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Constructivism is not a new concept and its roots can be traced to the work of 18th
century philosopher Giambattista Vico, who held that humans can only clearly
understand what they have constructed themselves. He commented that “one only
knows something if one can explain it”. Another philosopher Immanuel Kant further
elaborated on this idea by asserting that human beings are not passive recipients of
information. More recent advocates of constructivism include John Dewey, Jean Piaget,
Jerome Bruner, von Glaserfeld and Vygotsky.
• Piaget (1930): The growth of human thought occurs through the construction
of knowledge through assimilation and accommodation. Knowledge is not
something that individuals gain from the outside rather it is something that they
gain through their own active experiences, their own acting on the world
physically or mentally to make sense of it.
Poison!
Bites!
Kills!
Snake Encounter!!!
What is your initial reaction when you encounter a snake? For most people
the initial reaction is fear and to run away, even though they have not seen a snake
in real-life. For the slightly braver ones, they might come back with a stick or
changkul to kill the snake. Why do we fear snakes? Why do we have the urge to
kill the creature?
We have constructed the concept of fear of snakes based on our prior knowledge
of snakes. This prior knowledge could have been built from what we saw on TV, the
movies or stories we have heard about snakes. The concept of fear is not in the snake
but created by us based on our belief that snakes are evil and cold-blooded killers
capable of dealing quick death in a single venomous strike.
When we encounter new information, we relate it to our previous ideas and
experiences. We are constantly doing something to the new information and what we
already know and in the process create of our own knowledge. To do this, we always
are asking questions, exploring and assessing what we know. According to the
constructivist perspective, knowledge cannot be imposed or transferred intact from the
mind of the knower to the mind of another (see Figure 5.2). If this be the case than
learning and teaching cannot be synonymous. Even if we teach very well, students may
not learn unless they have constructed their own knowledge. By reflecting on our
experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us
generates our own "rules" and "mental models," which we use to make sense of our
experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models
to accommodate new experiences.
Socrates said;
‘I only wish that wisdom were the kind of
thing one could share by sitting next to
someone – if it flowed, for instance, from
the one that was full to the one that was
empty, like the water in two cups finding
its level through a piece of worsted’
(Symposium, 175d).
5.1 ACTIVITY
“Even if we teach very well, students may not learn unless
they have constructed their own knowledge”
a) To what extent do you agree with the above statement?
b) Comment on the statement by Socrates in Figure 5.1.
But I
only see
Why is Because
a You’re right
there a it just
rainbow there must be
rainbow rained.
when it sun.
? is
1 2
SELF-CHECK
a) What is social constructivism?
b) Explain the zone of proximal development. How would you
apply it in teaching?
5.1
a) What is constructivism?
b) How constructivism different from behaviourism?
You would have observed that at any construction of a high rise building, a
series of structures called scaffolding are erected. This
is to which permit workers to carry out their work in
high places. When the building is complete, the
scaffolding is removed. Scaffolding instruction
originated from Vygotsky’s ideas on learning. The
term has become a useful metaphor to describe how
teachers help students in learning. Generally, teachers
would focus on the ZPD. Teaching or instruction that
falls outside the zone (above or below a student's ZPD
will not contribute to the intellectual development of
students. Why? It would be pointless to focus on ‘what
learners can do’ or ‘what learners cannot yet do’. So,
the most logical step would be for the teacher to
mediate between learner’s actual development and
Figure 5.4. Teacher potential development; i.e. the ZPD.
scaffolding students by The teacher should act as a scaffold, providing
constantly challenging them the support necessary for learners to proceed towards
the next stage or level and independently complete the
task (see Figure 5.4). To effectively scaffold a student,
a teacher should stay one step ahead of the student, always challenging him or her to
reach beyond his or her current ability level. The challenge for the teacher, then, is to
find the optimal balance between supporting the student and pushing the student to act
independently. The role of the teacher is not teaching students how to perform a task,
but to refine their thinking through engagement and enhancing their performance. The
teacher continually adjusts the level and amount of help in response to the learner’s
level of performance. The purpose of scaffolding is to instil the skills necessary for
independent learning in the future. To effectively scaffold students within their ZPDs,
a teacher could also model the behaviours needed. For example;
• The teacher could model a particular skill that students are weak in
• Students imitate the teacher’s behaviour in performing the skill
• Students practice the skill until it is mastered by all in the classroom.
Scaffolding Activities
• Motivating learners to be interested in the task
• Simplify the task to make it more manageable and achievable
• Keep students on task by focusing on the goals and the path to choose
• Indicate the differences between the learner’s work and the desired standard
• Reduce confusion, frustration and risk by providing clear instructions towards meeting
expectations
• Model the skills required
[source: adaptation of Bransford, J. Brown, A. & Cocking, R,. 2000; McKenzie, J. 2000]
SELF-CHECK
a) How do you scaffold instruction?
b) What are some benefits of scaffolding instruction?
c) Is scaffolding the same as giving tuition? Explain
5.5 CONSTRUCTIVISM APPLIED TO TEACHING
In Figure 5.5, the teacher is talking about Francis Light and the opening of
Penang. The learner is constructing his own meaning or conception of the information
presented about ‘Penang’. Most probably, the teacher is not aware of the learner’s own
construction of meaning. If we accept the constructivist theory of learning, teachers
have to accept that there is no such thing as knowledge “out there” that is independent
of the learner, but only knowledge learners construct for themselves as they learn. This
may be very much different from what teachers usually do in the classroom. The
constructivist position requires that teachers provide learners with the opportunity to
interact with the information presented and allow them to construct their own meaning
or interpretation of the information. However, the teacher cannot assume that all
learners have the same background knowledge or experiences on which to build new
knowledge. In such situations, the teacher has to design instruction in such a way as to
make the missing connections for learners. In other
5.6 A CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW OF LEARNING
Ernest (1999), Brooks and Brooks (1999) offer the following guiding principles
of constructivism. They argue that when applied to the classroom, the concept of
learning should be viewed differently (see Figure 5.6). Specifically,
• Learning should be viewed an active process in which learners receive
information and constructs meaning out of the information received. The learner
needs to do something, because learning involves the learners engaging with the
world.
• It should be understood that people learn to learn as they learn. In other words,
we learn by constructing meaning which in turn influences further learning. For
example, if we learn about climate of different countries, we are simultaneously
learning the meaning of climate. Each meaning we construct makes us better
able to give meaning to other information which can fit a similar pattern.
• Learning involves language. In other words, the language that we use influences
our learning. Language and learning are inextricably intertwined. It is not
surprising that many people talk to themselves as they learn.
• Learning is a social activity. Our learning is closely related with our connection
with other human beings (our teachers, our peers, our family, etc). Much of
present education is directed towards isolating the learner from social
interaction. It is seen as a one-to-one relationship between the learner and the
material to be learned.
• Learning is contextual. We do not learn facts and theories in isolation, but rather
we learn in relationship to what we know, what we believe, our prejudices and
our fears.
• Learning needs time. It takes time to learn because we need to revisit ideas,
ponder on them, try them out, play with them and use them. For example, an
insight into an idea comes about after long periods of thinking and deliberating.
In short, learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with
the issues around which students are actively trying to construct meaning. Meaning
requires understanding wholes as well as parts. And parts must be understood in the
context of wholes. Therefore, the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not
isolated facts. In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that
students use to perceive the world and the assumptions they make to support those
models. The purpose of learning is for an individual to construct his or her own
meaning, not just memorise the "right" answers and regurgitate someone else's
meaning. Since education is inherently interdisciplinary, the only valuable way to
measure learning is to make the assessment part of the learning process, ensuring it
provides students with information on the quality of their learning.
Commen Questio
t n
Students take
ownership of what is
being studied
SELF-CHECK
A a) How is constructivist teaching different from traditional
teaching?
b) What problems do you foresee in applying constructivist
principles
in the classroom?
In its strict sense, CONSTRUCTIVISM:
ACTIVITY
Comment on the implication of constructivism on the
curriculum, instruction and assessment of your subject
area as stated above.
ACTIVITY
We have all been in a classroom where the teacher
asks question and students’ hands fly up excitedly
because they feel they know the answer. The teacher
then looks around the room and chooses as student
She answers, and the teacher says, “No”. The teacher
then calls on another student who answers and the
teacher says, “Close but not quite”. The teacher then proceeds to all on
a third student who answers and then the teacher replies, “Yes, that is
the right answer!” The teacher has conveyed many messages by
conducting the classroom in this manner. The student now knows that
there is one answer to the teacher’s questions and that they have to
find that one right answer. Another thing is that students now know
that they put themselves at risk if they raise their hand, unless they
are certain that they have the right answer.
• Bransford, J., Brown, A., Cocking, R. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind,
experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
• Brooks, J.G. and M.G. Brooks (1993) In Search Of Understanding: The Case
For Constructivist Classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development, 1993.
• Piaget, J. (1972). The psychology of the child. New York: Basic Books.
• Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Zemelman, S., Daniels, H. and Hyde, A. (1993). Best Practice: New Standards
for Teaching and Learning in America's Schools. Portsmouth: Heinemann.