNm/m
Mnet = stabilizing moment – destabilizing moment
=
Note that the vertical resultant N is now considered as a
permanent, unfavorable action.
_____________________
The vertical resulant N = (W + Pav:d ) x γG;dst
=
=
Lever arm l = Mnet / N =

B
The eccentricity e = −l =
2
GEO limit state (bearing capacity)
(iii) Design Effects of Actions (Bearing Capacity)

N 6Ne 422.2 6x 422.2x0.3
Maximum bearing pressure pmax = + = +
B B 2
4 . 2 4 .2 2
Ultimate bearing capacity = 350 kN/m2
Stabilizing Effect __ Destabilizing Effect
⇒ GEO limit state for bearing is ________!
Overdesign factor Γ = _____________
Have to check for GEO limit state (sliding and

bearing), using combination 2 of Design
Approach DA1.
Use Similar Steps for combination 2, but with

the appropriate partial factors from Table 1.
A1 A2 M1 M2 R1 R2 R3
Favourable - - - -
Favourable - - - -
Recap of Learning Objectives
Appreciate the traditional design philosophy

in geotechnical engineering and its
limitations.
Introduction to limit state design philosophy.
Key ideas and concepts behind Eurocode 7.
Able to apply Eurocode 7 principles in the

design of gravity retaining structures.

Application of Eurocode 7 For Earth Retaining Structures

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4.

Application of Eurocode 7 for

Ref: Dr Ian Smith

Key ideas and concepts behind Eurocode 7.

Able to apply Eurocode 7 principles in the

(FS)T = [(Ww + Ws + Pav )cos θb + Pah sin θb ] tan φb

• Different answers from different

• Physical meaning and purpose of

• Is it a factor against uncertainty,

Limit State Design Approach

Load Resistance Value of

• Check that the structure will not fail under

Eurocode 7 is the world’s first

Establish design values of ground

Define limit that must not be

Perform relevant geotechnical analysis

Show, by calculation, that limit will

Representative action Frep Characteristic material property, e.g. φ’, c’

Mulitplied by γF values Divided by γM values

Design action Fd Design material property, e.g. c’d

Design effect of actions Ed Design resistance, Rd

STR— internal failure or excessive deformation of the structure or

GEO— failure or excessive deformation of the ground, in which the

UPL— loss of equilibrium of the structure or the ground due to uplift by

1) Depending on the character of the individual clauses, distinction

9.4 Design and construction considerations (for retaining structures)

There are some special terms used in EC7.

• In the Eurocodes, an ‘action’ is a force which is not a

EQU STR and GEO

Others tables are provided

Combination 1: A1 “+” M1 “+” R1 Singapore NA specifies using

Combination: A1 “+” M1 “+” R2

Combination: (A1* or A2†) “+” M2 “+” R3

*on structural actions

Charts for obtaining Ka and Kp values are

We have seen some of these charts in our

The unit weight of concrete is Backfill

Limit states to consider:

EQU limit state: GEO limit state: GEO limit state:

H=5m x1 PaC (Coulomb)

N (reaction from base)

(i) Design Material Properties

tan δ tan 20°

(i) Design Material Properties

tan δ tan 20°

(a) Self weight of the wall

(b) Active thrust from soil

The overturning moment = Pah:d x z a = 86.6 x 5/3 =

The resisting moment = 64.8 x 3.9 + 194.4 x 2.4 + 20.25 x 4.2

Overdesign factor Γ = ________________

To check for GEO limit state (sliding and

We first consider combination 1.

(i) Design Material Properties

tan δ tan 20°

(ii) Design Actions

(a) Self weight of the wall

Consider a unit length of wall.

(ii) Design Actions

(b) Active thrust from soil

(iii) Design Effects of Actions (Sliding)

The driving or destabilizing force = the horizontal active force

The resisting or stabilizing force = the frictional resistance