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Introduction
Manufacturing of Cement:
The calcareous material constitutes about 65 to 75% to provide lime, while the
latter forms 35 to 25% to produce silica; alumina and ferric oxides.
The lime and silica (CAO + SiO2) system provides the cementing properties to the
cement and called the primary oxides. While the alumina and ferric (Al2O3 + Fe2O3)
system does not provide the cementitious properties and provide only the flux (the
medium) to reduce the temperature of burning of CaO + SiO2 and hence called the
secondary oxides.
Abbreviations:
When dealing with the chemistry of cements, some abbreviations are commonly
used and almost standardized:
Table 1: Approximate Oxide Composition Limits of Portland Cements So, there are four
major oxides which constitute 90% of the cement weight:
Oxide Composition
(% by weight of cement)
CaO 60-67
SiO2 17-25
Al2O3 3-8
Fe2O3 0.5-6.0
MgO 0.1-5.5
Na2O + K2O 0.5-1.3
TiO2 0.1-0.4
P2O5 0.1-0.2
SO3 1-3
C Primary oxides
Major oxides
S
90%
A Secondary oxides
F
of these major oxides, only CaO is basic (pH > 7) while the other three are acidic The
minor oxides constitute 10% and form many oxides, some of them exist in marginal
quantities.
These are:
MgO
Na2O
10% K2O minor oxides in addition to gypsum
TiO2
P2O5
During the manufacturing of cement clinker, and at the high temperature of the
kiln, calcium oxide combines with the other acidic components of the raw mix
to form four principal compounds (called phases) making 90% of the clinker
weight:
C3S (Tri-calcium Silicate) = 3CaO.SiO2 C2S (Di-calcium Silicate = 2CaO.SiO2
ferrite) = 4CaO. Al2O3.Fe2O3 The behavior of cement during all times (i.e., in
The term “minor” does not mean less important but less in quantity or proportion.
Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O):
Due to the affinity of C A to sulfate gypsum is added to the clinker to regulate the
i. maximum strength;
ii. minimum shrinkage; and
iii. C3A content
Specifications (both BS and ASTM) indicate that the content of gypsum = 2.5 to
3.0% by cement weight as SO3. Free (Uncombined) Lime (CaO):
All lime should be combined with the acidic oxides. If there is extra lime, it may
react (after the hardening of cement) with water to form Ca(OH)2.
Ca(OH) 2 has more volume than CaO, therefore, expansion occurs thereby
resulting in damage to concrete. As such, the content of free lime (uncombined with
acidic oxides) should be limited.
If the aggregates contain reactive silica, then the concrete will be susceptible to
alkali-silica reaction (ASR)
The content of alkalis is calculated as “Na2O equivalent” and the total alkali
content should be less than 0.60% to prevent ASR.
From the oxide composition, the determination of the content of the four phases
has to be established to predict the behavior of cement.
*Note: In case B, C4AF has a different composition from case A, C 2F may also be
present and is included in the quantity calculated.
Bogue’s equations involve certain assumptions that are not actually satisfied,
however, they are the most widely used because of their simplicity (there are more
accurate techniques i.e., XRD).
Caution:
As shown in the Table, small changes in the oxide compositions will lead to
significant changes in the phase composition of cement. Therefore, extreme care has to
be practiced when determining the phases of cement.
For the Manufacturing of Cement See Figure 1.1 (AM Neville p.5)
Properties of Portland Cement
The quality of a Portland cement is assessed in terms of the following physical properties
determined through the lab. Tests on the cement samples collected in accordance with
ASTM C 183:
1. Fineness
2. Soundness
1. 3. Consistency
1. • Consistency refers to the relative mobility of a freshly mixed
cement paste or mortar or its ability to flow
2. • “Normal or Standard Consistency” value of a cement sample is
used for preparing the pastes for the determination of the setting time,
unsoundness, compressive and tensile strength of the cement
3. • Normal or Standard consistency of cement is determined using the
Vicat’s Apparatus. It is defined as that percentage of water added to form
the past which allows a penetration of 10 ± 1mm of the Vicat plunger
2. 4. Setting Time
1. • This is the term used to describe the stiffening of the cement paste
2. • Setting time is to determine if a cement sets according to the time
limits specified in ASTM C 150
3. • Setting time is determined using either the Vicat apparatus (ASTM
C 191) or a Gillmore needle (ASTM C 266)
4. • “Initial setting time” is the time from the instant at which water is
added to the cement to the instant at which the Vicat’s initial set needle
penetrate to a point 5 mm from the bottom of a special mould. ASTM C
150 prescribes a minimum initial setting time of 60 minutes for Portland
cements
5. • “Final setting time” corresponds to the time at which the Viact’s
final set needle makes an impression on the paste surface but the cutting
edge fails to do so ASTM C 150 prescribes a maximum final setting time
of 10 hours for Portland cements
6. • Gypsum in the cement regulates setting time. Setting time is also
affected by: cement fineness, w/c ratio, and admixtures
3. 5. False Set
1. • Initial and final sets should be distinguished from “false set”
2. • False set is evidenced by a significant loss of plasticity, i.e.
stiffening, without the evolution of much heat shortly after mixing
3. • False set cause no difficulty in placing and handling of concrete if
the concrete is mixed for a longer time than usual or if it is remixed
without additional water before it is transported or placed
4. 6. Compressive Strength
1. • Compressive strength of cement is the most important property
2. • It is determined conducting compression tests on standard 2-inch
mortar cubes in accordance with ASTM C 109
5. 7. Heat of Hydration
1. • It is the quantity of heat (in joules) per gram of un-hydrated cement
evolved upon complete hydration at a given temperature
2. • The temperature at which hydration occurs greatly affects the rate
of heat
development
9. Specific Gravity
Type Name
Type I Normal
Type IA Normal, air entraining
Type II Moderate sulfate resistance
Type IIA Moderate sulfate resistance, air entraining
Type III High early strength
Type IIIA High early strength, air entraining
Type IV Low heat of hydration
Type V High sulfate resistance
Type 1 cement
Type II cement
% • It is used where the rate and amount of heat generated from hydration
must be minimized
% • It develops strength at a slower rate than other cement types
% • It is most suitably used in massive concrete structures, such as large
gravity dams, where the temperature rise resulting from heat generated during
hardening must be minimized to control the concrete cracking
Type V cement
% • These cements have same composition as types 1, II, and III, respectively,
except that small quantities of air-entraining material are inter-ground with the
clinker during manufacture
% • These cements produce concrete with improved resistance to freeze-thaw
action and to scaling caused by chemicals applied for snow and ice removal
% • It has composition same as Type I or Type III cement, except that it has a
white color instead of gray color
% • It is made of selected raw materials containing negligible amounts of iron
and magnesium oxides-the substances that give cement its gray colors
% • It is used primarily for architectural purposes
Masonry Cements
Expansive Cements
% • These cements are primarily used in concrete for shrinkage control
% • ASTM C 845 classifies expansive cements as:
Type E-1(K), Type E-1(M), Type E-1(S)
Type Uses
1. Oil-well cements For sealing oil wells
2. Waterproof Portland cements For reducing capillary water transmission
3. Plastic cements For making plaster and stucco