CHAPTER 6

Commercial Plasticisers
D. L. BUSZARD

6.1 INTRODUCTION

A large number of plasticisers are available to the PVC user and

confusion may be caused not only by the wide diversity of chemical
types but also by the widespread use of trade names. It is hoped that
the following sections will help to clarify the situation.

6.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE

PLASTICISERS

In the past plasticisers have been classified in a number of ways: by

chemical constitution, by compatibility with PVC, i.e. primary,
secondary, etc., by molecular weight or by particular applicational
properties. All these systems have advantages and disadvantages. The
method adopted in this book is primarily a chemical classification.
However, the elements of other means of classification are apparent.
For example, Groups 1-4 are monomeric and Group 5 is polymeric.
Also, Groups 1-3 are largely primary plasticisers, Groups 4-5 are
frequently secondary plasticisers and Group 6 includes extenders. The
classification used is as follows:
Group 1-phthalate plasticisers
Group 2-phosphate plasticisers
Group 3--trimellitate plasticisers
Group 4--low-temperature plasticisers
147

W. V. Titow, PVC Technology

© Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd 1984
148 D. L. Buszard

Group 5-polymeric plasticisers

Group 6-miscellaneous plasticisers: (a) epoxies, (b) chlorinated
paraffins, (c) monoesters, (d) glycol esters, (e) hydrocarbons,
(f) others.

6.3 GROUP CHARACTERISTICS OF MAJOR

PLASTICISER CLASSES

Table 6.1 summarises the major characteristics, including the advan-

tages and disadvantages, of the main types of plasticiser available
commercially. It is intended to provide a convenient means of selecting
the type or class of plasticiser which should be considered for a
particular application.

6.4 SYNONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

There are a number of confusing synonyms and abbreviations in the

plasticiser field, and for convenience the most important are summa-
rised in Table 6.2.
The preferred chemical names and abbreviations are those recom-
mended by ISO 1043-1978(E) or, if not covered by the ISO standard,
those recommended by BS 4589: 1970. It should, however, be noted
that in some cases the preferred names or abbreviations differ between
the two standards. For example, BS 4589: 1970 proposed the prefix
'mixo' to define commercial mixtures formed from primary, branched
chain alcohols (e.g. DIOP, DIDA) since the prefix 'iso' should be
limited by the rules of IUPAC on chemical nomenclature. However,
this prefix (mixo) has not been included in the most recent ISO
standard.
The majority of the more common monomeric plasticisers are now
marketed by most manufacturers under their chemical name or
abbreviation, usually with a trade name prefix. The same products
from different manufacturers would be expected to give similar
performance, although there might be minor differences in raw
materials, process, purity and specification. The following sections
therefore attempt to cover these products in general terms by using
chemical names or abbreviations. Manufacturers' trade names are
referred to only where it will assist in defining the product more
 TABLE 6.1
Characteristics of the Major Types of Plasticisers
Plasticiser
type Particular advantages or areas of usage Disadvantages
C 4 phthalates Rapid gelation, ease of processing Very high volatility normally limits their ap-
plication
C g phthalates Used in the majority of applications not requiring
special properties
Linear phthalates Improved low-temperature properties Poorer electrical properties
DNP, DlDP Lower volatility, improved aqueous extraction re- Less efficient-but may be an advantage in
sistance some applications
DTDP Very low volatility Poor efficiency, expensive
BBP Rapid gelation, stain resistance
Triaryl phos- Excellent flame retardant and gelation properties, Poor low-temperature properties
phates good resistance to microbial attack
Alkyl diaryl Moderate flame retardancy with improved low- Expensive
phosphates temperature properties
Trialkyl phos- CJood low-temperature properties Poor compatibility and processing
phates
Trimellitates Very low volatility, excellent resistance to
aqueous extractants
Adipates CJood low-temperature properties CJenerally poorer volatility and extraction re-
sistance
Azelates and Very good low-temperature properties and Expensive
sebacates permanence
ACJS acid esters CJood low-temperature properties---cheaper than CJenerally poor volatility and efficiency
other low-temperature plasticisers
Polymeric plasti- CJood extraction and migration resistance, low May exhibit poor compatibility and poor low
cisers volatility temperature eroperties, high viscosity
Epoxy esters and Improved heat stability, oils have reasonable ex- Can be compatIbility problems particularly on
oils traction resistance ageing
Chlorinated pa- Low cost, reduced flammability Poor efficiency and compatibility care needed
raffins on stabilisation
150 D. L. Buszard

TABLE 6.2
Plasticiser Abbreviations and Synonyms

Preferred chemical Preferred Other names and

name Q
abbreviationsQ abbreviations
AGS esters Mixed esters of adipic, glutaric and
succinic acids also known as
nylonates
Alkyl sulphonic ester ASE n-Alkyl sulphonate
Butyl-o-acetylricinolate BAR
Benzyl butyl phthalate BBP Butyl benzyl phthalate
Butyl cyclohexyl phthalate BCHP
Butyl isodecyl phthalate BIDP
Butyl nonyl phthalate BNP
Benzyl octyl adipate BOA Benzyl 2-ethIlhexyl adipate
Dialkyl (C/~) adipate DA 79A Di-Alphanol adipate, D 79A
Dialkyl (C/~) phthalate DA 79 P DAP, di-Alphanolb phthalate, D 79 P
Dialkyl (C/~) sebacate DA 79S Di-Alphanolb sebacate, D 79S
Dialkyl (C/~) azelate DA 79 Z Di-Alphanolb azelate
Dibutyl phthalate DBP
Dibutyl sebacate DBS
Dicapryl phthalate DCP
Dicyclohexyl phthalate DCHP
Diethyl phthalate DEP
Digol benzoate DGDP Diethylene glycol dibenzoate
Diheptyl phthalate DHP
Dihexyl phthalate DHXP
Diisobutyl adipate DIBA
Diisobutyl phthalate DIBP
Diisodecyl adipate DIDA
Diisodecyl phthalate DIDP
Di-LinevoIC 79 phthalate D~9P
Di-LinevoIC 911 phthalate D~llP
Diisononyl adipate DINA
Diisononyl phthalate DINP
Diisooctyl adipate DIOA
Diisooctyl azelate DIOZ
Diisooctyl phthalate DIOP
Diisooctyl sebacate DIOS
Diisotridecyl phthalate DITDP DITP, ditridecyl phthalate
DTDP
Di(2-methoxyethyl) phtha- DMEP Di(ethylene glycol monomethyl
late ether) phthalate
Dimethyl phthalate DMP
Dibutyl adipate DNBA
Di-n-decyl phthalate DNDP
Di-n-octyl adipate DNOA
Di-n-octyl phthalate DNOP
Dinonyl phthalate DNP Di(3,5,5-trimethylhexyl) phthalate
Dinonyl sebacate DNS Di(3,5,5-trimethylhexyl) sebacate
 6 Commercial Plasticisers 151

TABLE 6.2-contd.
Preferred chemical Preferred Other names and
name" abbreviationsO abbreviations
Dioctyl adipate DOA DEHA, di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate
Dioctyl isophthalate DOIP
Dioctyl maleate DOM
Dioctyl phthalate DOP DEHP, di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
Dioctyl terephthalate DOTP Di-(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate
Dioctyl azelate DOZ Di-(2-ethylhexyl) azelate
Diphenyl cresyl phosphate DPCP CDP, cresyl diphenyl phosphate;
DPCF tolyl diphenyl phosphate
Dipropylene glycol DPDB
dibenzoate
Diphenyl octyl phosphate DPOP ODP, octyl diphenyl phosphate
DPOF
Diundecyl phthalate DUP
Epoxidised linseed oil ELO
Epoxidised soyabean oil ESO ESBO
Octyl decyl phthalate ODP Di-Alfold 810 phthalate
Poly(propylene adipate) PPA
Poly(propylene sebacate) PPS
Tributyl a-acetyl citrate TBAC
Tri(2-butoxyethyl) phos- TBEP
phate
Tributyl phosphate TBP
Tri(2-chlorethyl) phosphate TCEP
Tricresyl phosphate TCP, TCF, Tritolyl phosphate (particularly
TIP in UK)
Tri(2,3-dibromopropyl) TDBP 'Tris', T23P
phosphate
Tri(2,3-dichloropropyl) TDCP
phosphate
Triethyl a-acetyl citrate TEAC
Triisooctyl trimellitate TIOTM
Trioctyl phosphate TOF Tri(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate
Tetraoctyl pyromellitate TOPM Tetra(2-ethylhexyl) pyromellitate
Trixylyl phosphate TXP, Trixylenyl phosphate
TXF
3,3,5-Trimethylpentane 1,4- TXIB Texanol' isobutyrate
diol diisobutyrate

° The preferred chemical names and abbreviations are those recommended in

ISO 1043-1978(E) or BS 4589: 1970, or those widely accepted in the PVC
industry.
b Trade name of ICI-branched chain C,C9 alcohols.
C Trade name of Shell Chemicals-predominantly linear C,~ and GrC
ll
alcohols.
d Trade name of Continental Oil Co.-mixture of linear Cg and C IO alcohols.
e Trade name of Eastman Kodak.
152 D. L. Buszard

readily, or where that manufacturer has a pre-eminent position in the

field.

6.5 GROUP 1 PLASTICISERS-PHTHALATES

o
(X~-O-R
C~R
II
o
As mentioned earlier, the phthalates are the largest single chemical
group of plasticisers used in PVC, the majority being general-purpose
Cs phthalates of which DOP is particularly important. There are,
however, a wide range of other phthalates which offer interesting
properties to the PVC formulator.
Phthalates can conveniently be divided into the following groups:
lower phthalates; general-purpose phthalates; linear phthalates;
higher phthalates; miscellaneous phthalates.
A comparison of the properties of PVC compounds plasticised with
54 phr (35%) of the more important phthalates is shown in Table 6.3.
The majority of alcohols used in the production of phthalates and
other alkyl diesters are manufactured by the 'OXO process' or
carbonylation reaction. The principal commercial alcohols produced by
this process, together with their raw materials and feedstocks, are
shown in Table 6.4. 1

6.5.1 Lower Phthalates

DBP and DIBP were widely used in PVC in the early 1950s. They
exhibit good efficiency but unfortunately their very high volatility and
poor aqueous extraction resistance lead to poor permanence prop-
erties. They have been replaced in the majority of plasticised PVC
applications by higher molecular weight phthalates, the exception
being certain areas where their rapid gelation properties are required
and their high volatility can be tolerated.
Certain plasticisers can seriously affect the growth of plants. 2 DBP
and DIBP have been shown to be very bad in this respect because of
 6 Commercial Plasticisers 153

their very high volatility. 3 It is important therefore that these

plasticisers are excluded from any formulations which may be used in
films, hoses and glazing strips, etc., for glasshouses or other
horticultural applications.

6.5.2 General-purpose Phthalates

The Cs phthalates are the largest class of plasticisers in use today. The
most important are DOP, based on 2-ethylhexanol, and DIOP, based
on isooctanol. DA79 P, which was based on a mixed C7 , Cs and ~
branched chain alcohol, has recently ceased manufacture. DOP, DIOP
and DA79 P have very similar properties and are generally regarded as
interchangeable, the choice being dependent on the current supply
position.
More recently, DINP, diisononyl phthalate, based predominantly on
dimethyl-l-heptanols, has become available, giving generally lower
volatilities and lower plastisol viscosities than the Cs phthalates. The
other ~ phthalate, DNP, based on 3,5,5-trimethylheptanol, is
markedly less efficient and finds particular application where low
platisol viscosities are desirable-especially for semi-rigid dip coatings,
slush mouldings and rotational castings.

6.5.3 Linear Phthalates

One of the more important developments in the use of phthalates as

plasticisers was the introduction and extensive use of linear or
predominantly linear dialkyl phthalates to improve low-temperature
performance. Since these products are available at little or no premium
over the general-purpose Cg phthalates, they have replaced a large
proportion of the more expensive diester market. The original linear
alcohols were by-products from the manufacture of detergent alcohols
by fat hydrogenation, e.g. straight chain C6-ClO alcohols from coconut
oil. The majority are now manufactured from synthetic hydrocarbon
feedstocks, as shown in Table 6.5. 4
Linear alcohols may of course be used in the manufacture of other
non-phthalate esters. It is however in phthalates that they have had the
most impact.
In addition to their improved low-temperature properties linear
phthalates have lower volatile losses than their branched chain
counterparts, as demonstrated by the apparent plasticiser loss on
 .....
Vl
.".

TABLE 6.3
Properties of Phthalate Plasticisers in PVC Compounds at 54 phr
Name Abbrevi- Liquid properties Extraction resistance
ation at 25°C BS Vola- (% mass loss)
Visco- soft- Cold tile Min-
sity Density ness flex loss eral Olive Deter-
(cSt) (g mr 1) IRHD No. eC) (%) Petrol oil oil Soap gent
Dibutyl ~
phthalate DBP 16 1·035 72 48 -19 17 23 18 19 18 15 r--
Diisobutyl ~
phthalate DIBP 29 1·042 74 45 -5 13 20 12 12 11 14 1;
'"::>~
Dioctyl
phthalate DOP 56 0·980 78 37 -19 1·0 24 19 18 4 3
Diisooctyl
phthalate DIOP 53 0·981 77 39 -16 1·0 24 17 17 4 3
Di-Alphanol
79 phtha-
late DA79P 48 0·983 80 36 -18 1·0 23 18 17 4 4
Dicapryl
phthalate DCP 55 0·968 79 36 -17 1·3 23 16 15 2·5 2·4
Di-n-octyl
phthalate DNOP 31 0·975 77 38 -25 0·7 25 19 23 2·1 2·0
Dinonyl
phthalate DNP 80 0·970 86 26 -8 0·2 24 17 18 2·0 2·0
Diisononyl
phthalate DINP 0·976 80 35 -14 0·3 16 16 15 0·6 0·9
Di-Linevol
79 phtha-
late Dlq9P 33 0·985 76 42 -26 0·8 24 21 21 6 3
Di-Linevol
911 phtha-
late D~l1P 49 0·962 87 27 -27 0·1 26 23 30 1·7 +0·8
Di-Alfol610
phthalate (DROP) 33 0·971 77 38 -27 0·7 21 20 19 3 1·8
Di-Alfol 810 0-
phthalate ODP 37 0·964 81 34 -25 0·2 20 18 18 1·2 0·8 ()
<:>
Diisodecyl 3
phthalate DIDP 85 0·962 84 26 -16 0·1 25 22 3
25 0·3 0·1 '"....
Diundecyl '"
phthalate DUP 54 0·947 91 20 -26 0·2 21 18 22 0 +0·2
a
Diisotri- ~~.
decyl phtha-
00'
late DTDP 243 0·950 95 13 -16 0 26 25 25 +1 +0·2 ;;;
'"
Benzyl butyl
phthalate BBP 45 1·124 79 35 -7 3·8 12 16 18 14 8
Di(2-meth-
oxyethyl)
phthalate DMEP 32 1·167 76 40 -12 10 8 14 15 16 17

Ul
Ul
-
156 D. L. Buszard

TABLE 6.4
Principal Commercial OXO Alcohols
Raw material Feedstock Alcohol

{n-Butanol
Propylene (Propylene) Isobutanol
2-Ethylhexanol
Propylene + butenes 'Heptenes' Isooctanol
Propylene 'Nonenes' Isodecanol
Isobutane 'Diisobutylene' Nonanol
Propylene 'Dodecenes' Tridecanol
Paraffin wax Co C8 olefines {AIPhanol79
Linevol79

TABLE 6.5
Major Producers of Linear Plasticiser Alcohols

Producer Raw material Process Alcohol

Conoco Ethylene Ethylene growth Alfo16IO,

followed by oxidation AlfolBIO
Monsanto Ethylene Ethylene growth Santicizer 711
followed by carbonyl- (phthalate)
ation
{ p"affin wox' emking fnllow,d by }
carbonylation Linevol79
Shell Ethylene Ethylene growth Linevol911
(SHOP) followed by
carbonylation

a Recently discontinued in favour of the Shell Higher Olefin Process (SHOP).5

milling,6 Fig. 6.1, and the changes in low-temperature flexibility of

plasticised PVC on ageing at 90°C,7 Fig. 6.2. The compounds for the
latter were formulated to give equal Clash and Berg temperatures
(3410 kg cm- 2) of -30°C.
The linear phthalates do however exhibit poorer electrical properties
(i.e. lower volume resistivities) which is undesirable in cable
formulations.

6.5.4 Higher Phthalates

DIDP is less efficient than the Cs phthalates, but gives appreciably

lower volatility and better aqueous extraction resistance.
 6 Commercial Plasticisers 157

7
1,o.sl.' 2 ,ali- mill I
Appa,.nl milling lim.: 15 min
plaslicis., loss
(%wIJ

6
OOP

OL 79P

OIOP

OL 911P

O+--_._---~----r_---_._---___r_
110 130 150 170 190
I.mp. S.tlin9 1° C)

Fig. 6.1 Apparent plasticiser loss as a function of milling temperature for

PVC compounds based on 50 phr of different plasticisers. (Reproduced by
permission of Shell Chemicals International Ltd from their technical
literature. )

DTDP, diisotridecyl phthalate, has a very low volatility and good

ageing characteristics, but has poor efficiency. It was used in
applications where the low volatility was advantageous, e.g. high-
temperature cables, low-fogging leathercloth, etc. Its use in these
applications is now generally being superseded by that of trimellitate
plasticisers.
158 D. L. Buszard

DOP/DOA
to 50:50

If DOP/DOA
60:40

If
f
-10
DOP/DOA
70:30
l3'

f ,.,//
e...

r,,//
~
:s;c
..
;;: DOP
!
a
. -20

(//
l!
Cl.
E
!
it 610P
...
0

t -30
.. '
~--.~---.
_._810P

1 2 3 4 5 6
- Time [days]

Fig. 6.2 Change of low-temperature flexibility of plasticised PVC on ageing at

90°C. (Reproduced by permission of Condea Petrochemie GmbH from their
technical literature.)

DUP is again used for low-volatility applications, but is more

popular in North America than Europe.

6.5.5 Miscellaneous Phthalates

Benzyl butyl phthalate is one of the most rapidly fusing plasticisers for
PVC, and in compounding allows regular production rates at lower
temperatures or higher rates at similar temperatures. In addition, it
imparts good stain resistance to vinyl films and hence is frequently used
for clear wear layers in vinyl flooring.
More recently, dioctyl terephthalate (DOTP) has been introduced
commercially in the United States by Eastman Chemicals. This product
is claimed to have lower volatility, and improved permanence and
lacquer mar resistance, compared with DOP.
Modified phthalates, such as Hexaplas OPN (ICI) are also available
from some companies. These have similar low-temperature properties
 6 Commercial Plasticisers 159

to the straight chain phthalates but inferior volatility. However, their

plastisol rheology and storage stability are superior and they are
claimed to give volume cost savings over most other phthalates.

6.6 GROUP 2 PLASTICISERS-PHOSPHATES

Phosphate plasticisers may be divided into four classes: triaryl

phosphates; trialkyl phosphates; mixed alkyl aryl phosphates; halogen-
ated alkyl phosphates.
The triaryl phosphates as a group are by far the most important,
accounting for some 80-90% of the total phosphate plasticiser usage in
PVc. A detailed comparison of phosphate plasticisers has been given
by the writer elsewhere. 8

6.6.1 Triaryl Phosphates

The original triaryl phosphate plasticisers were TIP (tritolyl or

tricresyl phosphate) and TXP (trixylyl phosphate). However, in the
mid-1960s, the shortage and variable quality of the coal tar cresols and
xylenols, from which they were derived, led to the increasing
popularity of cresol diphenyl phosphate, and later to the development
of the Reofos range of synthetic triaryl phosphates based on
isopropylated phenol and introduced by Geigy (now Ciba-Geigy) in
1968.
The isopropylated phenyl phosphates are applicational equivalents
to the older TIP (TCP) , TXP and CDP, but offer more consistent
quality, much improved light fastness, better colour, lower odour and
lower toxicity. These products are now available in Europe and
elsewhere from Ciba-Geigy as Reofos 95, Reofos 65 and Reofos 50.
They are also available in the United States from FMC as Kronitex 100
and Kronitex 50.
160 D. L. Buszard

TABLE 6.6
Comparative Performance of Triaryl Phosphates
Reofos TXP Reofos TTP Reofos
95 65 50

Viscosity at 25°C (cSt) 95 95 60 60 50

Density at 25°C (g ml- 1) 1-131 1·134 1-161 1·158 1·170
IRHD (Shore A) 87 87 85 82 83
BS softness No. 25 24 27 31 30
Cold flex temperature
(BS 2782 method
104B) CC) +5 +8 +4 +6 +3
Volatile loss (%) 0·5 0·3 0·5 0·6 1·0
Extraction resistance:
weight loss (%)
Petrol 15 15 15 15 15
Mineral oil 11 11 13 11 13
Olive oil 11 11 12 12 13
Soap 9 9 11 11 12

Formulation: PVC 100, plasticiser 54, white lead paste 4, calcium stearate 1.

A comparison of these phosphates is shown in Table 6.6. As a group

triaryl phosphates offer excellent flame retardancy, good gelation
properties, very good high-frequency welding characteristics, good
microbial resistance, high extender tolerance and excellent compatibil-
ity even at high humidities. They do however suffer from poor
low-temperature properties, but since they are seldom used as sole
plasticisers, this may be offset by a careful selection of other
plasticisers.
The superior flame-retardant properties of triaryl phosphates in
comparison with the alkyl diaryl and the trialkyl phosphates are shown
in Fig. 6.3.

6.6.2 Trialkyl Phosphates

Trioctyl phosphate is the most popular of this group, but in general

trialkyl phosphates are little used in PVC today. They have poor
compatibility and rather poor flame-retardant properties-showing no
real improvement over phthalates-and are used primarily for their
excellent low-temperature properties.
 6 Commercial Plasticisers 161

Oxygen index (%)

46f

36

~~
::1
28

26

24

22L__.- ' ~__-"----'----'----_..~"-:::=--~--;-!.

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Concentration of piasticiser {phrl

Fig. 6.3 Effect of plasticiser concentration on oxygen index of phosphate

plasticisers. 5

6.6.3 Mixed Alkyl Aryl Phosphates

Octyl diphenyl phosphate (e.g. Santicizer 141-Monsanto Europe) and

isodecyl diphenyl phosphate (e.g. Santicizer 148) are the two mixed
alkyl aryl phosphates available commercially. They have properties
intermediate between the triaryl and trialkyl phosphates thus offering a
compromise in flame retardancy and low-temperature properties. Their
physical and flammability properties are comparable with a blend of
60% triaryl phosphate/40% adipate (Table 6.7).
 ......
Rl

TABLE 6.7
Performance of Different Phosphate Plasticiser Types in PVC Compounds at S4 phr
Reofos 50 TOF Santicizer Santicizer Phosphate DOP
(isopropyl- (trioctyl 141 148 blend (dioctyl
ated phosphate) (octyl- (isodecyl (60% Reofos phthalate)
phenyl diphenyl diphenyl 50140% DOA)
phosphate) phosphate) phosphate)
~
IRHD 83 78 76 78 76 78
BS softness No. 30 38 41 37 41 37 t""
tl:l
Cold flex temperature E;
N
(BS 2782 method .,I:>
104B) (0C) 3 -50 -19 -17 -18 -19 "'-
Volatile loss at 82°C (%) 1·0 1·7 1·7 0·7 2·0 1·1
Extraction resistance
weight loss (%)
Petrol 15 17 22 20 20 24
Mineral oil 13 16 21 17 17 19
Olive oil 13 18 21 16 18 18
Soap 12 12 19 17 12 4
Oxygen index (%) 34 27 29 29 29 24
 6 Commercial Plasticisers 163

6.6.4 Halogenated Alkyl Phosphates

Products such as tri(2-chlorethyl)phosphate (TCEP) and the tri-

(monochloropropyl) phosphate for example, manufactured by Cour-
taulds, are effective flame retardants but exhibit poor compatibility
with PVC. They are of more interest as flame retardants in other
polymers (e.g. polyurethanes) but may occasionally be used as
additional flame-retardant additives in PVC.

6.7 GROUP 3 PLASTICISERS-TRIMELLITATES

~
C-o-R
~
R-o-C~C-o-R
II II
o 0
Esters based on trimellitic anhydride have become very popular
primary plasticisers for PVC compounds, for use at high temperatures
or for applications requiring excellent resistance to aqueous extrac-
tants, e.g. washing machine parts. Table 6.8 gives a comparison of the
properties of various trimellitate plasticisers available commercially.
Since trimellitates are normally incorporated into PVC formulations
for high-temperature performance, most plasticiser manufacturers
supply them containing an antioxidant. Whether any additional
antioxidant is required will depend on the particular grade selected and
the ageing conditions to be encountered.
Branched chain trimellitates, such as Reomol ATM (Ciba-Geigy)
generally give better electrical properties, which are required for some
Cl.ble applications, whilst straight chain trimellitates, as with phtha-
lates, give better low-temperature properties.

6.8 GROUP 4 PLASTICISERS-ALIPHATIC nIESTERS

The aliphatic diesters are generally known as the low-temperature
plasticisers since this is their prime advantage. They are secondary
plasticisers, made from a number of linear dibasic acids with the
general structural formula: ROOC(CHz)nCOOR.
The most popular dibasic acids are adipic (n = 4), azelaic (n = 7)
 ~

TABLE 6.8
Properties of Trimellitate Plasticisers in PVC Compounds at 54 phr
Plasticisers Viscosity Density lRHD BS Clash Volatile
25°C 25°C soft- and loss Extraction resistance % mass loss
(cSt) (gml- I ) ness Berg (%) Mineral Olive Deter-
No. ("C) Petrol oil oil Soap gent
~
Tri-Alphanol 79 ~
trimellitate 181 0·995 84 30 -10 0·1 21 14 14 +0·1 +0·3 I:l:l
1:;
Tri-Linevol 79 N
l:l
trimellitate 107 0·993 83 30 -15 0·1 21 14 15 +0·2 +0·3 ~
Triisooctyl
trimellitate 250 0·988 91 20 -7 0·2 22 19 14 +0·4 +0·7
Tri(2-ethylhexyl)
trimellitate 205 0·985 88 24 -10 0·2 22 12 14 +0·4 +0·8
Tri-Alfol810
trimellitate 92·5 0·971 93 17 -20 0·1 26 26 22 +1 +0·8
 6 Commercial Plasticisers 165

and sebacic acid (n = 8). A mixture of acids, known as AGS or nylon

acids since they are a by-product of nylon production, and consisting of
adipic, glutaric and succinic acids, is also popular. Esters have also
been made from succinic acid (n = 2) (e.g. Reomol SD) and glutaric
acid (n = 3) (e.g. Plasthall DIDG-C. P. Hall), when they are
commercially attractive.
The majority of aliphatic diesters are manufactured from branched
chain alcohols, such as isooctanol, 2-ethylhexanol or isodecanol, the
latter being popular with the lower molecular weight acids. Linear
alcohols are generally avoided since their esters tend to crystallise at
relatively high temperatures, thus giving storage and handling
difficulties.
A comparison of the performance in PVC of the more important
linear diesters is given in Table 6.9.

6.9 GROUP 5 PLASTICISERS-POLYMERIC

PLASTICISERS

The maJonty of commercial polymeric plasticisers are saturated

polyesters resulting from the reaction of a diol with a dicarboxylic acid.
They differ basically from monomeric plasticisers such as DOP in that
their molecular structure contains repeat units and their molecular
weight is higher and can be varied. It is normal practice to include a
third reactant in a polyester to 'modify' or 'endstop' the product. This
is commonly either a monohydric alcohol or a monocarboxylic acid,
although isocyanates and even diazomethane have been used to modify
terminal hydroxyl and acid groups.
Thus there are three possible general structures for polymeric
plasticisers:

non-terminated

acid-terminated

RIf-O-C-RI-C4R-O-C-RI-e-1RIf alcohol-terminated
II II II II
o 0 0 0 n
 TABLE 6.9 .....
~
Properties of Linear Diester Plasticisers in PVC Compounds at 54 phr
Plasticisers Viscosity Density IRHD BS Clash Volatile
at 25°C at 25°C soft- and loss Extractions (%)
(cSt) (g ml- 1 ) ness Berg (%) Mineral Olive Deter-
No. (0e) Petrol oil oil Soap gent

Diisodecyl
succinate 22·4 0·919 85 26 -38 1·8 25 24 24 4·5 1·9
Isooctyl ester
of AGS acids 13·5 0·928 79 37 -47 7·5 26 23 24 15 8
Isodecyl ester
of AGS acids 23·3 0·917 86 25 -38 1·0 23 23 24 3·5 1
~
Dioctyl t'"'
adipate 12·3 0·924 74 46 -45 2·4 26 22 26 7·5 4·5
t:x:l
Diisooctyl !;;
N
adipate 13·5 0·926 81 33 -48 1·7 25 21 21 8 4 s::.
Diisodecyl ~
adipate 22 0·912 85 27 -39 0·4 27 26 25 1·3 O·g
Benzyl octyl
adipate 14·2 0·916 74 45 -36 3·2 23 23 23 17 7·5
Diisooctyl
azelate 18 0·913 78 37 -47 0·6 24 22 25 1·4 1·0
Dibutyl
sebacate 8·7 0·933 72 48 -52 9 26 26 27 18 6
Dioctyl
sebacate 19·5 0·911 80 35 -51 0·5 24 24 25 0·4 0
Diisooctyl
sebacate 22·4 0·911 80 34 -46 0·4 26 27 26 1
 6 Commercial Plasticisers 167

There are therefore two main parameters which can be varied in

polymeric plasticisers-their constituents, including chain stoppers,
and their degree of polymerisation, Le. molecular weight-and since
both these factors are important in determining the resultant
properties, it can be seen that there is considerable scope for variation.
It also follows that polymeric plasticisers are not simple, readily
definable chemicals, as are the majority of monomeric plasticisers, and
hence they are invariably marketed under trade names rather than the
chemical names which indicate their constitution.
The most common raw materials are as follows:
dicarboxylic acids-adipic, phthalic, azelaic, sebacic;
diols-l ,2-propanediol, 1,3-butanediol, 1,4-butanediol,
1,6-hexanediol, neopentyl glycol, diethylene glycol;
monocarboxylic acids-acetic, caproic, caprylic, lauric,
myristic, palmitic, stearic, pelargonic, benzoic;
monohydric alcohols-isooctanol, 2 ethylhexanol, isodecanol,
Linevol 79 and 911 (Shell Chemicals)
The effect of molecular weight on the properties of a non-
endstopped polypropylene adipate has been demonstrated by Moseley
and Dawkins9-Table 6.10. From these results it can be seen that
increasing molecular weight gives advantages of improved permanence
and lower volatility, but disadvantages of increasing viscosity, lower
plasticising efficiency and poorer low-temperature properties. In
addition, higher molecular weight products are more difficult to
process and often exhibit reduced compatibility with PVc.

TABLE 6.10
The Effect of Molecular Weight on the Properties of Polypropylene Adipate
Molecular weight 2000 3000 4000 9000
Viscosity at 25°C (P) 150 250 350 850
Hydroxyl value (mg KOH g-l) 55 45 30 25
Compound properties
BS softness No. 27 24 23 20
Cold flex temperature eC) -1·7 -1·5 +2 +5·8
Volatile loss (%) 3·2 2·7 2·4 2·3
Tensile strength (MN m- 2) 17·8 19·8 19·9 20·8
Extraction loss (%)
Hexane 0·4 0·3 0·1 0·1
Mineral oil 1·0 0·4 0·1 0
Soap solution (1 %) 9·0 6·8 4·7 3·8
168 D. L. Buszard

Moseley and Dawkins also demonstrated the effect of varying the

reactants as well as molecular weight in typical commercially available
polymeric plasticisers-Table 6.1l.
Endstopping will reduce the liquid viscosity of a polymeric plasticiser
of given molecular weight by reducing the hydrogen-bonding capability
of the terminal hydroxyl or acid groups. Similarly, this will increase the
high humidity compatibility and improve the extraction resistance to
aqueous media. It does, however, have an adverse effect on the
extraction resistance to non-polar media such as oils and fats. This is
demonstrated in Table 6.11 by comparing polymeric plasticisers 4 and
5, which are non-endstopped, with 1 and 2, which are alcohol
endstopped.
Mixed diols or dicarboxylic acids are frequently used to obtain a
desired balance of properties, as shown by examples 6 and 7, Example
8 may be regarded as a complex ester rather than a true polymeric
since essentially n = 1and there are no repeat units.
An interesting, fairly recent development in polymeric plasticisers is
the use of a lactone in place of a proportion of the dibasic acid and
diol. 1Q--12 These modified polyester plasticisers have the idealised struc-
ture:

The commercially available examples of this type of structure, based

on caprolactone, give plasticisers which have excellent compatability
with PVC, and extraction and migration-resistant properties which are
comparable with those of the medium molecular weight polyesters
endstopped with an alcohol. The caprolactone-based plasticisers,
however, have lower viscosities and much faster gelation properties.
They are therefore of particular interest in plastisols.
Most manufacturers of polymeric plasticisers offer a range of
products, from the low molecular weight complex ester types, such as
Uraplast W2 (Urachem) and Reoplex GL (Ciba-Geigy), to the high
molecular weight, harder to process products, such as Diolpate 150
(Briggs and Townsend), Reoplex 430 and Plastolein 9789 (Unilever-
Emery).
A further group of products which may be mentioned under the
classification of polymeric plasticisers is the 'solid polymerics'. These
are much higher molecular weight elastomeric polymers which may be
 TABLE 6.11
The Effect of Composition on the Properties of Commercially Available Polymeric Plasticisers
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Acid Adipic Adipic Adipic Adipic Adipic Adipic! Adipic! Phthalic Phthalic ~OP
phthalic phthalic anhydride anhydride
anhydride anhydride
Diol 1,2-Pro- 1,3-Bu- Neo- 1,3-Bu- 1,2-Pro- 1,2-Pro- 1,2-Pro- Dieth- 1,2-Pro- 0-
pylene tylene pentyl tylene pylene pylene pylene ylene pylene
glycol glycol glycol glycol glycol glycol glycol glycol glycol ~
Chain stopper Alcohol Alcohol Alcohol None None Alcohol Alcohol Alcohol Alcohol 3
Viscosity at 25°C (cP) 2300 3400 5500 22000 24000 800 32000 700 900 72 3
BS softness No. 32 34 30 25 24 36 29 33 34 45 '"
Cold flex eq -6 -7·5 0 -0·5 -1·5 -5 2 -2 1·5 -20 ~
Tensile strength "tl
(kgfcm- 2 ) 205 211 198 210 202 210 223 191 210 147 f
:::.
Volatile loss (%) 4·1 3·7 3·9 2·9 3·2 4·0 2·9 6·7 12·0 22·4 '"0;'
Volume resistance '"
;;:
(0 em-I) 1 x 1012 8 X lO" 6 X 10 13 1 X 10 12 5 X 10 12 2 X 1013 5 X 1013 3 X 10 12 6 X 1013 2 X 1013
Extraction loss (%)
Hexane 4·2 3·9 2·7 0·7 0·7 5·7 2·8 10·1 15·1 35·0
Mineral oil 3·9 H 1·8 0·1 0·7 5·5 3·4 6·0 4·3 16·0
Water 0·2 0·3 0·1 z.l 2·3 0·6 0·6 1·2 0·3 0
Soap solution (1%) 6·1 5·4 4·7 3·7 4·8 9·3 6·9 11·6 11·4 13·0
Humidity (com- Moderate Moderate Moderate Poor Poor Very Moderate Excellent Very Excellent
patibility) good good

....
0-
\0
170 D. L. Buszard

more truly regarded as blending resins rather than plasticisers.

However, they have recently penetrated areas previously considered to
be the preserve of more conventional polymeric plasticisers by offering
improved permanence in addition to other advantageous properties
such as improved abrasion resistance and traction in shoe soles, etc.
Typical of these products are Elvaloy (Du Pont) ethylene interpolymer
resins and polyurethane elastomers such as Ultramoll PU (Bayer) and
Durelast 100 (Briggs and Townsend). They are extensions of the
long-established practice of blending nitrile rubbers with PVC.

6.10 GROUP 6 PLASTICISERS-MISCELLANEOUS

PLASTICISERS

6.10.1 Epoxy Plasticisers

This group of plasticisers contains the epoxy grouping:

They are usually derived from the reaction of unsaturated compounds

with peracids. The unsaturated compounds used are generally naturally
occurring oils or the alkyl esters of natural unsaturated fatty acids,
although some 'synthetic' triglycerides and esters are manufactured.
The resulting commercial epoxy products are primary or secondary
plasticisers for PVC and also exhibit an effective stabilising action (see
also Chapters 4, 9 and 10).
The epoxy oils are generally derived from soyabean oil (the most
popular) and linseed oil, both of which are triglycerides of unsaturated
fatty acids. They exhibit a good plasticising and stabilising action, and,
as suggested by molecular weights in excess of 900, their extraction and
migration resistance are comparable with many of the lower molecular
weight polymeric plasticisers. A disadvantage of the purer epoxy oils is
their high viscosity and their tendency to crystallise out at lower
temperatures, which can lead to storage difficulties. However, any
precipitation rapidly re-dissolves on heating to 30--40°C for a short
period with no detrimental effect on the plasticising or stabilising
properties.
The alkyl epoxy esters are generally manufactured from tall oil acids
 6 Commercial Plasticisers 171

(a by-product of paper manufacture), which contain a significant

proportion of unsaturated oleic and linoleic acids, or from purified
oleic acid. The most popular are the butyl and 2-ethylhexyl esters of
these acids, which are then epoxidised. The epoxy esters are
characterised by their good plasticising and low-temperature prop-
erties, as well as their stabilising action. The compatibility of epoxy
plasticisers with PVC is surprisingly good in comparison with the
non-epoxidised equivalents. However. once the epoxy groupings are
destroyed by undergoing a stabilisation reaction, their compatibility is
greatly reduced. Care should therefore be taken to ensure that certain
ultimate compatibility limits are not exceeded.
Typical commercial products are:
Epoxidised soyabean oil: Edenol D81 (Henkel)
Lankroflex GE (Diamond Shamrock)
Paraplex G62 (Rohm and Haas)
Reoplast 39 (Ciba-Geigy)
Epoxy-alkyl esters: Edenol D72, B74, B35, H5235
Lankroflex ED3, ED6
Monoplex 5-71 (Rohm and Haas)
Reoplast 38, 42

6.10.2 Chlorinated Paraffins

In their early years chlorinated paraffin waxes acquired a reputation

for poor colour and low thermal stability. However, by employing
modern chlorination techniques and the use of straight-chain liquid
paraffin feedstocks, chlorinated products are now produced which are
water-white and have properties comparable to those of the octyl
phthalates. In the UK, ICI manufacture a range of chlorinated
paraffins, under the trade name Ceredor, which have gained
worldwide acceptance.
Within the Ceredor range are two grades, Ceredor 552 and Ceredor
545, which are specifically recommended for PVC applications. These
grades can be used as sole plasticisers in relatively hard products, such
as flooring compounds, but they are more normally employed as
partial replacements for phthalate or phosphate primary plasticisers.
Since they are available at lower prices than primary plasticisers, their
use in PVC compounds gives significant savings in raw material costs.
The properties of the finished compound are not impaired and the
172 D. L. Buszard

flame retardance may be improved when Ceredor is included in a vinyl

composition.
The important properties of these Ceredor grades are given in Table
6.12. Ceredor 552 is the general-purpose grade, suitable for most
applications, while the 45% chlorinate, Ceredor 545, was specifically
developed for use in PVC plastisols, where its lower viscosity is an
advantage, and for compounds having good low-temperature prop-
erties. The slightly higher volatility of Ceredor 545 still allows
compounds containing this grade to pass most international ageing loss
specifications.
TABLE 6.12
Properties of the 'Cereclor' grades

Grade Ceredor 545 Ceredor 552

Chlorine content (%) 43-45 50-52

Average chain length CI5 CI5
Density (g ml- I at 25°C) 1-16 1·25
Viscosity (Pa s) 0·154l·25 1-2
Volatility (% weight loss on
heating 4h at 180°C) 2·8 1·4
Thermal stability (% HCI after
4h at 175°C) 0·06-0·1 0·07--0·12
Toxicity Very low Very low

The use of chlorinated paraffin secondary plasticisers is straightfor-

ward and, provided that compatibility limits are not exceeded, no
exudation occurs. The compatibility limit is of the order of 25-30 phr in
compounds of BS softness 40 (Shore A 75) based on octyl phthalates.
It is recommended, however, to refer always to the chlorinated
paraffin manufacturer's literature when reformulating. Normally PVC
compounds are reformulated to the same hardness. The lower
plasticising efficiency of the chlorinated paraffins and their higher
density mean, however, that phthalates are not replaced part for part.
Typically, 1·5 phr of Ceredor have to be included for each part of
replaced octyl phthalate. Table 6.13 shows that the physical properties
are relatively unaffected in compounds reformulated to contain either
Ceredor 545 or 552.
In addition to ICI, chlorinated products are also available from,
amongst others, the following manufacturers: Hoechst, Huls, Dynamit
Nobel, and Caffaro in Europe; Diamond Shamrock, Keil, and Dover
 6 Commercial Plasticisers 173

TABLE 6.13
Properties of Compounds" containing 'Cereclor'
Plasticiser
OlOP 54 38 35
OlDP 62 51 48
Re%s 95 66 30
Ceredor 845 25 15 35
Ceredor 852 30 20

BS softness No. 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
Shore A 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 75
Tensile strength
(MNm- Z) 17·3 17-8 17·2 15·6 17-6 16·2 20·1 19·3
% elongation at
break 300 315 320 315 325 330 245 290
Cold flex (0C) -16 -20 -16 -16 -18 -16 -6 -10
% ageing loss (24 h
at 100°C) 0·75 0·95 0·85 0·36 0·74 0·52 0·15 0·6
Volume resistivity
(0 cm x 1013) 2 2 2 0·6 0·5 0·6 6 3

° Formulated for constant BS softness by varying the plasticisers (amounts given in phr)
in otherwise the same formulation.

in the United States; and Toya Soda, Asahi Denka, and Ajinomoto in
Japan.
6.10.3 Monoesters
This group comprises a wide number of different plasticisers, the
majority of which are only of interest in certain specialist formulations.
Examples of these are butyl oleate, phenoxyethyl oleate and
tetrahydrofurfuryl oleate. They are claimed to be good low-
temperature secondary plasticisers with advantages in some plastisol
applications.
An exception which may be included in this class is Mesamoll, an
alkyl sulphonic acid ester, manufactured by Bayer and popular in
Germany. It is a good primary plasticiser with properties similar to the
general-purpose phthalates.

6.10.4 Glycol Esters

These also are of low interest and not very wide application. They
include aromatic glycol esters such as diethylene glycol dibenzoate and
174 D. L. Buszard

dipropylene glycol dibenzoate, which are popular in the United States

(e.g. Benzoflex 9·88-Velsicol Corp.) and which are used for rapid
solvating properties.
The unsaturated acrylic and methacrylic esters of glycols such as
diethylene glycol dimethacrylate are also included in this class. These
esters, together with other crosslinkable plasticisers such as dialkyl
phthalate and trialkyl cyanurate, are of interest for certain speciality
uses. Such applications include adhesion promoters in plastisol-coated
steel and rigisols, and there is now a renewed interest in them as
plasticisers for crosslinkable PVC cable insulation.

6.10.5 Hydrocarbon Extenders

A variety of hydrocarbon extenders and oils are available from a

number of manufacturers, including:
Dutrex (Shell);
Enerflex (BP);
Electrofine (D'Electro-Chemie);
Lipinol (Huls);
Mobisol (Mobil);
Ravolen (Manchester Oil);
Kenplast (Kenrich Petrochemicals, USA).
These oils are used as cheap extenders in certain PVC compounds
and plastisols. They are true extenders and have very limited
compatibility with PVC.

6.10.6 Other Miscellaneous Plasticisers

Citrate plasticisers such as acetyl tributyl citrate (Citraflex A 4-Pfizer)

are primary plasticisers with good low-temperature properties and a
low order of toxicity. They are of particular interest in products for
food contact and medical use.
A plasticiser of international importance not readily classifiable into
the previous categories is Texanol isobutyrate (Kodaflex TXIB),
manufactured by Eastman Chemicals Inc. This product is the
diisobutyrate of 2,2,4-trimethyl-l,3-pentanediol. It is of a particular
interest in non-stain flooring and plastisol applications such as
rotational casting, where low plastisol viscosities and good viscosity
stability are required. The high volatility of TXIB limits its use in some
 6 Commercial Plasticisers 175

applications. Other esters of Texanol (e.g. Nuoplaz 1406-Tenneco)

are available but are much less popular.

6.11 STORAGE AND HANDLING OF PLASTICISERS

Plasticisers are supplied either in drums (e.g. 200 kg) or in bulk by

tanker. If large quantities of a particular plasticiser are used, it is
normally economically attractive to install bulk handling facilities
which can then be linked into automatic or semi-automatic weighing
and mixing equipment. Storage tanks and transfer lines can usually be
of mild or stainless steel construction and suitable epoxy finishes can be
applied if necessary. Cast iron or stainless steel gear pumps are
normally preferred, although centrifugal pumps can be used for low
viscosity or preheated plasticisers. Positive shut-off valves such as ball
valves or plug valves should be used.
Care should be taken in the selection of elastomeric materials for
contact with plasticisers, e.g. hoses, flexible couplings, a-rings and
seals. Table 6.14 summarises the effect of liquid plasticisers on many

TABLE 6.14
Suitability of Polymeric Materials for Use as Flexible
Seals, etc., in Contact with Plasticisers
Material Ratinlf

Butyl rubber 1
Ethylene propylene rubber 2
Chlorosulphonated polyethylene 4
Natural rubber 4
Nitrile rubber 3
Polyamide 1
Polychloroprene 4
Polyethylene 2
Polypropylene 2
Polytetrafluoroethylene 1
Polyurethane 3
Silicone 2
Viton 2

a Rating: 1 = generally recommended; 2 = acceptable;

3 = possibly suitable under certain conditions; 4 =
unsuitable.
176 D. L. Buszard

10000 r\ \ \ l'\. 'f\.

5 OOO++-+-~~~-+l~-'--+-+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---l
3000 \ \1\ r\. '\
\ ~\ \. '\.
2000 \ \ \ I\. '\.. \.
1500t--t-l~......-\'~:-+--->ot--lI'Tt-+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+---i
1000 ~ \ ~\ \ '\. '\
\\ \ \.1\ I\. '\..

-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100110120130140
Ttlmptlraturtl, ·C

Fig. 6.4 Viscosity-temperature relationships of a range of plasticisers. 1,

DOA; 2, DBP; 3, DIDA; 4, L79P; 5, Reofos 65 (isopropylated phenyl
phosphate); 6, DOP; 7, DIDP; 8, Reomol LTM (tri-Linevol 79 trimellitate);
9, DTDP; 10, Reoplex GL (low viscosity polymeric); 11, Reoplast 39 (ESO);
12, Reoplex 1102 (low viscosity polymeric); 13, Reoplex 903 (medium viscosity
polymeric); 14, Reoplex 430 (high viscosity polymeric).
 6 Commercial Plasticisers 177

TABLE 6.15
European and US Plasticiser Manufacturers
Company Classes Trade names
manufactured
Q

United Kingdom
Albright & Wilson 1,2,4 Pliabrac
B.P. Chemicals 1,3,4,6E Bisoflex, Enerflex
Briggs & Townsend 5 Diolpate
Ciba-Geigy 1,2,3,4,5,6A,6F Reofos, Reomol,
Reoplast. Reoplex
Courtaulds 2
Diamond Shamrock
(Europe) 1,3,4,6A Lankroflex
ICI 1,4,6B Ceredor, Hexaplas
Robinson Bros 5 Arbeflex
Scott Bader 1,3,5 Crestapol
Shell Chemicals 1,6E Linevol, Dobane,
Dutrex
Tenneco 2
Victor Wolf 5,6C Wolflex
Austria
Chemie Linz Mollan
Belgium
Argus Chemicals 6A Drapex
Essochem Europe 1 Jayflex
Monsanto Europe 1,2,4,5,6F Santicizer
UCB-FTAL 1,3,4,6F
Denmark
Scandiflex 1,3,4 Scandinol
France
CdF Chemie 1 Gedeflex
D'Electrofine-Chemie 6E
ICI Europa 1,3,4 Hexaplas
Nyco S.A. 6D,6F Nycoflex
Products Chemie Ugine
Kuhlman 1 Plastifiant K
Rhone Poulenic Polymeres 1,2,4,5,6B Garbeflex, Garbefos,
Alaiflex
Germany
BASF 1,4,5,6F Palatinol, Plastomoll,
Palamoll
178 D. L. Buszard

TABLE 6.15-<:ontd.
Classes
Company manufactureda Trade names

Bayer 1,2,4,5, 6E, 6F Adimoll, Disftamoll.

Mesamoll, Ultra-
moll, Unimoll
Chemische Werke Hills 1,4, 6B, 6C, 6E Vestinol, Lipinol
Deutsche Texaco 1,3 Reproxal
Dynamit Nobel 1,3,4,5, 6B, 6C Witamol, Witaclor
Henkel & Cie 1,4,5, 6A, 6C Edenol
Hoechst 1,6B
Wacker-Chemie 1,4 Wacker
Holland
Akzo Chemie 6A Estabex
Unilever-Emery 4,5, 6A, 6C, 6F Emery, Plastolein,
Unem
Uraplast 1,4,5 Uraplast (formerly
Scadoplast)
Italy
Akzo Italia 4,5,6C,6F Estaftex
Distillerie Italiane 1,4,5, 6A, 6F Diplast, Diepox,
Staftex
Montedison 1,4 Sicol
Sisas 1
Sprea 5 Spreaftex
Sweden
Berol Kemi 1,4
Switzerland
Reichhold Chemie 1,4,5, 6A, 6E, 6F Ricatyl, Contrastat
USA
Armak 4,6C,6F Kesscoftex
Ashland Chemicals 5
BASF Wyandotte 1,3 Plastomoll, Palatinol
Continental Oil 1
Diamond Shamrock 6B Chlorowax
Dover Chemical 6B Chlorez
Eastman Chemical
International 1,3,4,5,6F Kodaftex, Texanol
Emery Industries 4,5, 6A, 6C, 6F Emery, Plastolein
Exxon 1,3 Jayftex
FMC 2,6A,6C Kronitex
C. P. Hall 4,5,6F
 6 Commercial Plasticisers 179

TABLE 6. 15-contd.
Classes
Company manufacturedO Trade names

Harwick 1,4,6F Polycizer

Hercules 1,5, 6B, 6F Clorafin, Hercoflex,
Hercolyn
ICI Americas 6B,6F Cereclor, Hexplas
Keil 6B,60
Monsanto 1,2,3,4,5, Aroclor, Santicizer
6A, 60, 6E, 6F
Pfizer 3,4,5,6F Citroflex, Morflex
pva 4, 60, 6F
Reichold 1,3,4,5, 6A, 6C, 6F Peroxidol, Staflex
Rohm & Haas 4,5, 6A, 6C, 6F Monoplex, Paraplex
Sherex 5,6A Admex
Stauffer 2 Phosflex
Swift 6A Epoxol
Tenneco 1,2,3,4,5 Nuoplaz
Union Carbide 2, 6A, 60 Flexol
Union Camp 1,3,4,5,6C Uniflex
USS 1,3,4, 6A, 6C PX
Velsicol 60 Benzoflex

° 1, Phthalates; 2, phosphates; 3, trimellitates; 4, low-temperature plasticisers; 5,

polymerics; 6A, epoxies; 6B, chlorinated paraffins; 6C, monoesters; 60, glycol esters;
6E, hydrocarbons; 6F. others.

common sealing materials. In this context, confusion may occur over

the term 'compatibility'. In PVC technology it is used as has already
been discussed in Chapter 5. However, 'compatibility' is also used in
hydraulic fluids and liquid handling technology to indicate the resistance
of a sealing or gasket material to the particular liquid in question. In
practice, this is almost diametrically opposed to the conventional
plastics technology definition and confusion between them could have
serious consequences. If any doubt exists as to the suitability of a
particular material as a seal, etc., either the plasticiser manufacturer or
appropriate material manufacturer should be consulted.
It may be necessary to heat plasticisers to reduce their viscosity in
order to facilitate handling, particularly in colder weather. Figure 6.4
shows the viscosity-temperature relationship for a wide range of
common plasticisers.
180 D. L. Buszard

6.12 PLASTICISER MANUFACTURERS

A number of the more important European and US manufacturers are

listed in Table 6.15, together with the types of plasticiser manufactured
and their trade names. This list has been drawn from trade directories,
manufacturers' literature and published literature, and whilst every
effort has been made to make it so, it may not be completely
comprehensive.

REFERENCES

1. Murfitt, H. C. (1970). E.C.N. Polymer Intermediates, Oct. 30th.

2. Inden, T. and Tachibana, S. (1975). Mie Diagaku Nogakubu Gakujutsu
Hokoku, 1-10.
3. 'Plasticised PVC in Horticulture'. BASF Technical Bulletin.
4. Murfitt, H. C. (1979). PRI Symposium, Loughborough University, April.
5. Sherwood, M. (1982). Chern. Ind., 24,994.
6. Shell Chemical Int. Report on 'Vapour Losses During Processing of
Plasticised PVC', Fig. 2.
7. Condea Petrochemie, Information bulletin No. 3151, Fig. 6.
8. Buszard, D. L. (1978). Chern. Ind., 16,610.
9. Moseley, J. and Dawkins, P. (1978). Chern. Ind., 16,620.
10. Buszard, D. L. (1983). PVC Processing II Proceedings, PRI, 22.7.
11. British Patent No. 1455196.
12. British Patent No. 1455390.