AIR POLLUTION CONTROL CONCEPTS

AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
3.1. Concepts of control

3.2. Principles and design of control measures
3.3.Particulates control by gravitational, centrifugal,
filtration, scrubbing, electrostatic precipitation
3.4. Selection criteria for equipment
3.5. Gaseous pollutant control by adsorption,
absorption, condensation, combustion
3.6. Pollution control for specific major industries.
1
Concepts of control
It cannot be fully prevented but can be
controlled.
1. Preventative measures
2. Control measures using equipments.
1. Preventative measures (source control):
• Selection of suitable fuel. (Low sulphur coal in power

plant, using of CNG).
• Modification in industrial process.
• Selection of suitable site and zoning for industrial unit.

2
Concepts of control contd…
[A] Mobile Sources
1. Cleaner/Alternative Fuel:
• Vaporization of Gasoline should be reduced.
• Oxygen containing additives reduce air requirement

e.g., ethanol, MTBE (Hazardous).
– Methanol: (Less photochemically reactive VOC, but emits

HCHO (eye irritant), difficult to start in winters: Can be
overcome by M85 (85% methanol, 15% gasoline)
– Ethanol: GASOHOL (10% ethanol & 90% Gasoline),
– CNG: Low HC, NOx high, inconvenient refueling, leakage
hazard.
– LPG: Propane, NOx high
3
2. Three Way Catalytic Converter

• A three-way catalytic converter has three
simultaneous tasks:
• Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and

oxygen.
• Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide.
• Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) to

carbon dioxide and water.
4
[B] Stationary Sources
Pre-combustion Control
– Switching to less sulphur and nitrogen fuel
Combustion Control
– Improving the combustion process
– New burners to reduce NOx
– New Fluidized bed boilers
– Integrated gasification combined cycle
Post-Combustion Control
– Particulate collection devices
– Flue gas desulphurization
5
2. Control measures
• When source control not possible some measures
taken to prevent pollution.
• Collecting pollutants by using equipments.
• Destroying the pollutants by thermal or catalytic

combustion.
• Changing the pollutants to less toxic form.
• By releasing the pollutants through tall chimneys for

greater dispersion.
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Preventation by laws
7
Principles and design of control measures
Source Control Technology
• Air quality management sets the tools to control air pollutant
emissions.
• Control measurements describes the equipment, processes or

actions used to reduce air pollution.
• The extent of pollution reduction varies among technologies

and measures.
• The selection of control technologies depends on

environmental, engineering, economic factors and pollutant
type.
10
Principles and design of control measures contd…
1. Settling Chambers
• Settling chambers use the force of gravity to remove solid
particles.
• The gas stream enters a chamber where the velocity of the
gas is reduced.
• Large particles drop out of the gas and are recollected in
hoppers.
• Because settling chambers are effective in removing only
larger particles, they are used in conjunction with a more
efficient control device.
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2. Cyclones
• The general principle of inertia separation is that the particulate-

laden gas is forced to change direction.
• As gas changes direction, the inertia of the particles causes them to

continue in the original direction and be separated from the gas
stream.
• The walls of the cyclone narrow toward the bottom of the unit,
allowing the particles to be collected in a hopper.
• The cleaner air leaves the cyclone through the top of the chamber,
flowing upward in a spiral vortex, formed within a downward
moving spiral.
12
• Cyclones are efficient in removing large particles but are not

as efficient with smaller particles. For this reason, they are
used with other particulate control devices.
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• The difference in velocity and pressure resulting

from the constriction causes the particles and
water to mix and combine.
• The reduced velocity at the expanded section of

the throat allows the droplets of water containing
the particles to drop out of the gas stream.
• Venturi scrubbers are effective in removing small

particles, with removal efficiencies of up to 99%.
14
3. Venturi scrubbers
• Venturi scrubbers use a liquid stream to
remove solid particles.
• In the venturi scrubber, gas laden with

particulate matter passes through a short tube
with flared ends and a constricted middle.
• This constriction causes the gas stream to

speed up when the pressure is increased.
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• One drawback of this device, however, is the

production of wastewater.
• Fabric filters, or baghouses, remove dust from a

gas stream by passing the stream through a porous
fabric. The fabric filter is efficient at removing fine
particles and can exceed efficiencies of 99% in
most applications.
• The selection of the fiber material and fabric

construction is important to baghouse
performance.
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• The fiber material from which the fabric is made must have
adequate strength characteristics at the maximum gas
temperature expected and adequate chemical compatibility
with both the gas and the collected dust.
• One disadvantage of the fabric filter is that high-temperature

gases often have to be cooled before contacting the filter
medium.
17
4. Electrostatic Precipitators (ESPs)

• An ESP is a particle control device that uses electrical forces
to move the particles out of the flowing gas stream and
onto collector plates.
• The ESP places electrical charges on the particles, causing

them to be attracted to oppositely charged metal plates
located in the precipitator.
• The particles are removed from the plates by "rapping" and

collected in a hopper located below the unit.
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• The removal efficiencies for

ESPs are highly variable;
• however, for very small

particles alone, the removal
efficiency is about 99%.
• Electrostatic precipitators are

not only used in utility
applications but also other
industries (for other exhaust
gas particles) such as cement
(dust), pulp & paper (salt cake
& lime dust), petrochemicals
(sulfuric acid mist), and steel
(dust & fumes).
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Particulates controlling equipments
1. Gravitational settling chamber
• Gravitational settling chambers are generally used to
remove large, abrasive particles (usually >50 μm) from
gas stream.
• It provides enlarged areas to minimize horizontal

velocities and allow time for the vertical velocity to
carry the particle to the floor.
• The usual velocity through settling chambers is

between 0.5 to 2.5 m/s.
• Velocity of flue gas reduced in large chamber.

• Particles settle under gravitational force.
20
particulates controlling equipment contd…
Design of a gravitational settling

chamber
• If we assume that Stokes law
applies we can derive a formula
for calculating theminimum
diameter of a particle collected
at 100% theoretical efficiency
in a chamber of length
• Where vt=terminal settling

velocity, m/s
21
Advantages
• Low initial cost.
• Easy to design.
• Low pressure drop.
• Low maintenance cost.
• Dry and continuous disposal of solid particulates.
Disadvantages
• Require large space.
• Less collection efficiency.
• Only larger size particles can be collected.
22
2. Cyclone separator
• Centrifugal force is utilized to separate the particulate
matter.
• It can remove 10 to 50 μm particle size.
• Used mostly in industries.
23
• A cyclone separator consists of a cylindrical shell, conical
base, dust hopper and an inlet where the dust-laden gas
enters tangentially.
• Under the influence of the centrifugal force generated by

the spinning gas, the solid particles are thrown to the wall
of the cyclone as the gas spirals upward at the inside of the
cone.
• The particles slide down the walls of the cone and into the
hopper. The operating efficiency of a cyclone depends on
the magnitude of the centrifugal force exerted on the
particles.
• The greater the centrifugal force, the greater the spreading

efficiency.
24
Advantages
• Low initial cost.
• Require less floor area.
• Simple construction and maintenance.
• Can handle large volume of gas at high temp.
Disadvantages
• Requires large head room.
• Less efficiency for smaller particles (<10μm).
• Sensitive to variable dust load and flow rate.
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3. Electrostatic precipitators
• The electrostatic precipitator is one of the most
widely used device for controlling particulate
emission at industrial installations ranging from
power plants, cement and paper mills to oil
refineries.
• Electrostatic precipitator is a physical process by

which particles suspended in gas stream are charged
electrically and, under the influence of the electrical
field, separated from the gas stream.
• Works on the principle of electrical charging of

particulate Matter (-ve) and collecting it in a +ve
charged surface.
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• The precipitator system consists of a positively charged

collecting surface and a high voltage discharge
electrode wire suspended from an insulator at the top
and held in passion by weight t the bottom.
• At a very high DC voltage, of the order of 50kV, a

corona discharge occurs close to the negative
electrode, setting up an electric field between the
emitted and the grounded surface.
• 99% efficiency.
• Can remove particle size range of 0.1 μm to 1 μm.

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• The particle laden gas enters near the bottom and flows
upward.
• The gas close to the negative electrode is, thus, ionized upon
passing through the corona.
• As the negative ions and electrons migrate toward the

grounded surface, they in turn charge the passing particles.
• The electrostatic field then draws the particles to the collector
surface where they are deposited.
• Periodically, the collected particles must be removed from the

collecting surface.
• This is done by rapping or vibrating the collector to dislodge
the particles. The dislodged particles drop below the electrical
treatment zone and are collected for ultimate disposal.
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29
Advantages
• High collection efficiency.
• Particles may be collected dry or wet.
• Can be operated at high temp. (300-450˚c).
• Maintenance is normal.
• Few moving parts.
Disadvantages
• High initial cost.
• Require high voltage.
• Collection efficiency reduce with time.
• Space requirement is more.
• Possible of explosion during collection of combustible
gases or particulates.
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4. Fabric filters
• Flue gas is allowed to
pass through a woven
Fabric, which filters out
Particulate matter.
• Small particles are
retained on the fabric.
• Remove particles up to 1 μm.
• Its efficiency up to 99%.
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• In a fabric filter system, the particulate-laden gas

stream passes through a woven or felted fabric
that filters out the particulate matter and allows
the gas to pass through.
• Small particles are initially retained on the fabric

by direct interception, inertial impaction,
diffusion, electrostatic attraction, and
gravitational settling.
• After a dust mat has formed on the fabric, more

efficient collection of submicron particle is
accomplished by sieving.
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• Filter bags usually tubular or envelope-shaped, are capable

of removing most particles as small as 0.5μm and will
remove substantial quantity of particles as small as 0.1μm.
• Filter bags ranging from 1.8 to 9 m long, can be utilized in a

bag house filter arrangement.
• As particulates build up on the inside surface of the bags,
the pressure drop increases.
• Before the pressure drop becomes too severe, the bag

must be relieved of some of the particulate layer.
• Fabric filter can be cleaned intermittently, periodically, or

continuously
33
Fabric and Fibre Characteristics:
• Fabric filter may be classified according to filtering media:
• Woven fabric or felt cloth.
• Woven fabrics have a definite long range repeating pattern

and have considerable porosity in the direction of gas flow.
These open spaces must be bridged by impaction of
interception to form a true filtering surface.
• Felted cloth consists of randomly oriented fibres,

compressed into a mat and needled to some loosely woven
backing material to improve mechanical strength.
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• The choice of fabric fiber is based primarily on operating

temperature and the corrosiveness or abrasiveness of the
particle.
• Cotton is the least expensive fiber, and is preferably used in

low temperature dust collection service.
• Silicon coated glass fiber cloth is commonly employed in

high temperature applications.
• The glass fibre must be lubricated to prevent abrasion.
• All fibre may be applied to the manufacture of woven and

felt type fabrics.
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• Fabric filter systems typically
consist of a tubular bag or an
envelope, suspended or mounted
in such manner that the collected
particles fall into hopper when
dislodged from fabric.
• The structure in which the bags
are hanged is known as a bag-
house.
• Generally, particle laden gas
enters the bag at the bottom and
passes through the fabric while
the particles are deposited on the
inside of the bag.
• The cleaning is accomplished by
shaking at fixed intervals of time. 36
Advantages
• Higher collection efficiency for smaller than
10 μm particle size.
• Performance decrease becomes visible, giving
prewarning.
• Normal power consumption.
Disadvantages
• High temp. gases need to be cooled.
• High maintenance and fabric replacement cost.
• Large size equipment.
• Fabric is liable to chemical attack.
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5. Wet gas Scrubbers
• Wet scrubber removes particulate matter from gas
streams by incorporating the particles into liquid
droplets directly on contact.
• The basic function of wet scrubber is to provide

contact between the scrubbing liquid, usually water
and, the particulate to be collected.
• This contact can be achieved in a variety of ways as the

particles are confronted with so-called impaction
target, which can be wetted surface as in packed
scrubbers or individual droplets as in spray scrubbers
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• The basic collection mechanism is the same as in
filters: inertial impaction, interception and
diffusion.
• Generally, impaction and interception are the

predominant mechanism for particles of
diameter above 3 μm, and for particle of
diameter below 0.3μm diffusion begins to
prevail.
• There are many scrubber designs presently

available where the contact between the
scrubbing liquid and the particles is achieved in a
variety of ways.
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• The major types are:

1. plate scrubber,
2. packed-bed scrubber,
3. spray scrubber,
4. venturi scrubber,
5. cyclone scrubber,
6. baffle scrubber,
7. impingement-entrainment scrubber,
8. fluidized-bed scrubber.
40
[A] Plate scrubber

• It contains a vertical tower containing one or more
horizontal plates (trays).
• Gas enters the bottom of the tower and must pass

through perforations in each plate as it flows
countercurrent to the descending water stream.
• Collection efficiency increases as the diameter of the
perforations decreases.
• A cut diameter, that collected with 50% efficiency, of

about μm aerodynamic diameter can be achieved with
3.2-mm-diameter holes in a sieve plate.
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[B] Packed –bed scrubber
• Operates similarly to
packed-bed gas absorber.
• Collection efficiency
increases as packing size
decreases.
• A cut diameter of 1.5 μm

aerodynamic diameter can
be attained in columns
packed with 2.5 cm
elements.
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[C] Spray scrubber
• Particles are collected by liquid drops that have been atomized
by spray nozzles.
• Horizontal and vertical gas flows are used, as well as spray

introduced co-current, countercurrent, or cross-flow to the gas.
• Collection efficiency depends on droplet size, gas velocity,

liquid/gas ratio, and droplet trajectories.
• For droplets falling at their terminal velocity, the optimum

droplet diameter for fine particle collection lies in the range
100 to 500 μm.
• Gravitational settling scrubbers can achieve cut diameters of

about 2.0 μm. The liquid/gas ratio is in the range 0.001 to 0.01
m3/ m3 of gas treated.
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[D] Venturi scrubber
• A moving gas stream is used to atomize liquids into

droplets. High gas velocities (60 to 120 m/s) lead to
high relative velocities between gas and particles and
promote collection.
[E] Cyclone scrubber

• Drops can be introduced into the gas stream of a
cyclone to collect particles.
• The spray can be directed outward from a central

manifold or inward from the collector wall.
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Spray tower
Cyclone scrubber
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[F] Impingement-Entrainment Scrubber:
• The gas is forced to impinge on a liquid surface to reach a
gas exit. Some of the liquid atomizes into drops that are
entrained by the gas.
• The gas exit is designed so as to minimize the loss of

entrained droplets.
[G] Fluidized-bed scrubber

• A zone of fluidized packing is provided where gas and liquid
can mix intimately.
• Gas passes upward through the packing, while liquid is

sprayed up from the bottom and/or flows down over the
top of the fluidized layer of packing
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Advantages
• Simultaneously remove particulates and gaseous
pollutants.
• Hot gases can be cooled down.
• Corrosive gases can be recovered and neutralize.
Disadvantages
• Lot of waste waters produced.
• Poses freezing problem in cold countries.
• Maintenance cost is high when corrosive
materials are collected.
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Selection criteria for equipment
• There are a number of factors to
be considered prior to selecting a particular in
air pollution control equipment.
• In generally, they can group into
three categories:
1. environmental,
2. engineering, and
3. economic
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Selection criteria for equipment contd…
(1) Environmental
• Equipment location, availability space, ambient conditions,
availability of adequate utilities and ancillary system facilities.
• Maximum allowable emissions (air pollution regulation)
• Contribution of air pollution control system to wastewater
and solid waste.
• Contribution of air pollution control system to plant noise
levels.
(2) Engineering
• Design and performance characteristics of the particular
control system(size and weight , pressure drop, reliability and
dependability , temperature limitation, maintenance
requirement
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Selection criteria for equipment contd…
• Gas stream characteristics (volume . flow rate ,

temperature , pressure , humidity .composition,
viscosity m density , reactivity ,corrosiveness, and
toxicity )
• Contaminant characteristics ( physical and chemical

properties , concentration, particulate shape and size
distribution in the case of particulates)
(3) Economic
• Capital cost (equipment, installation, engineering, etc.)
• Operating cost (utilities, maintenance, etc.)
• Expected equipment lifetime and salvage value

50
Control of gaseous pollutants from stationary
sources
• The most common method for controlling gaseous
pollutants is the addition of add-on control devices to
recover or destroy a pollutant.
• There are four commonly used control technologies for

gaseous pollutants:
- Absorption,
- Adsorption,
- Condensation, and
- Incineration (combustion)
51
Control of gaseous pollutants contd…
1. Absorption
• The removal of one or more selected components from a gas

mixture by absorption is probably the most important
operation in the control of gaseous pollutant emissions.
• Absorption is a process in which a gaseous pollutant is

dissolved in a liquid.
• As the gas stream passes through the liquid, the liquid

absorbs the gas, in much the same way that sugar is absorbed
in a glass of water when stirred.
• Absorbers are often referred to as scrubbers, and there are

various types of absorption equipment.
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• The principal types of gas

absorption equipment
include spray towers, packed
columns, spray chambers, and
venture scrubbers.
• In general, absorbers can

achieve removal efficiencies
grater than 95 percent.
• One potential problem with

absorption is the generation
of waste-water, which
converts an air pollution
problem to a water pollution
problem.
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2. Adsorption
• When a gas or vapor is brought into contact with a solid, part
of it is taken up by the solid.
• The molecules that disappear from the gas either enter the
inside of the solid, or remain on the outside attached to the
surface. The former phenomenon is termed absorption (or
dissolution) and the latter adsorption.
• The most common industrial adsorbents are activated

carbon, silica gel, and alumina, because they have enormous
surface areas per unit weight.
• Activated carbon is the universal standard for purification

and removal of trace organic contaminants from liquid and
vapor streams.
54
• Carbon adsorption systems are either regenerative or non-

regenerative.
- Regenerative system usually contains more than one carbon

bed. As one bed actively removes pollutants, another bed is being
regenerated for future use.
- Non-regenerative systems have thinner beds of activated

carbon. In a non-regenerative adsorber, the spent carbon is
disposed of when it becomes saturated with the pollutant.
55
3. Condensation
• Condensation is the process of converting a gas or
vapor to liquid. Any gas can be reduced to a liquid by
lowering its temperature and/or increasing its
pressure.
• Condensers are typically used as pretreatment devices.
• They can be used ahead of absorbers, absorbers, and

incinerators to reduce the total gas volume to be
treated by more expensive control equipment.
• Condensers used for pollution control are contact

condensers and surface condensers.
56
• In a contact condenser, the gas comes into
contact with cold liquid.
• In a surface condenser, the gas contacts a cooled

surface in which cooled liquid or gas is circulated,
such as the outside of the tube.
• Removal efficiencies of condensers typically

range from 50 percent to more than 95 percent,
depending on design and applications.
57
4. Direct combustor
• Direct combustor is a device in which air and all the
combustible waste gases react at the burner. Complete
combustion must occur instantaneously since there is
no residence chamber.
• A flare can be used to control almost any emission

stream containing volatile organic compounds.
• Studies conducted by EPA have shown that the

destruction efficiency of a flare is about 98 percent.
58
• In thermal incinerators the combustible waste gases pass

over or around a burner flame into a residence chamber
where oxidation of the waste gases is completed.
• Thermal incinerators can destroy gaseous pollutants at

efficiencies of greater than 99 percent when operated
correctly.
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• Catalytic incinerators are very similar to thermal incinerators.
The main difference is that after passing through the flame
area, the gases pass over a catalyst bed.
• A catalyst promotes oxidation at lower temperatures, thereby

reducing fuel costs. Destruction efficiencies greater than 95
percent are possible using a catalytic incinerator.
60
Pollution control for specific major industries
• Environment pollution accompanies each stage of any
industrial process, starting with raw material and fuel
production and ending with waste treatment.
• Some of the industries are

1. Petroleum Industry
2. Energy Production from Fossil Fuels
3. Inorganic chemical technology
4. Cement Industry
5. Organic Chemical Industry
6. Pulp and Paper
7. Iron and steel industry
8. Nonferrous metal industry
61
Pollution control for specific major industries contd…
1. Petroleum Industry
• The petroleum industry includes various activities to
explore for, produce, and transport oil and petroleum
products worldwide.
• Besides the production of fuels and lubricating oils,

large refineries integrated with petrochemical plants
may produce many different synthetic derivatives—
from pure chemicals to additives for fuels and
lubricants, synthetic polymers, elastomers, etc.
• However, the world petroleum industry produces

around 67 million tons of waste annually.
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A. Pollution from Exploration and Production of Crude

oil and Natural Gas:
• Air pollution from the production of oil and gas is by
volatile hydrocarbons in fugitive emissions (mainly
methane), as well as emissions from storage and
manipulation.
• Exhaust combustion emissions are generated from

compressors, pumps, drill engines and engines of
servicing vehicles. Gas flaring is the major source of
combustion emissions.
• The major source of secondary emissions is the water

separated from the natural gas and crude oil.
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B. Pollution from Storage, Manipulation, and Transportation of
Petroleum Liquids:
• Air emissions from storage and transportation are mainly
evaporative hydrocarbon emissions from manipulation—
loading/unloading—and transit losses from storage tanks and
tanks of transporting vehicles.
• Ballast water from transporting vessels and especially ocean-

going tankers is the major source of secondary emissions, but
also a major source of marine water pollution.
• Another source polluting underground water is leaking liquids

from pipelines.
• Solid waste generated in storage and transportation is mainly
sludge from the storage and transportation tanks.
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C. Estimation of Pollution and Control Technologies for
Petroleum Processing
1. Estimation of air pollution:
Emissions to air from the petrochemical industry
are usually presented as methane (CH4), carbon
dioxide (CO2) and non-methane volatile organic
compounds (VOCs).
1. Storage and handling emissions can be measured
directly but are most often calculated.
• The most widely used control technologies include
floating roofs, submerged filling, balancing the
vapors from all tanks and collecting them in a
separate tank, and condensation of excess vapors.
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2. Combustion emissions can be measured but on a

larger scale are usually calculated from the amount and
type of fuel burned in the particular burner.
• Typical control techniques are concentrated on

improving the efficiency of combustion and
diminishing heat losses.
• These include new types of burners, flue gases heat

recovery, introducing new processes with lower energy
consumption, etc.
• Flaring is used to control pressure and remove gas,

which cannot be otherwise used.
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3. Fugitive emissions (equipment leak

emissions) are the most difficult to characterize,
because they come from an enormous amount
of point sources.
The control technologies include inspection and

maintenance programs, and change of
equipment with more advanced seal design
modifications.
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4. Process emissions:
• Gas streams from all refinery processes are
usually passed through gas treatment and sulfur
recovery units to remove sulfur and recycle them
to fuel gas.
• Particulates are captured in electrostatic

precipitators or cyclone separators.
• Wet scrubbers may be used for catalytic cracking

units in the future in order to eliminate catalyst
fines.
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• The water systems of a production or

processing site (tanks, ponds, sewer system
drains, are the main source of secondary
emissions.
• The main options for their control are

diminishing the amount of wastewater and
solid wastes and keeping wastewater and solid
wastes in closed systems in order to control
their release.
69
2. Energy Production from Fossil Fuels

• Power production from burning fossil fuel led
to extremely severe pollution of air, water and
soil, through greenhouse gases and by
damaging the land.
• Power generation is the most powerful source

of emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides, non-comparable with any other
industry.
70
a. Production, transportation and pre-combustion processing of
fossil fuel and their contribution to environmental pollution:
• Coal is a major source of energy for power

stations. Almost 40% of the world's electricity is
generated from coal—more than twice the
proportion from any other fuel.
• Coal causes environmental problems associated

with the release of particulate matter (PM), soot,
volatile organic compounds, carbon monoxide,
and sulfur and nitrogen oxides.
71
b. Coal mining, its impact on environment and technologies for
pollution control
• The environmental problems of power generation from coal
combustion begin with its mining.
• Coal mining operations are sources of air pollution in the form of

methane, coal or rock dust.
• Water pollutants are suspended and dissolved solids, sulfates,

acidity and alkalinity.
• Acidity derives from oxidation of coal pyrites by the oxygen

dissolved in water or contained in the pumped air.
• The overall effect of these reactions is the conversion of sulfur

compounds into sulfuric acid.
• Back filling, grading, restoration, re-vegetation and post mining land

uses are needed after surface mining.
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C. Pre-combustion cleaning
• Pre-combustion cleaning is used to reduce the mineral
and ash content in coal.
• Froth flotation is used for cleaning the fine classes of

coal. Desulfurization, even partial, is a very important
step in the pre-combustion cleaning of coal.
• Pyrites are removed (within 30-50%) by flotation.

Distillate oils have negligible nitrogen and ash content
with sulfur less than 0.3% (wt.). Residual oils contain
significant quantities of metals, nitrogen, and sulfur.
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• Waste oils include used crankcase oils from

automobiles and trucks, used industrial lubricating oils,
and other spent industrial oils (i.e., heat transfer
fluids).
• High levels of halogenated solvents are also often

found in waste oil. The most common pre-treatment
scheme for waste oil uses sedimentation followed by
filtration.
• Blending of waste oil with a virgin fuel oil is practiced

frequently and has the same effect as some of the pre-
treatment processes.
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d. Power generation from fossil fuels

• There are three main designs of combustion systems in
which coal and air can be reacted, classified as fixed
bed system, entrained (or suspended) bed system and
fluidized bed system.
• The latter is characterized by sufficiently high velocity

of the oxidizing gas to support or “float” the particles
without carrying them out of the bed.
• A pressurized fluidized bed combustor (PFBC) system

can drive both a gas turbine and a steam turbine. This
arrangement is known as a combined cycle.
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• Coal gasification is one of the clean systems of power

generation because sulfur, nitrogen compounds and
particulates are removed before the fuel is burned.
• In an integrated combined cycle with coal gasification

coupled with an advanced gas turbine, gas can be
cleaned of more than 99% of its sulfur and ash and
90% of its nitrogen pollutants.
• The gas is burned in the gas turbine. Exhaust heat is

used to produce steam for steam turbines. Coal
gasification can also take place in situ.
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3. Cement Production from lime powder
• Besides steel and power the cement production
of India is recognized as one of the most
important industries.
• Cement industry is one of the 17 most polluting

industries listed by the central pollution control
board.
• It is the major source of particulate matter, SOx,

NOx and CO2 emissions
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• Cement dust contains heavy metals like

chromium, nickel, cobalt, lead and mercury
pollutants hazardous to the biotic environment
with impact for vegetation, human health, animal
health and ecosystem.
• India is the second largest producer of cement

after China.
• The production process for cement consists of

drying, grinding and mixing limestone and
additives like bauxite and iron ore into a powder
known as “raw meal”.
78
• The raw meal is then heated and burned in a

pre-heater and kiln and then cooled in an air
cooling system to form a semi-finished
product, known as a clinker.
• Clinker (95%) is cooled by air and

subsequently ground with gypsum (5%) to
form Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC).
79
• Three criteria air pollutants are released to the

air during cement manufacturing which
includes particulate matter (PM), nitrogen
oxides (NOX) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) which
can be categorized into two headings:
1) Particulates
2) Gaseous pollutants
80
Particulates :
• Particulate air pollution is a complex mixture of
small and large particles of varying origin and
chemical composition.
• Larger particles, ranging from about 2.5 microns

to 100 microns in diameter, usually comprise
smoke and dust from industrial processes,
agriculture, construction, and road traffic, as well
as plant pollen and other natural sources.
81
• The health effects of particulates are strongly

linked to particle size.
• Small particles, such as those from fossil fuel

combustion, are likely to be most dangerous,
because they can be inhaled deeply into the
lungs, settling in areas where the body’s
natural clearance mechanisms can’t remove
them.
82
S. No Particulate type Diameter

1 Cement Dust 80-90%
greater than 30 µm
2 Motor Vehicles 0.01-5000 µm
3 ` Urban road dust 3-100 µm
4 Fly Ash 1-2000 µm
5 Coal Dust 3-100 µm
83
Gaseous pollutants
• Gaseous pollutants have major negative impacts
on health.
• They also play an important role in environmental

changes in atmospheric chemistry.
• SO2 and NO2 form acids through different

chemical reactions in the atmosphere, and these
acids are subsequently deposited on land and
ocean surfaces as acid rain.
84
• It is anticipated that the increasing load of
atmosphere
– sulfur dioxide (SO2),
– nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
– carbon dioxide (CO2),
– carbon monoxide (CO), and
– ozone (O3)
will contribute to global climate change,
consequently, it is necessary to quantify the
emission in the very near future.
85
Available air pollution control technologies and
equipment
• Controlling particulate emissions from sources other
than the kiln usually entails capturing the dust using a
hood or other partial enclosure and transporting it
through a series of ducts to the collectors.
• The type of dust collector used is based on factors such

as particle size, dust loading, flow rate, moisture
content, and gas temperature.
• The best disposal method for collected dust is to send

it through the kiln creating the clinker.
86
• However, if the alkali content of the raw materials
is too high, the dust must be discarded, or must
be pre-treated before introduction into the kiln.
• The highest allowable alkali content is 0.6% (as

sodium oxide).
1. Flexible Pulse Jet Filters

• Raw gas enters the filter compartments via inlet
ducts equipped with guide vanes that distribute
the gas uniformly across the filter bags.
87
• This arrangement creates a downward gravimetric gas flow
along the filter bags, precipitating the dust into the hopper
below.
• In contrast to filters where raw gas enters through dampers

located in the hoppers, the design of the flexible pulse jet
filter gas distribution system prevents the creation of high
can velocities (or vertical, upward gas flow).
• High gas velocities prevent fine particulate from settling

into the hoppers during on-line cleaning cycles.
• The raw gas is filtered by the fabric from the outside, and
the clean gas exits at the top of the bag. The fan is located
on the clean gas outlet side of the filter
88
89
2. Ordinary Bag House Method
• This is a filtration method and is one of the oldest
and most efficient methods of particulate control.
• The most commonly-used filtration device is

known as a bag-house and consists of fabric bags
through which the air stream is directed as
shown in Figure.
• Particles become trapped in the fibre mesh on

the fabric bags, as well as the filter cake which is
subsequently formed
90
91

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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

3.1. Concepts of control

1. Preventative measures (source control):

• Selection of suitable fuel. (Low sulphur coal in power

• Modification in industrial process.

• Selection of suitable site and zoning for industrial unit.

• Oxygen containing additives reduce air requirement

– Methanol: (Less photochemically reactive VOC, but emits

2. Three Way Catalytic Converter

• Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and

• Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide.

• Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) to

• Collecting pollutants by using equipments.

• Destroying the pollutants by thermal or catalytic

• Changing the pollutants to less toxic form.

• By releasing the pollutants through tall chimneys for

• Control measurements describes the equipment, processes or

• The extent of pollution reduction varies among technologies

• The selection of control technologies depends on

• The general principle of inertia separation is that the particulate-

• As gas changes direction, the inertia of the particles causes them to

• Cyclones are efficient in removing large particles but are not

• The difference in velocity and pressure resulting

• The reduced velocity at the expanded section of

• Venturi scrubbers are effective in removing small

• In the venturi scrubber, gas laden with

• This constriction causes the gas stream to

• One drawback of this device, however, is the

• Fabric filters, or baghouses, remove dust from a

• The selection of the fiber material and fabric

• One disadvantage of the fabric filter is that high-temperature

4. Electrostatic Precipitators (ESPs)

• The ESP places electrical charges on the particles, causing

• The particles are removed from the plates by "rapping" and

• The removal efficiencies for

• however, for very small

• Electrostatic precipitators are

• It provides enlarged areas to minimize horizontal

• The usual velocity through settling chambers is

• Velocity of flue gas reduced in large chamber.

Design of a gravitational settling

• Where vt=terminal settling

• Under the influence of the centrifugal force generated by

• The greater the centrifugal force, the greater the spreading

• Electrostatic precipitator is a physical process by

• Works on the principle of electrical charging of

• The precipitator system consists of a positively charged

• At a very high DC voltage, of the order of 50kV, a

• Can remove particle size range of 0.1 μm to 1 μm.

• As the negative ions and electrons migrate toward the

• Periodically, the collected particles must be removed from the

• In a fabric filter system, the particulate-laden gas

• Small particles are initially retained on the fabric

• After a dust mat has formed on the fabric, more

• Filter bags usually tubular or envelope-shaped, are capable

• Filter bags ranging from 1.8 to 9 m long, can be utilized in a

• Before the pressure drop becomes too severe, the bag

• Fabric filter can be cleaned intermittently, periodically, or

• Woven fabric or felt cloth.

• Woven fabrics have a definite long range repeating pattern

• Felted cloth consists of randomly oriented fibres,

• The choice of fabric fiber is based primarily on operating

• Cotton is the least expensive fiber, and is preferably used in