American Society For Eighteenth-Century Studies (ASECS)

American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies (ASECS)
The Failings of Rousseau's Ideals of Domesticity and Sensibility

Author(s): Mary Trouille
Source: Eighteenth-Century Studies, Vol. 24, No. 4 (Summer, 1991), pp. 451-483
Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press . Sponsor: American Society for
Eighteenth-Century Studies (ASECS) .
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The Failingsof
Rousseau'sIdeals
of Domesticity
and Sensibility
MARY TROUILLE
ofdiscus-
ROUSSEAU'S VIEWS ON WOMEN havelongbeenthesubject
sionanddebate.Allhismajorworksdealinonewayoranother with
thenature,role,andeducationofwomenandwiththebroader issues
ofsexualpolitics-the analysisofgenderdifferences andofpower
between
relations thesexes.Theviewofwomenthatemerges from
thestudyofRousseau's is a complexandcontradictory
writings one,
fullofambivalence Itis notsurprising
anddiscontinuities. thenthat
hisviewshavegivenriseto widelydivergent among
interpretations
bothhis contemporaries and ourown.
Withtheburgeoning offeminist andsocialcriticism
literary inthe
pasttwodecades,Rousseau's sexualpoliticshavebecomethesubject
ofrenewed interestandcontroversy.Although somecriticsconsider
Rousseau'sviewson womena particularly striking(andunambig-
uous) exampleofmisogyny and paternalism,' otherscholarshave
defendedhimagainstsuchcharges, arguing thathisviewsarecon-
1 See, forexample,thestudyof Rousseau'ssexualpoliticsby MaiteAlbistur and

DanielArmogathe, inHistoiredufeminismefrancais du movenage a nosjours (Paris:
Editionsdes femmes, 1977),v. 1,pp. 277-78;MicheleCoquillat,"Natureet sexechez
Rousseau.Aucommencement 6taitle phallus,"
inLa poetiquedumale(Paris:Gallimard,
1982), pp. 119-35; Eva Figes,"Rousseau,Revolution, Romanticism, and Retrogres-
sion;' in PatriarchalAttitudes (London:Macmillan,1986), pp. 92-110; Elisabethde
Fontenay, "PourEmileetparEmile,Sophieoul'invention dum6nage,"Les TempsModernes
358,2 (1976):774-95; SarahKofman, "Rousseau'sPhallocratic
Ends,"Hypatia,AJournal
ofFeminist Philosophy 3, 3 (Winter1989): 123-36; JoanB. Landes,"Rousseau'sReply
to PublicWomen," in Wcmen and thePublicSphereintheAgeoftheFrenchRevolution
(Ithaca:CornellUniv.Press,1988),pp. 66-89; LyndaLange,"Womenandthe'General
Will"'University ofOttawaQuarterly 49, 3-4 (July/Oct.
1979): 401-11;NannerlKeo-
451
452 EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY STUDIES
siderablymorecomplexandambiguous andthatto be fullyunder-

stoodtheymustbe judgedinthecontext ofhislifeandtimes3Cer-
taincriticshavepointedto whattheyconsiderstrong "pro-woman"
undercurrentsin Rousseau'sworks(particularly in JulieandBook
I ofEmile),whichintheir viewhelpexplain theenthusiasticresponse
ofmanyeighteenth-century womenreadersto hiswritings.3 Forex-
ample,GitaMayandJeanBlochbothstress thebroadappealofRous-
seau'sfeminineidealsofdomesticity andsensibilityandhisrhetoric
ofmoralreform. In an ageoflovelessmarriages ofconvenience and
widespreadadultery, manyof Rousseau'sfemalecontemporaries
viewedhimas thechampion ofa newmoralorderinwhichwomen
couldplaya centralrole.Bynursing theirbabiesthemselves (instead
ofsending themawayto wet-nurses, as hadlongbeenthecustom),
bydevoting themselves to theirhusbands andchildren, theyhoped
tocreatestrongeraffectivetieswithintheirfamilies,
thereby fostering
themoralregeneration ofsociety envisionedbyRousseauandbyother
socialreformersoftheperiod.Farfrom beingconsidered a trap,the
idealsofmotherhood andenlightened domesticityadvocated byRous-
seauseemedtooffer a newdignity towomen, oftheir
regardless socio-
economicstatus.4
hane,"'ButforHerSex... 'The Domestication ofSophie,"University ofOttawaQuar-

terly49, 3-4 (1979): 390-400; AubreyRosenberg, "Property, Possession,and Enjoy-
ment:Womanas Object,Subject,andProjectintheEmile"inRousseauetl'education:
Etudessurl'Emile,ed. JeanTerrasse(Sherbrooke, Canada:Naaman,1984),pp. 102-113;
and NancySenior,"Les Solitairesas a TestforEmileand Sophie;"FrenchReview49,
4 (March 1976): 528-35.
2 See, forexample, JeanH. Bloch,"WomenandtheReform oftheNation," in Woman
andSocietyinEighteenth-Century France,ed. Eva Jacobsetal. (London:Athlone Press,
1979),pp. 3-18; MaryLouise Butler,Rousseau'sVisionofWoman(Ph.D. diss.,Univ.
ofConnecticut, 1980); RuthGraham,"Rousseau'sSexismRevolutionized;' in Woman
in the18thCentury and OtherEssays,ed. Paul Fritzand RichardMorton(Toronto:
Hakkert,1976),pp. 127-39;GitaMay,"Rousseau's'Anti-Feminism' Reconsidered;' in
FrenchWomen and theAgeofEnlightenment, ed. SamiaI. Spencer(Bloomington: In-
diana Univ.Press,1984), pp. 309-17; and ColettePiau-Gillot,"Le Discoursde J.J.
Rousseausurles femmes etsa reception
critique,"
Dix-huitieme siecle13 (1981):317-33.
3 See, forexample, AnnaAttridge, "TheReceptionofLa NouvelleH[loise,"Studies
on Voltaire and theEighteenth Century120 (1974): 227-67;Margaret Darrow,"French
Noblewomen andtheNewDomesticity, 1750-1850," FeministStudies5, 1 (Spring1979):
41-65; PeterJimack,"The Paradoxof Sophieand Julie:Contemporary Responseto
Rousseau'sIdealWifeandIdealMother," inJacobs,pp. 152-65;Marie-Laure Swiderski,
"La dialectiquede la condition f6mininedansLa NouvelleHeloise,"in Rousseauet la
societedu XVIIIesiecle,ed. JeanTerrasse(Univ.ofOttawaPress,1982), pp. 109-26;
and thestudiesbyBloch, Graham,May,and Piau-Gillotcitedabove.
4 In herMemoires, MmeRolandrecallsreadingJulieforthefirst timeandthepro-
FAILINGS OF ROUSSEAU'S IDEALS 453
Itis clearfromthelargenumber ofenthusiastic to Rous-

tributes
seaubyhisfemalecontemporaries thatmanyviewedhimas a cham-
pionofwomen,evenas a kindoffeminist. However, Rousseauwas
in facta traditionalist
whoattimesadopteda pseudo-feminist tone
andrhetoric to heighten thedramaticeffectandpopularappealof
hiswritings!OBeneaththesurfaceofhisrhetoric ofsensibility
and
moralreform anda tacitcomplicity
laya subtlepaternalism withthe
statusquo, as bothCondorcet andWollstonecraftsuggest7Thisis
foundimpactithadon her:"Itseemedto me thatI thenfoundmytruesubstance, that

Rousseaubecametheinterpreter of feelingsand ideas I had had beforehim,butthat
he alonecouldexplainto mysatisfaction. Rousseaushowedmethedomestichappiness
to whichI had a rightto aspireand theineffable delightsI was capableofenjoying.'
[Memoiresde MmeRoland,ed. Paul de Roux (Paris: Mercurede France,1966), p.
302.] At a timeof stressand crisisin herlife,whenRolandhad practically givenup
hopeoffinding a suitablehusbandbecauseofhermodestpersonalcircumstances and
idealisticexpectations, Rousseaurenewedherfaithinthefuture through hisappealing
pictureofthedomesticfelicity to whicha virtuouswomancouldaspire.For further
discussionofRoland'sresponsetoRousseau,see myarticle"Revolution intheBoudoir:
MmeRoland'sSubversion ofRousseau'sFeminineIdeals,"Eighteenth-Century Life13,
2 (May 1989): 65-86.
5 See thetributes to Rousseaubyhisfemalecontemporaries citedbyJimack, espe-
ciallyMme Panckoucke's Sentiments de reconnaissance d'unemere(citedbyJimack,
p. 62). Similarly, inherLettressurRousseau,Staelwrites:"Itis Rousseau'seloquence
thatrekindled maternalfeelings;he showedwomenthedutyand thejoys ofmother-
hood.... Is itthemothers or theirchildrenwhoowe thegreatest debtto Rousseau?
Ah! Surelyitis themothers!" [Germainede Stael,Lettressurles ecritset le caractere
de J.J.Rousseau,in ?Euvres completes (Paris:Firmin-Didot, 1838),v. I, p.12.] Stael's
responseto Rousseauwas ofcoursefarmorecomplexthanthisone quotewouldsug-
gest,as I indicateinmyarticle"A BoldNewVisionofWoman:StaelandWollstonecraft
ChallengeRousseau,"Studieson Voltaire and theEighteenth Century (Fall 1991).
6 By "pseudo-feminist," I meansomeonewho adoptsa rhetoric thatis feminist in
tone,butwhoseunderlying messageisbasically traditionalist
forlackofconcrete proposals
anda genuinedesireforchange.In thelongerstudyfromwhichthisarticleis drawn,
I examinethepseudo-feminist rhetoric inRousseau'swritings (andinworksbyDiderot,
Helv6tius, andLaclos) -a rhetoric whichmasksa tacitcomplicity withthestatusquo
or an evenmoreconservative agenda.Although thesewriters wroteofthesubjugation
of womenwithsympathy and at timeswithconsiderableeloquenceand perspicacity,
theirimpassionedclaimsare undermined by a profound ambivalencetowardwomen
reflected in whatFaucheryhas referred to as a "rhetoricofcontradiction.' [See Pierre
Fauchery, La DestineeFeminine dansle RomanEuropeen duDix-Huitieme Siecle,1713-
1807 Essai de gynecomythie romanesque(Paris: A. Colin, 1972), p. 553.]
7 BothWollstonecraft andCondorcetwereambivalent aboutRousseau'sattempt to
confinewomenwithinthesphereofsensibility (as opposedto the"masculine" sphere
ofreasonandideas); fortheysensedtheimplicit linkofthisdichotomy withtherelega-
tionofwomento theprivatesphereand,indeed,withthemaleself-interest andfemale
repression thatlayattherootofthegenderhierarchy. Wollstonecraft referredto Rous-
seau as a "voluptuous tyrant" who,byexalting women'ssensibility andmakinglovethe
focusoftheirlives,madethemthepreyoftheirsensesandmoreeasilydominated by
trueinJulie,whereRousseauadroitly
particularly adopteda pseudo-
feministtoneto advancewhatwereessentially conservative social
reforms basedon a traditionalistviewofwomen:abolishing prosti-
tution,fostering
companionate marriages,
andgivingwomena more
activeroleinthechoiceoftheirhusbands andinthecareandeduca-
tionoftheirchildren.Indeed,Rousseau's wholecampaign formoral
reform canbe seenas a consciousattempt onhisparttoputwomen
backintowhathe andothertraditionalists considered theirrightful
place: outofthepubliceyeandbackintothedomesticsphere.8
Giventhecurrent interest inRousseau's
sexualpoliticsandreader
responseto hisworks,itis surprising thatlittleattention
has been
paidto negativeor ambivalent reactions
to hisviewsamonghisfe-
malecontemporaries. It is generally
written (orassumed)thatthey
reactedfavorablytohissexualpolitics, wheninfacta number ofhis
womenreaders hadmixedreactions tohisviews,particularly onthe
men'swill anddesires.To Rousseau'swarning thatwomeneducatedlikemengrowto

resemblethemand thereby lose theirsexualcharms,she responds:"Thisis thevery
pointI aim at. I do notwishthemto havepowerovermen;butoverthemselves'[A
Vindication oftheRightsof Woman(New York:SourceBook Press,1971),p. 81.]
Similarly,CondorcetsuspectedthatRousseau'spopularity amongwomenstemmed
fromtheillusorymoralauthority and sensualpowerhe promisedthemovermenand
fromwomerfs tacitcomplicity withthestatusquo. Condorcet thereforehaddoubtsabout
thereception his ownegalitarian viewsmighthaveamonghis femalecontemporaries:
"J'aipeurde me brouilleravecelles, si jamais elles lisentcet article.Jeparlede leurs
etnonde leurempire;on peutme soupconner
droitsa l'dgalite, d'uneenviesecretede
le diminuer; etdepuisque Rousseaua meriteleurssuffrages, endisantqu'ellesn'ftaient
faitesque pournous soigneret propresqu'a noustourmenter, je ne dois pas esperer
qu'ellesse declarenten ma faveur." [Lettresd'unbourgeoisde Newhavena' un citoyen
de Virginie,incEuvresde Condorcet Frommann
(Stuttgart: Verlag,1968),v. IX, p. 20.]
8 Commenting onRousseau'simpactonthegenderideologyinRevolutionary France,
CarolBlumwrites:"The reabsorption ofthesexuallyactivewomanintothelactating
mother, thesubstitution ofa nutritivefora genitalfunction, wasa boldanddaringprovo-
cationin theeighteenth century,wherean egalitarian attitude
towardwomenhad be-
comefashionable in enlightenedand aristocratic circles."[CarolBlum,Rousseauand
theRepublicofVirtue:TheLanguageofPoliticsin theFrenchRevolution (Ithaca,NY:
Comell Univ.Press,1986), p. 47.]
Tracingtherise of theRousseauianideal of domesticity, ElizabethFox-Genovese
aptlyobservesthatit investedwomenwithauthority in thedomesticsphere,as ifto
compensate fordepriving themofwhatlittleautonomy theyhadachievedinthepublic
sphere:"Conjugaldomesticity andmotherhood weregradually seento offer theperfect
moldswithinwhichto reconfine femalesexuality andfemaleauthority. Theyalso had
theadvantages ofoffering womena newandflattering imageofthemselves, controlof
theirownsphere-however marginalized - anda modelwithwhichwomenofdifferent
socialandeconomicbackgrounds couldidentify." (ElizabethFox-Genovese, "Introduc-
tion,"in Spencer,p. 16.)
subjectoffemaleeducation. Forsomeofhisadmirers, thelimited

rolehe prescribed forwomeninEmileposeda veryrealdilemma.
Despitegenuine effortsto conform to Rousseau'sfeminineidealsof
domesticity,modesty, and self-effacement,somewomen-married
andunmarried alike-ultimately foundtheseidealsstiflingandfelt
inwardly tornbythepowerful urgingsoftheir andaspirations.
talents
Itis indeedparadoxical thatthewomentowhomRousseauappealed
moststrongly wereoftenthosewho,becauseoftheirsuperior gifts
andidealisticexpectations,wereleastabletocontent with
themselves
thelimited roleheprescribed forthem.Withtheexception of Mary
Wollstonecraft'scriticismofRousseauinA Vindication oftheRights
ofWoman, theseambivalent reactionshavelargelybeenignored.To
explorethefailings ofRousseau'steachings on women-andmore
theambivalent
specifically responseofwomen totheseshortcomings-
examines
thisarticle hislittle-known correspondence withHenriette,
an unmarried womanandaspiring femmesavante.
Henriette'sFirstLetterto Rousseau
Inthespring of1764,whenRousseauwaslivinginexileinSwitzer-
landafterthebanning ofEmile,he receivedthefirst ofa seriesof
from
fiveletters ananonymous correspondent "Hen-
whocalledherself
riette."
Hertrueidentity whichaddsan air
is yetto be discovered,
ofmystery toanalreadyintriguing Fromherletters
correspondence.'0
9 Theircorrespondence consistsoffiveletters
fromHenriette (dated26 March1764,
10 Sept. 1764, 5 Feb. 1765,28 March 1765,and 18 Dec. 1765) and threeresponses
fromRousseau(dated7 May 1764,4 Nov. 1764,and25 Oct. 1770). Thislastresponse
was to a notethatHenriette sentto Rousseauuponhis return to Parisin September,
1770.The noteseemsto havebeenlost,butHenriette summarizes itscontents andher
reactionto his responsein theprefaceto therevisededitionof theircorrespondence
thatshe laterpreparedforpublication.This editionremanieeand Henriette's preface
to itwasreprinteda century laterbyHippolyte Buffenoirina booktitledJ.-J.Rousseau
et Henriette,jeune Parisienneinconnue,manuscrit ineditdu XVIIIesiecle (Paris: H.
Leclercq,1902).Buffenoir maintainsthatHenriette's
versionofthecorrespondence was
neverpublishedbeforehis owneditionappeared,butthisclaimhas notyetbeen sub-
stantiated.
Unlessotherwise indicated,I haveused R. A. Leigh'seditionofRousseau'scorre-
spondence,whichreproduces theoriginalversionsofHenriette's fivelettersandJean-
Jacques'sthreeresponsesfromRousseau'spersonalcollection.
10AtHenriette'srequest,Rousseauaddressedhisresponsesto "Mlledemaugin ches
Mde Du hossay,ruetraversiere, presla rueclos georgeotbutteSt Roch'a Paris."Leigh
maintains thatde Mauginwas notHenriette's surnameand thatMlle de Mauginwas
merelyan intermediary. Leighsuggests thatMmedu Hossaymayhavebeena relative
welearnshewasa singlewomaninhermid-thirties, whohadbeen

unableto marry
forlackofa dowry. Raisedin a well-to-dofamily,
shehadreceivedthebestofeducations offered
to girlsoftheperiod
andhadlookedforward toa happymarriage,onlytohaveherhopes
bythefinancial
shattered ruinofherfather during heradolescence:
"I hadbeenbroughtup to expectthatI wouldonedaymarry, have
a husbandand childrento love, a householdto run. . . . Each of
theseprospectsseemedto promisehappiness,satisfaction, and
pleasure.It was noteasyto givethemup."11
Forcedtorenounce thetraditionalroleofwifeandmother prescribed
forherbysociety, Henriettestrove to adopta genderrolegenerally
reserved formen- thatofscholarandintellectual. Bypatterning her
thoughts andbehavior afterthoseofunhonnete homme, sheattempted
to transformherself inwardly intoa man:"I resolvedto castmyself
intoa newmold,to reshapemymindintowhatI imagined would
be thatofunhonnete homme,12 to adopthistastes,activities, way
ofthinking,andsocialbehavior. I triedtoridmyself ofwomen's prob-
lemsandpetty concerns,andaboveallofthatcoquettish airthatsignals
a desireto please."913
Henriette also triedto consoleherself forherinability to marry
by pointing to theunhappiness of manymarriedcouplesin her
period-due,as shesuggests, toill-matched marriages ofconvenience
andthewidespread thatresulted.
infidelity However, asidefrom one
isolatedcomment inherfirstletter, therestofHenriette's correspon-
dencewithRousseaupresents a highly idealistic
viewofmarriage.
withwhom"Henriette" lived.Anotherpossibleclue to themystery is thatHenriette's

firstletterto Rousseauwas givento himbyan Englishacquaintance, Daniel Malthus,
whovisitedhiminMotiersafterstopping inParis.Itis notclear,however, howMalthus
receivedtheletterfromHenriette. [See "Notesexplicatives," in Correspondence Com-
pletede Rousseau,ed. R. A. Leigh (Geneva:Institut Voltaire,1967), v. 19, p. 254;
"Remarque," v. 21,pp. 128-30; and"Notesexplicatives," v. 20,p. 25. The Leighedition
of Rousseau'scorrespondence will be referredto hereafter as CC.]
II LetterofHenriette to Rousseau,26 March1764,in CC, v. 19,p. 242. All transla-
tionsare mine.
12 Le PetitRobertgivesthefollowing definition forthetermhonnetehomme:" Au
XVne siecle,notionessentiellede la moralemondaine.Hommedu monde,agr6able
etdistingue parles manierescommeparl'esprit." [PaulRobert,Dictionnaire aljnhabe'-
tiqueetanalogiquede la languefranqaise, ed. AlainRey(Paris:Soci6t6NouveauLittr6,
1976),p. 847.]Henriette seemstobe referring tothisseventeenth-century concept,which
stillservedas a modelformasculinebehaviorin eighteenth-century France.
13 Letterof Henriette to Rousseau,26 March 1764, in CC, v. 19, p. 243.
FAILJNGS OF ROUSSEAU'S IDEALS 457
in herfirst
This is clearlyreflected letter,wherein an effort
tojustify
her preference forintellectualactivitiesabove traditionalfeminine
domesticoccupations,she writes:
Perhapsyouwilltellmethattheordinary
tasksofmysex shouldsuffice
to keepme occupiedand content.... In a happierstateofmind,embroi-
deryor spinningwouldbe a pleasantactivity.... YetwhenI do workof
thiskind,myimagination tendsto wander, tobroodovermysorrows, and
eventobecomederanged....Whena wifeandmother engages indomestic
tasks,sheis sustained
bya thousand pleasantthoughtsthattakeawaythe
needforotheroccupations: a husbandwhoseesteemandtenderness she
wishesto meritbyherefforts; a son,a tenderlylovedchildwhoseimage
followsandcheersherin all shedoesforhim.Do I havea lovedonelike
hersto whomI candedicatetheworkofmyhands?As I work,canI look
intomyhusband's eyesandsee thepleasurethathe derivesfromreigning
overall myaffections
andall mythoughts, andfindintheassurance ofhis
lovetheonlytruehappiness thata womancan enjoy?14
In contrast to thedisillusionment withmarriageas an institution sug-

gestedearlier,thispassage expressesHenriette's ardentlongingfor
theconjugalfelicity andjoysofmotherhood describedso appealingly
byRousseauinLa NouvelleHeloise and Book I ofEmile.Yetdespite
herfirmbeliefin Rousseau'sideal ofdomesticity, she insiststhather
statusas a singlewomanexemptsher fromfollowinghis strictures
concerning thepropersphereoffemaleactivity:"Sucharetheduties
and pleasuresthatnaturepreparedformysex; buttheyare notfor
me,"shewrites."Inplace ofthetasksthatmysituationdoes notpre-
scribeforme,I mustsubstitute an activitystimulatingenoughto keep
me fromfeelingthislack of affections and responsibilities. By ex-
citingmycuriosity, a particularcourseof studycould focusmyat-
tention,occupymythoughts, and littlebylittlerestoremypeace of
mind."15 IfHenriette prefers
intellectualactivitiesto domestictasks,
it is because she lacks thefamilylifeand emotionalties thatwould
makehouseholdtasksmeaningful.Indeed, engagingin suchtradi-
tional"female"dutiesonlymakes her morepainfullyawareof her
loneliness,marginality, and lack of purpose.
In herfirstletter,Henrietteconsidersand thenrejectsthevarious
roles traditionally reservedforwomenlike herselfwho are unable
14 Ibid., p. 246.
1S Ibid., pp. 246-47.
to marry forlackofa dowry:ladycompanion, keptwoman,nun,

laysister,andcharity worker. It is curiousthatshedoes notrefer
atalltotheoccupation ofgoverness, forwhichsheseemedbestsuited
byhercharacter, education, andfinancial situation.
Perhapsclass
prejudices resulting fromherearlierwealthandsocialprominence
prevented Henriette fromlookinguponsucha position withoutdis-
dain.After a discreet allusiontoherrefusal tobecomea keptwoman
aftertheloss ofherfortune, Henriette recounts herunhappy years
as a laysister ina religious community. Sherecallstheintense feelings
ofisolation andmelancholy sheexperienced duetoherlackofa reli-
giousvocation, to therigidity oftheinstitution, andto thedullness
andnarrow-mindedness ofhercompanions, whichmadeanykind
of real exchange(intellectual or social) difficult. Then,in terms
reminiscent ofthoseusedbyJuliedel'Espinasse todescribeherrela-
tionship tothetyrannical MmeDu Deffand, Henriette
underlinesthe
humiliation anddependence often experienced bywomen whoserved
as companion to a wealthy patroness: "Itis alwaysunderstood inthe
relation between a wealthy womananda female companion ofmodest
meansthatall theservilities andsacrifices willbe onthesideofthe
latter,thatshewillbe a slaveto theother'swhims.''16
Henriette's criticism ofthevarious rolesopentounmarried women
reflectsa deepdisappointment withthemembers ofherownsex,in-
deeda thinly veiledmisogyny. Hergeneralscornforwomenis par-
ticularly apparent inthefollowing passageconcerning hersearchfor
lasting friendships as a resource against oldage:"Thereis nowinter
morebitter forwomenthanthatofold age. In thismournful, nebu-
loustimeoflife,itistoolatetomakefriends. Toform genuine,lasting
friendships, onemuststartmuchearlier.In anycase,a womancan
hardly expectto findsuchfriends amongotherwomen.Theircom-
panyhasso littleto offer.'917 Likethepassagerecounting herstayin
thereligious community, thispassageshowstowhatextent Henriette
had interiorized hermale contemporaries' distrust
and scornfor
women.18 Itwastherefore toward men,andparticularly toward male
16 Ibid., p. 249.
17 Ibid.
18 Such expressions
ofmisogynyare surprisingly
commonin worksbywomenof
theperiod.In herMemoires,forexample,Mme Rolandrecallshowshepurposelyex-
cludedwomenfromgatherings inherhomeafterherhusband's as Minister
appointment
intellectuals,thatHenriette turnedin thehopeofbuildinglasting

friendshipscapableofsatisfying heremotional andintellectualneeds:
"I decidedthento searchforfriends in theotherhalfofthehuman
race:thatis,amongmen.... I hopedtoform a smallgroupoffriends
withsimilartastesand interests who would enjoy meeting together
inmyhome.Theircompany wouldsuffice, andwiththem,I would
growold slowlyandpeacefully."19 By herownaccount,Henriette
lackedtheservility necessary to be mistressto a richprotector or
companion toa wealthy patroness,justas shelackedtheself-efface-
ment andreligious vocation necessary orcharity
tobea nun,laysister,
worker. Onlytheroleofscholarandhostessto a smallcircleofen-
lightened malefriends camecloseto satisfying heremotional and
intellectualneeds,as wellas herquestfordignity andindependence.
Despiteall herefforts, Henriette wasunableto efface herformer
hopesandinnermost longings: "Evenwiththemindofa man,I still
hadtheheartofa woman, whichoften rebelledagainstthewillI tried
to imposeon it. My womanly affectionsandinclinations hadbeen
derivedfrom natureandreinforcing bymyupbringing. Theyformed
theverycoreofmybeing;losingthemwasa kindofdeath."20 The
mind/heart distinctionhereis crucial:Henriette claimstohavesuc-
cessfullyreshaped hermindandwillintothatofa man,buttohave
struggledinvainto changeher"womanly" heart(heraffections, in-
clinations,the"coreofherbeing")becauseitwasderivedfrom"na-
Heruseoftheterm
ture." natureherereveals towhatextent shehad-in
spiteof herself-internalized viewex-
thetraditionalist-naturalist
poundedbyRousseauthatgenderrolesandtraitsare notimposed
bysociety butderived from nature, andthatanyeffort todeviatefrom
Tornbetween
unnaturaland doomedto failureP1
themwas therefore
oftheInterior. She attempts tojustifytheirexclusionas a meansofmaintaining an at-

mospheresuitableforseriouspoliticaldiscussion,freefromfrivolity andintrigue and
as a meansofpreserving herindependence andprivacy. Forthesamereason,sherefrained
fromparticipating in thesociallifeofthecapital.In maintaining thisausterelifestyle,
Rolandclaimsto havemerelybeenfollowing thepositiveexamplesetbyMme Petion,
wifeofthemayorofParis.Yetherexclusionofwomenfromherhomeand refusalof
theirinvitations suggests thatshe,likeHenriette, hermalecontemporaries'
hadinteriorized
distrust and scornforwomen.(See Memoiresde MmeRoland,p. 72.)
19Henriette to Rousseau,26 March 1764, in CC, v. 19, pp. 249-50.
20 Ibid., p. 243.
21 AtthecoreofRousseau's thoughtis an idealizedconceptofnaturethatservesboth

as thefundamental guideforhumanrelations andinstitutionsandas thebasisforsocial
herman'smindand herwoman'sheart,Henriettefeelsthatshe has

condemnedherselfto a "kindofdeath" to a marginalizedexistence
in a sexualno-man'sland: "Alone,isolated,I belongto neithersex,"
shelaments."I am onlya beingwhothinksand suffers, who remains
on thefringeofa societyin whichI haveno place."22Painfullyaware
of hermarginalstatusin a societyin whichwomenwereexpected
to marryand havechildren,Henriettecould notridherselfofa nag-
gingsenseofisolationandworthlessness. Her socialconformism and
emotionaldependence-traitscarefully conditionedin womenofher
period- madeitdifficultforherto feelcomfortable intheunconven-
tionalroleshehad chosenforherself.Prisonerofa genderideology
in whichshe had no place, of a dowrysystemin whichshe had no
future,Henriettenevertheless
remainedconvincedthatmarriageand
motherhoodwere her naturaldestiny.
Henriette'sChallenge to Emile
These lingeringself-doubts
reacheda crisislevelwhenHenriette,a
greatadmirerofRousseau,encountered thefamoustiradein Emile
againstwomenwritersand intellectuals:
It does notsuitan educatedmanto takea wifewithno education. ButI

wouldprefer a simpleanduneducatedgirla hundred timesovertoa woman
withintellectualandliterary
pretensions whowouldturnmyhomeinto
a courtofliteratureoverwhichshewouldpreside.Unefemme bel-esprit
is thescourgeofherhusband, ofherchildren, . . . ofeveryone.Fromthe
sublimeelevation ofhergenius,shedisdainsall herwomanly dutiesand
soontransforms herself
intoa man.... She is alwaysridiculous andis
criticized Evenifshepossessesgenuine
quitejustly. talents,
anypretension
on herpartwoulddegradethem.Her dignity dependson remaining un-
criticism.Rousseau'sappealto natureis nowhere moreapparent thaninhisdiscussion

ofgenderroles:"Do youwishto be wellguidedin all thatyoudo?"he asksin Emile.
"Thenalwaysfollowtheindications thatnatureprovides.Everythingthatcharacterizes
each sexhas beenestablished bynatureand shouldbe respectedas such."Throughout
hiswritings, Rousseauinvokesnature-hisownhighlysubjective con-
andmasculinist
ceptionof it-to definewomen'sroleand to justifytheirsubordination: "The rigidity
ofthedutiesofthetwosexesis notandcannotbe thesame,"hedeclares."Whena woman
complainsthatthissystem thatmanhas createdis unequalandunfair,sheis mistaken,
sincethisinequality is nota humaninstitution.. . It is thedutyoftheone sex that
naturehas maderesponsible forthenurturingofchildrento answerforitto theother
sex."(Emile,ou l'eduction, in cEuvresCompletes(Paris: Gallimard,Bibliothequede
la Pleiade, 1969), v. IV, pp. 700; 697)
22 Henrietteto Rousseau,26 March 1764, in CC, v. 19, p. 247.
known;hergloryliesinherhusband's pleasureinthe
esteem,hergreatest
happiness
ofherfamily.3
Henriette wasso shakenbythispassagethatshewroteto Rousseau

toexplainhersituationandto askhisadvice,evenhisapproval, for
thelifeshehadchosen.Convinced (likeothersofRousseau'smany
that
correspondents) healonewascapableofunderstanding andhelping
her,shebeganherfirst letterbyconfiding: "Youknowthehuman
hearttoowellnottounderstand all theemotions thatcanagitateit.
Myhearts needscomplete freedom toexpress itself.Youaretheonly
personinwhomI feelenoughconfidence to confide incompletely;
foryouaretheonlyone whosewayofthinking suitsme andthat
I findenlightening
andpersuasive."24 TheimageofRousseauas con-
naisseurdu coeurhumainis an important leitmotiv in Henriette's
letters-aparadoxicaloneindeed,giventheperplexity helatercon-
fessedwhenconfronted withherdilemma.YetthisimageofRous-
seauwasquitecommon amonghiscontemporaries; theunprecedented
successofhis novelJuliehad firmly established his reputationas
a shrewd of
analyst character of the
capable probing deepest con-
tradictionsofthehumanheart.25
Muchoftheensuing correspondence reflects

an attempt
on Hen-
riett.e's
parttodefend
herself
againstRousseau'scriticism
byinsisting
thatshewasnotthetypeoffemme savantehehaddescribed andthat,
inanycase,herownscholarly pursuitswerejustified
sinceshehad
no otherworthwhile
roleto play.She claimedto shareRousseau's
23 Emile,p. 768.
24 Henrietteto Rousseau, 26 March 1764, in CC, v. 19, p. 240.
25 Rousseau'scorrespondence richlyattests
to thereputationhe enjoyedas an astute
judgeofhumannature.See, forexample,thelettershe exchanged withMme de Ber-
thier,who (like Henriette)was convincedthatRousseaualone could understand and
helpher.(See esp. hisletterof17Jan.1770,in CC, v. 37,pp. 205-7.)In contrast,
Mme
de Staelstrongly contestedthepopularimageofRousseauas unconnaisseur du cocur
humain:"Rousseaupossessedlessthananyonethedivinepowertoreadinotherpeople's
hearts"she affirms.(LettressurRousseau,I: 19-20) In herview,Rousseau'sintense
imagination and introvertedcharacter
made himunableto trulyunderstand or relate
to thepeoplearoundhim.Stael saw Rousseaumuchas he saw himself-andas Hen-
rietteviewedherself-as thevictimofhis owntalentsand excessivesensibility, which
provedto be moreof a cursethana blessing.
scornforwomen whodisplayed
theirtalentsandknowledge inpublic,
andsherepeatedlyunderlinedherownmodesty andlackofpreten-
sion.Shealso agreedwithRousseauthattheroleofwomanscholar
rancounterto boththenaturalandthesocialorder.Yetbecauseof
theunusualcircumstancesofherlife,sheinsistedthatherowncase
wasexceptionalandhencejustifiable:"I am notat all oneofthose
femmessavantes;I don'tknowanything
verywell, and I seek even
lesstoshowoffwhatlittle I doknow," shewrites. "I hadonlyplanned
to engagein scholarly pursuitsin an effortto assuremyhappiness.
... So, whatis unacceptableingeneralmaybe reasonable andeven
necessary in myowncase. Thisis whatI ask youto judge."26
Laterinherfirst however,
letter, Henriette'srespectful, apologetic
toneshifted tooneofdefiance andself-assurance: "Society hasdone
nothing formyhappiness, so whyshouldI makemyself a slaveto
itsopinions?" Bitterbutlucid,shepushedherobservations to their
logicalconclusion: "Inshort,sinceI existforno onebutmyself, it
seemstomethatI havenoobligation toconsult anyone butmyself-
myowntastes,needs,desires.'27 One wonders thenwhyHenriette
feltimpelledto consultRousseau.Perhapsshesoughthisapproval
inordertoreassure herself;forbeneath herairofdefiance andinde-
pendence, Henrietteseemedtolacktheself-confidence andstrength
ofcharacter neededtopursueherunconventional role.She seemed
to viewJean-Jacques bothas a superior beingwitha uniqueability
to guideherandas a kindred spirit,a fellowoutsider, whoalone
couldsympathize withherplight.Moreover, Henriette'sself-portrayal
echoedthatofRousseau himself,as didherrepeated attempts tojustify
herunconventional beliefsandbehaviorO8
26
Henriette to Rousseau,26 March1764, in CC, v. 19,pp. 240-41. Laterin the
sameletter,she adds: "I don'tplaythelearnedladywho putson airs,alwaystalking,
judging,anddominating theconversation.... Anyostentatious displayofknowledge
appearsridiculousto me.... I protestagainstanychargeofvanity. I'm nottrying to
setmyselfup as a philosopher or wit,butmerelyto acquireinnerresourcesto help
myself. . . . It is truethatthisoccupationis notwithinthenaturalorderof things,
butthenI am notinmynaturalplace either, whichis hardlymyfault."' (Ibid.,pp. 247;
250-51).
27 Ibid., p. 247.
28 The portrait Henriettedrawsofherselfinherfirst letterto Rousseaupresents in-
terestingparallelswithJean-Jacques's in theConfessions:
self-portrait "I am ofan in-
tenselypassionatenature,. . . extremely proud,and strong-willed,
sensitive, witha
livelyimagination andan overlytenderheart.... I am eagerto wintheconsideration
FAILINGS OF ROUSSEAUS IDEALS 463
Attheendofherfirst Henriette's
letter, defiancegiveswayto de-
spair:"I goonlivingwithnocleargoal,filledwithdespairandennui,
painfullyawareoftheemptiness ofmydays.Nothing pleasesortouches
me,everything is deadaroundmeandinsideme.'29Henriette's sense
ofworthlessness, isolation,andlackofidentityintensifiedbothin
feeling andin expression in thecourseofhercorrespondence with
Rousseau.A yearlater,shewrote:"Neither daughter, normother,
norwife,I haveno cleardutiesthatdetermine myactions,no in-
tereststhatanimate meorthatgivemea purposeinlife.I amutterly
useless;noonehasanyneedofme.I coulddisappearfromtheface
oftheearthwithout anyoneevennoticing."30EchoingJulie's tedium
vitaeattheendofLa NouvelleHe'loise,thesefeelings ofennuiand
emptiness form animportant inHenriette's
leitmotiv subsequentcor-
respondence withRousseauandreflect herintense with
identification
thepre-Romantic cultofsensibility
thatdeveloped inthewakeofhis
novel.
Rousseau'sSternReply:A Case ofMistakenIdentity

believed
Rousseaumistakenly "Henriette"
thatthesignature concealed
ofSuzanneCurchod,a youngSwissfemmesavanteof
theidentity
whoselifeoffered
hisacquaintance parallelswiththatofHen-
certain
ThissameMlle Curchod,governess
riette.3l in thehomeofRous-
andesteemofothers,indifferent totheprestige conferred bywealth,yetdesiring wealth

nonetheless forthegreaterindependence itoffers.... HarshwhenI amoffended, stub-
bornin thefaceoftyranny and threats,embittered bysetbacks,I am nevertheless in-
tenselyloyalandgenerousto myfriends.I am oftenin thewrong,butI readilyadmit
mymistakes.I finditunbearablethatI haveno one to careforandno one to carefor
me,alwayssearching forfriendship
andfinding to mydespairthatitis onlyan illusion.
... I havelittleconcernforprejudicesandforpublicopinionin general,butI do care
a greatdealabouttheindividual judgments ofpeopleI respectandwhoseesteemI value."
(Ibid.,pp.244-45). Themimetic qualityofHenriette's styleandself-portrayal
is further
discussedlaterin thisstudy.
29 Ibid.,pp. 247-48.Thepoeticanddramatic powerofthispassageis quitestriking.
Its styleand rhythm havea lyrical,pre-Romantic qualityand demonstrateHenriette's
considerable talentas a writer,
whichis evidentthroughout hercorrespondence with
Rousseau.
30 Letterto Rousseau,5 Feb. 1765,in CC, v. 24, p. 296.
31 Beforehermarriage to Neckerat theage of25, SuzanneCurchod'sbeauty,wit,
and learninghad madeherthecenterofa distinguished circleof admirers,
including
theEnglishhistorian EdwardGibbonto whomshehadbeenengagedforseveralyears.
However,herprecariousfinancialsituation afterthedeathofherfatherhad dimmed
herhopesofmarriageandhad forcedCurchodto earnherlivingas a governess.Her
464 EIGHTEENTH-CENTURYSTUDIES
seau'sclosefriendPaulMoultou, wouldthatsameyearmarry Jacques

Neckerandtwoyearslaterwouldgivebirth toa daughter Germaine,
thefuture Mmede Stael.Itis perhapsthanks tothiscuriousmisun-
derstanding thatwe oweRousseau'sresponseto Henriette's letters,
sinceitisunlikely
thathewould have devoted
so much time and thought
toa totalstranger.Rousseau'sfirst
tworesponses to Henriette differ
dramatically,bothin toneandin substance. Convinced in thefirst
thatHenriette
letter wasMlleCurchod, "unesavante etbelespriten
Rousseauchidesherforattempting
titre," to deceivehimas to her
trueidentityandhertruemotives inwritingtohim."I amnotfooled
byyourletter,"he declares."Youarefarlessinterested in receiving
myadviceforthepathyoushouldfollow, thaningaining myapproval
fortheoneyouhavealreadychosen.Between thelinesofyourletter
bigand clear: Let'ssee ifyouwilldare con-
I see thesewordswritten
demnto mentalidlenesssomeonewhothinksand writesas I do."32
Rousseauthenlaunchesintoa diatribe againstlesfemmes savantes
andlesfemmesbel-espritreminiscent ofthoseinEmileandtheLettre
a' dAlembert,whichhe concludeswitha stinging remark: "Itwould
havebeenfarbetter to looklikea girlin searchofa husbandthan
a philosopherin searchofpraise."33
RousseauaccusesHenriette oftryingto turnherselfintoa man
inordertousurpmaleprerogatives toknowledge andpower;through
herstudies,itis notindependence thatshehas
andself-sufficiency
triedto gainso muchas theadmiration ofothersandtheabilityto
dominate them.Invoking genderroles,he arguesthata
traditional
womanwhoadoptsmalemanners andoccupations notonlyviolates
her"natural"roleas a womanand"normal" powerrelationsbetween
thesexes,butalsojeopardizesherchancesforhappiness (whichin
hisviewcouldonlybe realizedfullythrough heterosexuallove,and
lackoffortune andsocialstanding hadcausedGibbon'sfather ofthematch,

todisapprove
whichled Gibbonto breakofftheirengagement. Mlle Curchodhadconfided herdeep
disappointment to Rousseauduringone of his visitsto theMoultous.
32 Rousseauto Henriette, 7 May 1764, in CC, v. 20, p. 18.
33 Ibid.,pp. 19-20.Rousseauis responding heretoa passageinHenriette's
first
letter
whereshe attempts to justifyherstudies:"Therewas nothingso humiliating thanto
looklikea girlwhohasbeenforgotten, whois waitingforsomeonewhonevercomes;'
writesHenriette. "Thestudious lifeI adoptedhelpedmeavoidthehumiliationI so feared.
It gaveme a certainphilosophical air thatmademe appearto havebecomebychoice
whatI was in factby necessity." (Letterof 26 March1764, in CC, v. 19, p. 243.)
morespecifically through marriage).According toRousseau,knowl-

edgeinwomenandother"masculine" makethemunappealing,
traits
eventhreatening, to men.34Echoingtraditional prejudicesagainst
womenscholars,he insiststhatlove and learning-"l'empire des
charmes" and"l'empiredusavoir"areincompatible andmutually ex-
clusivedomains;bytrying tocompete inboth,Henriette has,inhis
view,failedin both.
TherestofRousseau'sfirst letter
to Henriette is somewhat more
conciliatory andconstructiveintone,yetheinsists thatitis toolate
forherto changehercharacter andstyleoflife,forinhisviewshe
is alreadytoo dependent uponherstudiesto renounce them:"Itis
toolatetogobacktosewingandembroidery....Youcannotchange
yourheadas easilyas youcan yourbonnet." 35As in theDiscours
surl'inegalite,Rousseauexpresses nostalgia a simplerlife-for
for
thelostinnocence andbenignignorance ofa mythic stateofnature
towhichitis impossible toreturn.36He concludes thatforHenriette,
studyis a necessary evil,butonethatcannevertheless be turned to
positiveuse: "Henceforth, youshouldconsiderstudylikeAchilles'
sword, whichhealedthesamewoundthatithadmade.Youonlywish
tocalmthepain,butI wanttocuretheproblem atitsroot.Through
yourstudyofphilosophy, youonlywishto takeyourmindoffyour
sorrows; I wantitto detachyoufromeverything so youcan be at
peacewithyourself."37 LikeSaint-Preux intheplanofeducation he
proposesforJulie,Rousseaudistinguishes between knowledge that
embellishes themindandthatwhichnourishes thesoul,andhe en-
courages Henriettetocultivatethelatteraboveall. Then,likea priest
givingabsolution to a penitentconfesser,he concludes:"Ifyouare
stillable to cryoveryoursituation, thenit is notyethopeless.'38
34 Rousseau's
sharpcriticismhereofwomenwhowantto turnthemselves intomen
("lesfemmes qui veulent
sefairehommes") echoesthatofJulieina letter
to Saint-Preux:
"A perfectwomananda perfect manshouldnotresembleeach otherin character any
morethanintheirappearance;thesevainimitations oftheoppositesexareutterly ridic-
ulous; theymakethewise manlaughand scaresuitorsaway.Unlessone is fiveand
halffeettall,witha deep voiceand a beard,one has no businesstryingto be a man."
(Julie, in OC, v. II, p. 128.)
3 Rousseauto Henriette, 7 May 1764, in CC, v. 20, pp. 19; 22.
36 "Itis as impossibleto returnto ignoranceandsimplicity ofmindas itis to child-
hood.... Once themindis stirred up, italwaysremainsso, and anyonewhohas ac-
quiredthehabitof reflexion is condemnedto be a thinker all his life."'(Ibid., p. 19.)
37 Ibid., p. 21.
38 Ibid., p. 22.
Henriette'sContradictory Protest
In herresponse, Henriette
insists
thathermotives andcharacter are
quitedifferent
from thoseRousseauhasascribedtoher.Sheassures
himthatsheis shy,modest,andsoft-spoken, as befitsa womanof
herstation.If shehaspursueda lifeofstudy, itwasnotinorderto
displayhertalentsinpublic,butrather to giveherself a worthwhile
occupation andto consoleherselfforherlackofa family. To Rous-
seau'schargethatshehas triedto turnherself intoa manin order
to usurptheknowledge andpowertraditionally reserved formales,
Henriettereplies:"I havenottriedto turnmyself intoa man.Be-
longingto one sexor theotherseemsofno importance to me,so
longas one is happy."Since,in herview,an unjustdowrysystem
has prevented herfromfulfillingwhatsheconsiders her"natural"
roleas wifeandmother, Henriettefeelsjustifiedinignoring theother
genderrolesanddistinctionsimposedbysocietyinorderto secure
thehappinessshe feelsis herdue:
Sincesocietyhaspreventedmefrom mynatural
fulfilling andhas
function
givenmenootherroletoplay,itshouldletmechoosemyownwayoflife.
Withnospecificroletofill,I feltI couldignoresuchrolesanddistinctions
Without
altogether. worrying aboutthetraitsandactivities toeach
assigned
sex,I haveadoptedthosethatwouldcontribute mosttomyownwell-being,
ignoringcustomsandprejudices thatare ofno use to me.39
Startlingin itsperspicacityand modernity,thispassage anticipates

recenttheoriesconcerning theculturalconstructionofgenderroles.
Like Simonede Beauvoir,Monique Wittig,GayleRubin,and other
contemporary feminist Henriettechallengesthedominant
theorists,
gendersystem,ascribingitto customand prejudice.Like them,she
affirms tochooseherownmanner
theright ofbeing.Bytranscending
theconstraints oftraditional
genderdistinctionsandroles,shehopes
to builda happier,morefulfilling lifeforherself.This passage con-
stitutesa bold declarationof independencefromtraditional gender
norms,as well as a protestagainstthesocial oppressionunderlying
them.However,it is a double and indeed contradictory protestin
thatHenriette theoppression
criticizes inthedominant
inherent gender
systemyet,at thesametime,decriestheinjustices(class prejudices,
the dowrysystem,etc.) thatpreventedwomen like herselffrom
39Henriette
to Rousseau,10 Sept. 1764, in CC, v. 21, pp. 124-25.
thelimited(and in manywaysoppressive)role society

fulfilling
prescribed forthem.Thisis especiallyclearina laterletter, where
shedescribes herself as "tornbetween thedesiretopreserve myin-
dependence anddespaircausedbytheknowledge thatthisfreedom
willneverbe ofanyuse to meorbringmehappiness."40 In a sense,
Henriette is a feminist wholacksthecourageofherconvictions. She
wants tohavehercakeandeatittoo-and windsupstarving either way.
Henriette's attempt to findhappiness byrisingabovetraditional
gender distinctions hasfailedbecauseofthetension between herde-
sireforindependence (bothemotional andeconomic)andthecon-
formism andfearofisolation conditionedinherbysociety. Hercon-
formism isreflected inthecaveatwithwhichsheconcludes herprotest:
"I haveneverrebelledopenlyagainstanyof theprejudicesI'm
criticizing. I havealwayskeptthesethoughts to myself."'41
However,
heruse oftheloadedtermprejuges(prejudices, prejudgments) to
denotetraditional genderrolesanddistinctions constitutes another
form ofprotest againstthemandbeliesherseeming deference tothem.
Inhercorrespondence withRousseau,Henriette repeatedly makes
theclaimthat"society" is thecauseofherunhappiness. "Society has
donenothing formyhappiness, so whyshouldI makemyself a slave
to itsopinions?" she asks. "Sincesocietyhas prevented me from
fulfillingmynatural function andhasgivenmenootherroletoplay,
itshouldletmechoosemyownwayoflife,'shelaterdeclares "2 What
exactlydoesshemeanbytheterm society?Inthecontextofherletters,
thetermhas multiple resonances. Thenuancevariesdepending on
thespecific context inquestion, butingeneral Henrietteusestheterm
torefer tosocialstructures andinstitutions
andspecificallyto(1)the
dowrysystem thatmadeitdifficult forwomenofmodestmeansto
marry, (2) thegender structures thatmarginalized
singlewomen, and
(3) traditional prejudices thatprevented women(married or single)
fromparticipating actively inthepublicsphereandcultural activi-
tieswithout beingstigmatized. Shealso usesthetermmoreloosely
tomean"peopleingeneral'andno doubtspecific people-friends,
relatives,former suitors-whohaddisappointed her.In eachcase,
40 Henriette
to Rousseau,5 Feb. 1765,in CC, v. 23, p. 299.
41 Henriette
to Rousseau,10 Sept. 1764, in CC, v. 21, p. 125.
42 Lettersto Rousseau of 26 March 1764 and 10 Sept. 1764, in CC, v. 19, p. 247
and v. 21, p. 124.
Henriettesees "society"in an oppositional manner,as a collective

bodyofpeopleandpractices thathaspreventedherfrom finding hap-
pinessand self-fulfillment.
One couldofcoursearguethatHenriette was morea victimof
herownpsychological state:thedepression, excessive and
sensibility,
feelingsofworthlessness andalienation to whichsheso frequently
alludesin herletters.Butthefactremainsthatshe viewedherself
oftheinequities
aboveallas a victim andprejudicesof"society."Like
Rousseau,Henriette failedto see thatthetwomainsourcesofher
unhappiness - hermarginalizedsocialstatusandherfeelings oflone-
linessandalienation-were in factflipsidesofthesamecoin,that
theyfedon one otherandcouldnotbe resolvedindependently of
eachother.Onlybytranscending gendernormsand
thetraditional
prejudicessupported so vigorously byRousseau,onlybypursuing
theliteraryandscholarly vocationhe condemned, couldHenriette
havefoundtheinnerserenity andsenseofpurposesheso ardently
desired.
Rousseau'sBlindnessto Henriette's Dilemma

Inhissecondresponse toHenriette,Rousseauexcusestheharshtone
ofhisfirst whichhe attributes
letter, to themisunderstanding con-
cerning heridentity,
ratherthantoitstruesource-hisdeephostility
toward womenscholars. Confronted withHenriette's
dilemma, Rous-
seau expresses anda feelingofhelplessness:
perplexity "Howcan
I finda solutiontoyourproblem, whenyoursituation is impossible
formetoimagine? Youarea distressing, enigmaforme.
humiliating
I thought I knewthehumanheart,butyoursis a mystery tome."He
is clearlymovedbytheeloquenceandpoignancy ofherpleaforhelp:
"I fearI cando nothingtorelieveyoursuffering....Yetyouinterest
metoomuchto leaveyouwithout an answer.Yourlastletter,filled
withsuchdeepfeelings andinsights, meevenmorethanthe
affects
firstone."43
Henriette'sfaith
inRousseau's toprobeandhealthesufferings
ability
ofthehumanheartwastragically misguided,giventhenature ofher
problem.Prisoner ofhisownlimited viewson women,he wasun-
abletocomprehend hersituation
ortograspitssocialimplications.
In describing theidealwifeandmother inJulieandEmile,itappar-
43 4 November1764, in CC, v. 22, pp. 8-9.
Rousseauto Henriette,
entlyhadnotoccurred to Rousseauthatsomewomenwouldbe un-

theroleanddutieshe hadoutlined
ableto fulfill forthem,notfor
lackofinterest or desire(as inthecase ofcertainsocietywomen),
butforlackofopportunity-perhaps a missingdowry, physicalunat-
tractiveness,
orinfertility,whichmight prevent themfrom marrying
andhaving children. Although inBookV ofEmile,Rousseaubriefly
considerstheplight oftheuglywoman whoseappearance repelspoten-
tialsuitors,
44nowhere doesheconsider thedilemma ofa womanun-
abletomarry forlackofa dowry. Nordoesherealizethatsomewomen
mayhaveturned tostudy andwritingforreasonssimilartohisown-
bothto fulfill
theircreative impulsesandto compensate fora lack
ofsatisfyinghumanrelationships. Blindedbytraditional prejudices
againstwomen writers andscholars,Rousseaucouldnotimagine that
a woman might bedrawn tointellectual
andliterary for
pursuits reasons
otherthanvanity,thatherloveoflearning anddesireforself-expression
couldbegenuine andsalutary, evennecessary forherhappiness.Hen-
riette
represented a painfulandhumiliating enigma forRousseaupre-
ciselybecauseshedid notfitintoanyofthenarrowroleshe had
prescribedforwomen, becausewithin hisnaturalist
visionofwoman's
destinythereseemedto be no solution to herdilemma, no remedy
forhersuffering.
Rousseau's onlysuggestion toHenriette wasthatshelearntoturn
hersensibility
toheradvantage -to findconsolationinitrather than
affliction:
"Thissamesensibility thatmakesyouunhappy withyour-
self,shouldyounotwithdraw intoitandletitconsoleyouwitha
sublimefeelingof amour-propre?
. . . I knowhow muchtheneed
foraffection
is painful
forsensitive
heartswhoareunableto satisfy
it.Yetthismelancholyhasa certain
sweetness,
itmakesus sheddeli-
ciousstreamsoftears."45
PerhapsRousseau
recalledtheperiodofbitter
disenchantment inhisownlifethat,impelling
himto seeksolacein
an idealworldspawnedbyhisimagination, hadled to thecreation
ofJulie.
44 See Emile,in OC, v. IV, p. 769.
4 RousseautoHenriette, 4 Nov.1764,inCC, v.22, p. 9. TheadviceRousseauoffers
Henriette presentsan interesting
parallelto Julie'smasochistic
exaltation
ofsensibility
on herdeathbed:"Sensibility alwaysbringswithit a certainsatisfactionwithoneself
regardless of fortune
or events.How I suffered! howmanytearsI shed!Andyet,ifI
had to livemylifeoveragain,thesin thatI committed wouldbe all I wouldwishto
erase:mysuffering wouldstillbe worthrelivingandwouldevenbringa certainpleasure
to me."(Julie,in OC, v. H, pp. 725-26.)
In Rousseau'sownexperience, thesublimation ofhisunfulfilled

desiresthrough theexaltationofsensibility andoftheselfhada liber-
atingeffectandservedas thecreative impulseforhisgreatest fiction.
Theidealofsensibility wasalsotohavea potentially liberating effect
onwomen authorsoftheperiod, provided theyhadtheself-confidence
andstrength ofcharacter neededtoriseabovetraditional gender bar-
riers.Bytranscending thetraditionalconventions offemale modesty
andsilence, women likeGraffigny, Riccoboni, Roland,andStaelwere
abletoexpresstheirunfulfilled aspirations anddesiresthrough their
writing,to transformtheirpersonalsuffering intoworksofart.Yet
forwomenlikeHenriette, wholackedthestrength ofcharacter and
self-confidencenecessary toriseabovetraditional prejudices andto
expresstheirlongings in writing, thiscultofsensibility constituted
a sourcenotofliberation butoffurther oppression. Foritimpelled
them toturn backuponthemselves, toindulge masochistically intheir
ownsuffering-like a serpent bitingitsowntail. Henriette in fact
evokedthisimageinhereffort to explaintoRousseauthat,farfrom
relievingherproblems, thenarcissism andexaltation ofsensibility
he hadrecommended to herwouldonlyserveto exacerbate them:
"ThemoreI thinkaboutit,theless I understand howwe can find
realhappiness bywithdrawing intoourselves. It seemsunnatural to
me. Forevenifwe findpleasurein ourselves, we arenotmadeto
feedon ourownsubstance. The heartis communicative andneeds
toconnect withothers."46Henriette wasacutely awareofthedangers
ofexcessivesensibility-of itsantisocial, emotionally destabilizing
force.Sheclearlyrecognized thethreat
itposedtoherefforts toachieve
innerpeace:"Myintense sensibilitycausesmegreatdistress because
itmakesme so hardto please.As a result,nothing I findseemsto
suitme,orelsewhatwouldpleasemeisbeyond myreach.747 Moreover,
theexaltation whichinHenriette's
ofsensibility, casewouldamount
toa masochisticidealizationofsuffering andself-sacrifice, waspoor
consolation forwhatwasas mucha personalproblem as itwasthe
resultofsocialinjustices-the inequities ofthedowrysystem, the
46 to Rousseau,5 Feb. 1765,in CC, v. 23, pp. 297-98.

Henriette
47 Henriette
to Rousseau,10 Sept. 1764,in CC, v. 21, p. 125.Similarly,
inherfirst
letter
to Rousseau,Henriette
writes:"Onecannotcontrol one'sheart,itis onlyinterested
inwhatitwantsandremainsunhappy ifitsdesiresareneversatisfied:'
(26 March1764,
in CC, v. 19, p. 245.)
marginalizationof unmarriedwomen,and theprejudicesagainst

women andscholars.
writers YetRousseau wasas incapable
ofgrasping
thelimits
ofhisidealofsensibility
as hewasthefailings ofhisvision
ofdomesticity,nordid he seemawareofthesubtlelinksbetween
them.Forbothidealswerebasedontheprinciple ofseparatespheres
women
thatcircumscribed (inthedoublesense
la vieinterieure
within
ofdomestic lifeandaffective
experience),whileencouraging men
to expressthemselves andpubliclyin speechandin writing.
freely
The mostironic- and tragic- aspectof Henriette's
situationwas
thatshefirmlybelievedin thenaturalist-traditionalist
discourseon
womenadvocated byRousseau:thata woman's natural was
destiny
tobe a wifeandmotherandthatanydeparture from thispattern
was
bothunnaturalandanti-social.
Furthermore,sheacceptedthepreju-
dicesagainstwomenscholarsandwriters as a logicalextensionof
thissamediscourse-which indeeditwas.Asmuchas Rousseauhim-
wasprisoner
self,Henriette ofa genderideologythat,viewingthe
unmarried womanandwomanscholaras aberrations ofthenatural
and socialorder,regardedthemwithpityand scorn.
Rousseau'sRepressionofHenriette's Vocationas a Writer

WhatRousseauseemedunableor unwilling to recognizewas that
Henriette thefailure
represented ofhisownteachings onwomen - of
theidealsofdomesticityandsensibilityhehadso confidently elabo-
ratedinhisnovelsandvariousother writings.
Hadhebeenlessblinded
byhisownlimited viewofwomen,hemight haveadvisedHenriette
to expresshersensibilityin a moreconstructive mannerthanin
"streams He might
oftears." haveencouraged hertopursuea career
as a writer-avocationforwhichsheexhibited undeniableflairand
towhichsheseemeddrawn bothbydisposition andbycircumstances.
"Itseemsto me,"shewrites, "thatthereis a needto giveexpres-
siontoone'sideas,impulses,andfeelings, to airthemfreely andto
sharethemwithothers."48Attheendofherfirst letter
to Rousseau,
Henriette openlyexpresses
thepleasurethatshehadexperienced in
writing to him,theconsolation and senseofpurposeit had given
her: "Writing
to you . . . has clearlyprovento me thata serious,
stimulating
occupation
is necessary
to mywell-being.
EversinceI
48 Ibid, p. 298.
tookupthepenwhichis so foreign tomeandI yieldedtothedesire

towriteyou,I havefound thattimepassedmorepeacefully....Writing
hasgivenmea mentalactivity absorbingandstimulating enoughto
helpmeforget myunhappiness749 Expressingherthoughts andfeelings
toanother inwriting hadprovided anescapefrom herinner brooding
andsenseofisolation, as wellas an occupationrewarding ititself:
"Occupiedbythedesireto expressmythoughts, I also hadto find
a wayto communicate themto you,andthisactivity dissipated the
painand sadnessthatusuallyarisewhenI reflect on mysituation
alone.'50
Consciousofliterary andsocialconventions thatequatedwomen's
self-revelation
withimmodesty andfearingthatRousseaumight find
herlettersindiscreet, Henriettestrovetojustifyherself in theface
ofhispossibledisapproval: "I mustspeakto youagainofmyself to
clearupainy misunderstanding concerningwhatI havealready written
you,"sheexplainsin hersecondletter. "WhenI writeto you,it is
nota manof theworld,buta philosopher thatI am addressing.
Moreover, theconfidence youinspirein me andmyneedforyour
advicefreemefrom thegeneralruleofsilencethatdecorum dictates
concerning theexpression ofone'sownfeelings."''SAdopting Jean-
Jacques'spersonaas an etrea part,as wellas hisconfessional style
andself-justifyingtone,52Henriettemaintainsthatinhercorrespon-
dencewithhimsheis dispensed fromthetraditional ruleoffemale
modesty becauseoftheirexceptional nature
as individuals (theyare
bothetresa'part)andbecauseoftheexceptional nature oftheirrela-
tionship(herconviction thatonlyhecansaveherfrom herdespair).
CastingRousseauintotheroleofphilosophe (orsecularfather con-
fessor),Henrietteattempts tojustifyherindiscretionbyunderlining
herneedto clarify whatshehasalreadyrevealedaboutherself and
herconfidence in Rousseau'sabilityto guideher.
In hereffortsto expressherself, Henriette
feelsbothintimidated
49Henriette to Rousseau, 26 March 1764, in CC, v. 19, p. 251.

50 Henrietteto Rousseau,10 Sept. 1764, in CC, v. 21, p. 123.
51 Ibid.
52 In 1764,theConfessionswereofcoursenotyetpublishedor evenwritten; how-
ever,a distinctly
confessional
styleandself-justifying
tonearealreadyapparent inRous-
seau'sLettrea Christophede Beaumont(publishedin 1763),his Lettresecritesde la
Montagne(1764),andinhistwonovels(1762and 1764). Henriette hadreadthesefour
worksand comments on themin thecourseof herletters.
andencouragedbyRousseau'sinvisiblepresenceas interlocutor-by
theconflicting ofhimandofhisreactions
imagessheconstructs toher:
Preoccupied
bywhatI wishtowriteyou,wanting
to sayenoughyetafraid
to saytoo much; . . . tornbetweenthefearofappearingridiculousto you
andthehopeoffinding
a dependable
andindulgent
guide;alternately
bold
and timid;. . . mywritingvariesaccordingto how I imagineyou to be.
Whenmyimagination onlyletsme see thephilosopher,
I becomeafraid
andI tearup myletters andburnthem;butwhenI imagineyouendowed
withall thetraitsofgoodnessandhumanity, I regainmyconfidence
and
beginto writeagainwithease.53
This passage eloquentlyexpressesthetimorouscomingto writing

ofa womanfacednotonlywithall thestigmasagainstwomenwriters
in theeighteenthcentury, butalso withherownpersonalanxietyof
influencestemmingfromher unfortunate choice of Rousseau as
mentor.4KnowingRousseau'sdisapprovalof womenwriters,how
could she help but feelintimidatedby him?Yet convincedthathe
somehowheldthekeyto thehappinessthathad eludedher,sheover-
came herself-consciousness and baredherheartto him:"Teachme
how to live, showme thepaththatleads to happinessor at leastto
innerpeace:"she imploresat theend ofhersecondletter.5She con-
cludeshersubsequentletterswithsimilarpleas forhelp: "Teachme
53 Henriette
to Rousseau,26 March 1764, in CC, v. 19, p. 251.
54 In TheMadwoman intheAttic,GilbertandGubaroffer an analysisofthewoman
writer's dilemmathathelpsilluminate Henriette'sproblematicrelationship to Rousseau.
Theycarryout a feminist revisionof HaroldBloom'sOedipalmodel,whichregards
literary history as a conflict
betweenfathers andsons.In itsstead,theyadvancea psy-
choanalytic modelofthewomanartistas displaced,disinherited, andexcludedandsee
thenatureand"difference" ofwomen'swriting in itstroubled
andeventormented rela-
tionship to femaleidentity. The womanwriterexperiences hergenderas "a painfulob-
stacleor evena debilitating inadequacy,"theymaintain."Thusthelonelinessofthefe-
maleartist,herfeelings ofalienation,. . . herfearoftheantagonism ofmalereaders,
herculturally conditioned timidity
aboutself-dramatization, herdreadofthepatriarchal
authority of art, her anxietyabout the impropriety of femaleinvention-allthese
phenomena of'inferiorization'
markthewomanwriter's struggleforartisticself-defini-
tionand differentiate hereffortsat self-creationfromthoseofhermale counterpart."
[SandraGilbertandSusanGubar,TheMadwomanintheAttic:TheWomanWriter and
theNineteenth-Century Literary
Imagination (New Haven:Yale Univ.Press,1979),p.
50.] According to GilbertandGubar,thequestforself-definition is a distinguishing
fea-
tureofwriting bywomen.Although theyaredealingspecifically withnineteenth-century
Britain,theirobservations applyequallywellto Henriette andotherwomenwriters of
eighteenth-century France.
ss Henriette to Rousseau,10 Sept. 1764, in CC, v. 21, p. 126.
howto live;ifyouarenotableto helpme,thenwhoelsecan?The

confidence I feelinyourability to guidemegivesmehope;no one
hasthegiftofpersuading meas youdo.756 faith
Henriette's inRous-
seau'sabilitytosaveherfrom despair, toguideandconsoleher,was
almostofa religious nature;herentreatiestohimresemble prayers:
"Despitemyimpatience andno matter howlongittakesyouto re-
spond,I willalwaysreceiveyouradvicewithgratitude, as ifitwere
a giftfromheaven."57 ShelookeduponRousseauas a spiritual guide,
withtheinsight andhealingpowersofa psychoanalyst: "Teachme
howto ridmyself ofa feeling so oppressiveandoverwhelming that
itspreadsitspoisoneverywhere....Takedrasticstepsifnecessary,
tellmeblunttruths ifI needtohearthem,takeawayallthegangrene
andhealme.I havefaith thatwithyourhelpI willsucceedinachieving
theserenitythatI haveyearned forso long.'58
Henriette's
correspon-
dencewithRousseaustrikingly how,eveninhislifetime,
illustrates
Jean-Jacques hadbecomea cultfigure forcertainofhis readers.
Inhissecondletter
toHenriette,Rousseauhadwritten: "I promise
youthatI willthinkcarefullyaboutyoursituationandtryto help
you.Whatever happens,I willneverforgetyouas longas I live."59
Tormented byseriousproblems ofhisownin 1765,however, Rous-
seau neverrespondedto Henriette's In herletter
lastthreeletters.
toRousseauofDecember1765,Henriette expressedherdeepdisap-
pointmentandconcernat his silence.Afraidofhavingdispleased
assuredhimthatshehadabandoned
him,sherespectfully herformer
of
course studies: "While I awaityourresponse, Monsieur, I have
56 Henriette to Rousseau,18 Dec. 1765,in CC, v. 28, p. 68.

S Henriette to Rousseau,5 Feb. 1765,in CC, v. 23, p. 295.
58 Ibid,p. 299. In hernextletter,Henriette is evenmoreinsistent in herportrayal
ofRousseauas herspiritual guideandsavior:"I am spending theentiresummerin the
country.... Youradvicewouldbe so tremendously to me! How I yearntohear
helpful
fromyou . . . I feelas thoughI am perhapsdestinedto be rebornthere,to begina
newlife;. . . thatbreathing thefreshcountry air and reflecting
uponyourteachings,
I maygradually lose myselfto findmyselftransformed intoa newperson.Butwithout
you,thereis no air norsunnorgreenery thatcan haveanyeffect on a heartlikemine
thatstubbornly feedsonitsownsorrows. Onlythestrength ofyourarguments cantouch
it and cause it to change."(Letterof 28 March 1765,in CC, v. 24, pp. 321-22.)
59Rousseauto Henriette, 4 Nov. 1764, in CC, v. 22, p. 10.
followedyourteachingsconcerning womenscholarsand yourdisap-

provalofthem."60 Recallingthisdecision,she laterwrote:"I aban-
donedmystudiesin orderto become a betterperson.... I retired
to thecountry, whereI dividedmytimebetweendomestictasksand
charitywork.''61 Perhapsit was Henriette's
secrethope thatby con-
forming to Rousseau'sidealsoffemalemodesty, andself-
domesticity,
sacrifice,shewouldbe morelikelyto winhisapprovalandsympathy-
and,moreimportant, thathe mightrewardherobediencebysending
hertheresponseshe had hoped forin vain forovera year.This hy-
pothesisis supportedby the timid,almostobsequious tone of her
last letterand bythecuriousshifting back and forthfromthe first-
to third-person pronounin referring to herself:
I havejustrereadthelastletteryouwroteto Henriettea littlemorethan
a yearago.Thekindness withwhichyoupromised neverto forgetheren-
couragesmeto be so boldas to remind youofherandto hopethatyou
willnotbe irritated
ifI tryto recallherto yourmemory. She has spent
thewholesummer hopingto receivea letter
fromyouandfearing thatshe
hadperhapsannoyed you.... I dareto flatter
myselfwiththehopethat
duetoother
yoursilenceisperhaps causes:yourprivate yourinfirmi-
affairs,
ties,andyourtravels02
Thispronominal constant
instability-this shiftingbackandforth from
I to she and fromme to her- not onlyunderlinesHenriette'slack
of self-confidence,
butalso suggestsa splitting
or dissolutionofher
identityunderthepressureof multiplegriefsand disappointments.
Learningof Rousseau'sreturnto Paris in 1770, Henriettesenta
shortnoteaskingifshemightcall on him!63 Rousseau'sresponsewas
brusqueand unencouraging: "The stormsthathavebatteredme for
so manyyearshaveeffaceda multitude ofmemoriesfrommymind.
I vaguelyrecallthenameofHenrietteand herletters,butthisis not
60 Henrietteto Rousseau,18 Dec. 1765,in CC, v. 28, p. 68.

61 Prefacetothe1902editionofHenriette's correspondence
withRousseau,ed. Hip-
polyteBuffenoir,v. I, pp. 39-40.
62 Ibid.
63 "WhenI learnedofhis return to Parisin September, 1779,I was dyingto go see
him.ButhowshouldI arrangeit?I heardeverydayaboutpeoplewhomhe hadreceived
verybadly,"she laterrecalled."Finally,aftera longand vainattempt to becomeac-
quaintedwithone or anotherofhis friends, I decidedsimplyto writeto himdirectly
toaskhimifhe wouldallowmetovisithim."(Henriette's prefacetohercorrespondence
withRousseau,reprinted in Buffenoir,v. I, pp. 37-38.)
enoughto desireto see herwithoutknowingexactlywho she is and

whatshe wantsof me'" He thenasks her to furnisha fullaccount
ofherselfand hermotivesin wishingto see him,and concludeswith
thewarning."Ifdespitethisletter,Henriette insistson comingto see
me to suitherself,withoutworryingabout whetherher visit suits
me as well, I will refuseto see her.'64Rousseau'sreluctanceto see
Henriettewas in keepingwithhis generalwithdrawal fromsociety,
but she was nevertheless bitterlydisappointedby it. "Readingthis
response,I feltmyheartache andmybodygrowcold: I was stunned,"
she recalls."To avoidirritatinghim,I decidednotto writeback.'65
Despite Rousseau'slack of encouragement forher scholarlyand

literary endeavors,despitehersenseofhavingbeenforsaken byhim,
Henriette continued inhiswritings.
to findconsolationandinspiration
In herlast letterto himin 1765, she had written:"I havejust read
yourLettresde la Montagne,and I foundthemas fascinating as all
yourotherworks.Thereis no one butyou, Monsieur,who writes
likethatandwhoknowshowto speaktoboththeheartandthemind."66
It is interesting
to notethattheworkin whichHenriettefoundthe
greatest wasneither
inspiration JulienorEmile,butRousseau'slesser-
knownPensees:
Readingandreflectingon Rousseau'sworks,I feltas thoughI werecon-

versingwithhim.I almostalwayshadopenedbefore mehisPensees,a col-
lectionwhichpresentseverything thathe hadeverthought or written
on
thesubjectsmostinteresting
to humanity. Formanyyears,thechapter on
happinessservedas myfavoritetextfordailymeditation.WhenI feltagi-
or discouraged,
tated,troubled, I wouldimmediately resumemycon-
withJean-Jacques,
versation andI wouldnotleavehimuntilI feltatpeace
again.7
Perhapsbetterthananyother,thispassage illustratesthe religious

natureofHenriette'scultforRousseauand thestrongimpacthe had
on herdailylife.As formanyofherfemalecontemporaries, Rous-
64 25 Oct. 1770,in CC, v. 38, p. 124.

Rousseauto Henriette,
65 Buffenoir,v. I, pp. 39-40.
to Rousseau,28 March 1765,in CC, v. 24, p. 322.
66Henriette
67Buffenoir,
v. I, p. 38.
seauexerted a determining influence on Henriette'sviewofherself

as a woman-aninfluence thatseemstragically limitingto us, but
thatwas in herviewa sourcebothofinspiration andconsolation.
Due totheunfortunate choiceofRousseauas heridolandmentor,
notonlydidHenriette renounce herplanofstudies,shealso aban-
donedheractivities as a writer.Herrelationship withRousseaupro-
videsa strikingillustration oftheadagethat"themanwhomadeher
also brokeher'"Forhaditnotbeenfortheidealofdomesticity ex-
tolledinhiswritings, perhapsshewouldnothavebeenso idealistic
in herexpectations or so painfully awareofhermarginal statusin
society.Yet,atthesametime,without Rousseau's idealofsensibility
andhisboldliterary style(whichshestrove to emulate),Henriette
wouldundoubtedly havebeenlessconscious ofherowncreative gifts
andfeltlesscompelled to analyzeorjustify herownlifeinwriting.
Finally,had it notbeenforhis disapproval ofwomenwriters and
scholars,perhaps shewouldhavepursued herintellectualandliterary
whichuntilthenhadbeenthegreatest
activities, sourceofconsola-
tionandpleasurein herlife.Givenherliterary talentsand strong
motivation,bothso evident inherletters, Henriette might wellhave
becomea writer ofnote.Onewonders howmanyotherliterary voca-
tionsandworksofartbywomenwerestifled inthiswaybymenlike
Rousseau.
Rousseau'snarrow visionofwomen's properroleandhis ideals
of femalemodestyand self-effacement clearlyhad a repressive
influenceontheliterary careersofa number ofotherwomenas well.
His harshcriticism ofwomenwriters in Emilecausedsome(like
d'Epinay andRoland)torefrain from publishing theirworkortopub-
lishanonymously; itimpelled others(likeHenriette andSuzanneCur-
chodNecker)to giveup writing altogether. Although wellawareof
theirliterarytalentsandeagerto developthem,thesewomenwere
"closetwriters"formostoftheirlives.Hauntedintosilencebythe
specterofEmile,theywerenotableto overcome Rousseau'srepres-
siveinfluence untilquitelate,whentheyfelttheyhadnothing more
tolose; onlythendidtheyfeelfreetowriteandpublishfora public
audience. MmeRoland,forexample, firmly believedthatwomen who
pursued ambitions anddesires outsidethedomestic spherejeopardized
boththeirhappinessandreputation. Whena friend predicted that
shewouldone daywritea book,Roland retorted: "Then it will be
undersomeoneelse'sname;forI wouldeatmyfingers before I ever
becamean author." Shewas,moreover, acutelyawareofthedouble

standard andprejudices affectingwomenwriters: "I neverhadthe
slightesttemptation tobecomeanauthor; itbecamecleartomevery
earlythata womanwhoearnedthistitleforherself lostmuchmore
thanshegained.She is dislikedbymen,andcriticized byherown
sex. If herwriting is bad,peoplemakefunofher,andrightly so;
ifherworksare good,peopledenythatshewrotethem. . . [or]
theyattackhercharacter, morals,behavior, andtalentsto suchan
extentthat theydestroy herreputation
as anauthor though thenotoriety
theygiveher.'68 It wasonlyinprisonas shewasawaiting execution
thatRolandbeganto writefora publicaudiencein herownname.
EvenMmede Stael,despiteherbravadoandundeniable success,
continued untilrelativelylateinhercareerto be plaguedbya deep
ambivalence towardherselfas a writer.Hersis a particularly il-
luminating example ofRousseau'scontradictoryinfluence onwomen
writers; fornotuntilthesecondpreface toherLettres surRousseau
didshesucceedinexorcising theghostsofRousseau andofherparents,
whosedisapproval ofwomen hadhaunted
writers hersincetheoriginal
writing andpublication oftheLettres26 yearsearlier.Inthissecond
preface, aftersummarizing thetraditionalprejudicesagainst women
authors, Staelsuggests thatthegreatestobstacletoovercoming them
layinthecomplicity ofwomenthemselves withthestatusquo. She
pointsto thefearofcelebrity andto theevengreater fearoffailure
andridicule thatcausedmanytoretreat behinda maskoffalsemod-
estyandto criticize moretalented andambitious womenwhodid
achievesuccess09
WhydidHenriette abandonherwriting, whileStaelandothers
persisted in theirliterarycareersto achieveconsiderable success?
Stael'sandRoland'sremarks, andthoseofHenriette herself, provide
valuableinsight intothereasons whycertain eighteenth-centurywomen
writers succeededwhileothersfailed.Theypointto thecrippling
effectsoftraditional prejudicesagainstfemaleauthors expressed so
forcefully inRousseau'swritings andto thedangers thathisexalta-
tionofsensibility posedforsomewomen70 TheRousseauistic ideal
68 Memoiresde MmeRoland,pp. 321; 304.

69 Forfurther ofStael'sresponsetoRousseauandherevolution
discussion as a writer,
see myarticle'A BoldNewVisionofWoman:StaelandWollstonecraft ChallengeRous-
seau,"Studieson Voltaireand theEighteenth Century
(Fall 1991).
70 To overcome thestumbling bothRolandand Stael
blockofexcessivesensibility,
ofsensibilityhada liberating effectonwomenauthors oftheperiod,

provided they hadtheself-confidence andstrength ofcharacter needed
to riseabovetraditional genderbarriers. Bytranscending thetradi-
tionalconventions offemale modesty andsilence,women likeRoland
andStaeldeveloped thatdidnotfallbackpassivelyon
a sensibility
itself-a healthyexaltationoftheselfthatgavethemstrength andthat
inspired positiveactionandartistic Yetforwomen
self-expression.
likeHenriette,wholackedthestrength ofcharacterandself-confidence
necessary to riseabovetraditional prejudicesandto expresstheir
longings inwriting, theexaltation ofsensibilityconstituteda source
notofliberation butoffurther oppression. Foritimpelledthemto
turnbackuponthemselves, to indulgemasochistically intheirown
suffering.Suchwomenwereunlikely tosucceedas writers, however
talented theymightbe.
Differencesineconomic, social,andmarital alsohada strong
status
impact ontheliterary careersofthewomen oftheperiod.Thewomen
authors whosucceededin eighteenth-century Francetendedto be
married, relativelywell-offfinancially,andsociallywellconnected.
Theirmarriages gavethemthefinancial support necessary forcrea-
tivefreedom, justas theirsocialpositiongavethemaccessto the
bestmindsandcultural worksoftheperiod.In contrast, Henriette's
development as a writer was definitelyhampered byhermarginal-
ized statusas a singlewomanofmodestmeans.Her financial and
emotional insecurity,hersocialisolation, andthelackofintellectual
stimulation andencouragement fromwhichshesuffered -all these
privations,towhichHenriette herself drawsattentioninherletters-
seriously undermined herself-confidence andmadehermorevul-
nerablethanothermorefortunate womenofherperiodtoRousseau's
repressive influence.
came to view studyand writingas important means of self-consolation and self-

discipline-ofchanneling theirenergiesintoconstructiveoutletsinsteadofturning their
emotionsinwarduponthemselves. Throughout theirlives,andparticularly intimesof
crisis,writing
servedas a meansofself-control-an innerwellspring oforder,consola-
tion,and strength.For example,describing herearlyliterary effortsafterthedeathof
hermother, MmeRolandrecalls:"Jesentisle besoind'6crire.Jaimais'amerendre compte
de mesidees,l'interventionde ma plumem'aidait'ales eclaircir;avecelle,je contenais
monimagination etje suivaisdes raisonnements."
(Memoiresde MmeRoland,p. 303.)
Similarly,writing of hercousin,Mme Neckerde Saussurecomments:"L'6tudeet la
composition 6taitpourmadamede Staeluneressourcenecessaire, unmoyende calmer
etde retrempera la foissonameagitee,de maintenir sonesprita sa v6ritable hauteur."
(Mme Neckerde Saussure,"Notice,"in (Euvresposthumes de Mmede Stael,p. 47.)
GoingPublic: Henriette's IronicTribute to Her Mentor

TheendofHenriette's storypresentsanunexpected After
twist. Rous-
seau'sdeath,shedecidedtopublish theircorrespondence7lIfhehad
beenaliveatthetime,onewonders whathisreaction might
havebeen.
Givenhisnegative opinionofwomenwriters - indeedofanywoman
whodaredto assumea publicrole-he no doubtwouldhavedisap-
proved.Henriette'sdecisiontopublishthecorrespondence caneven
be viewedas an actofdefiance andself-assertion-an unconscious
rebellionagainstan overbearing mentor andagainsttheoppressive
gendersystem he represented,in whichcultural productionswere
a jealouslyguardedmalepreserve. However, in theprefaceto the
letters,
Henriette
claimedthattheir wasa meansofrepaying
publication
herdebttoRousseau:"Bypublishing theseletters,
I ampayingtribute
to all I owe Rousseau,theserenityhe broughtme.... For it is he
whotaught mehowto live."72
Thisofcoursedoesnotprecludethe
ofdoublemotives
possibility behindthedecision-that
herdesireto
publishtheletters
mayhavereflected botha consciousexpression
ofgratitudeandan unconsciousact ofrevolt.
Henriette's
correspondence withRousseauhaselicited surprisingly
littlecriticalcommentary, aside froma briefdiscussionby Paul
Hoffmann inLa Femme dansla penseedes lumieresanda bookby
AnnaJaubert titledEtudeStylistique
de la Correspondance entre
Henriette*** etJ.-J.Rousseau.La Subjectivite dans le Discours?3
Jaubert'sstudyis a detailedandhighly analysisofRous-
technical
seau'sandHenriette's styles(andthesimilarities
respective between
them)usingthemethods formulatedbyJohn Austin
andother speech-
71 As I indicatedearlier,Buffenoir maintains thatHenriette's

versionofthecorre-
spondencehad neverbeenpublishedbeforehis own 1902 editionof thatversionap-
peared,butthisclaimhas notyetbeen substantiated. Giventheimmensepopularity
ofRousseau'swritings inthedecadesfollowing hisdeathandthereverence withwhich
theyweregenerally regarded, it seemsunlikelythata publisherwouldhaverefuseda
manuscript suchas Henriette's thatfeatured severalof his unpublishedletters.
72 Ibid., p. 1.
73 See PaulHoffinann, La Femme dansla penseedeslumieres (Paris:EditionsOphrys,
1977), pp. 443-46, and AnnaJaubert, EtudeStylistique de la Correspondence entre
Henriette*** et J.-J.Rousseau. La Subjectivite dans le Discours (Paris & Geneva:
Champion-Slatkine, 1987).
acttheorists. She doesnotdiscussthesocio-historic contextofthe

lettersorthegenderissuestheyraise.And,forreasonsthatarenot
explained, Jaubert excludesfromherdiscussion Henriette'scrucial
lastlettertoRousseau(datedDecember12, 1765),inwhichshean-
nouncesherdecisionto abandonbothherstudiesandherwriting.
Neither JaubertnorHoffmann evenmentions thepreface thatHen-
rietteprepared forherownedition ofthecorrespondence,whichpro-
videsvaluableinsight intotheevolution ofherthinking aboutRous-
seau andherdecisionto publishtheirletters.
Hoffmann's discussion focusesonRousseau's inability
tocompre-
hendHenriette's situation ortograspitssocialimplicationsinterms
ofhis ownteachings on women.However, he evadesthequestion
ofHenriette's vocation as a writerandherabandonment ofitthrough
Rousseau's influence; nordoeshediscussthemimetic qualityofher
style-the wayshepatterned herwriting andherself-portrayalafter
his.Moreover, Hoffmann's analysisofHenriette'sdilemmareflects
a distinctlysexistbias,sinceheascribesherunhappiness toherina-
bilityto conform to Rousseau's limitedviewofwomen,rather than
tothelimitsofthevisionitself.According to Hoffmann, "Henriette
illustrates
thedilemma ofa womanwhoneedstobe boundbychains
inordertofeelalive,ofa womanwho,intheabsenceofpreciseand
constraining duties,feelsherpersonality dissolve."74
Furthermore,
Hoffmann implicitly adoptsRousseau'sprejudicesagainstwomen
writers, forlikeJean-Jacques, he failsto recognizeHenriette's
ta-
lentsas a writerandthesocialconstraints thatopposetheirdevelop-
ment."Henriette's solitudestemsfrom herdependence uponothers,
.. . froma radicalinabilityto transform
herouterpovertyintoan
innerrichness;'
affirmsHoffmann. "Rousseau,ontheotherhand,is
a prisoner
ofhisowngenius,whichmakeshimdeafto thelament
ofthosewholacksuchgeniusandwhoalso lackhisotherforms of
self-consolation"
(or"supplementsde soi-meme,"
as Hoffmann
calls
them)75IfHenriettewaslackingin"supplementsde soi-meme"
that
Ibid., p. 445.
74
Ibid.,p. 445-46. The originalFrench,difficult
75 to translate,
readsas follows:"La
solituded'Henriette a pourcause une incapacit6de se passerdes etresr6els,. . . une
radicaleimpuissance 'atransmuterla pauvret6
dumondeenunerichesseint6rieure. Rous-
seau,quant'alui,se trouvecommeprisonnier de songeniequi le rendsourd'ala plainte
de ceuxqui en sontpriveset qui n'ontmemepas ces 'suppl6ments de soi-meme."' The
expressionsupplements de soi-memealludesto Rousseau'sabilityto findconsolation
couldconsoleherandfillhersolitude, itwasnotbecauseshelacked
talentorinnerresources, butbecausesocietyingeneral,andRous-
seauinparticular,haddeprived herofthefreedom andself-confidence
necessary to developthem.Although Henriette maynothavebeen
a genius,herletters reflect exceptional intellectual
andliterary gifts
thatweretragically stifled.
Giventherichness andsocio-historical significance
ofHenriette's
letters,
itis curious thatsheisvirtually ignored inallthemajorstudies
ofreader response toRousseau.Forexample, inhisstudyoftherecep-
tionofLa NouvelleHeloise,Labrossedoes notincludeHenriette,
perhapsbecauseherletters to Rousseaudeal moreexplicitly with
EmilethanwithJulie.Noris Henriette mentioned inDarnton's study
oftheRousseauistic reader, whichis notsurprising, sinceshedoes
notfithismodelofunquestioning adoration ofandidentificationwith
Rousseau.UnlikeRansom andcompany, Henriettedaredtochallenge
Jean-Jacques's idealsofsensibility anddomesticity, as wellas hisviews
onwomen, although shedidacquiescetothemintheend.Moreover,
Darnton's analysisofreaderresponseto Rousseaudoes notdeal at
allwiththeissueofgender-whether menandwomen responded differ-
entlyto his writings and specifically to his sexualpolitics.In my
readingofHenriette's little-known correspondence withRousseau,
I havefocusedspecifically ontheissueofgenderinan effort topave
thewayforotherstudiesofthiskind.
WhatmakesHenriette's lettersto Rousseauso valuableas socio-
historicaldocuments is thattheyexpresswitheloquenceandacuity
theplightofthesinglewomanand womanscholarin eighteenth-
century society.Her lonelinessand frustrations are echoedin the
writingsof numerous other women of her periodwho,likeher,were
unabletomarry forlackofa dowry andwhosought toconsolethem-
selvesthrough scholarly andliterary endeavors?6 Thoughtimidand
formanybitter disappointmentswithfriends andloversthrough thepowersofhisimagi-

nation.Hoffmann mayalso be alluding(injest no doubt)to Rousseau'sonanisticprac-
tices,whichJean-Jacques referstoinhisConfessions as "cessupplements
de moi-meme."
Rousseau'suse ofthisexpression to referto bothcreativeand sexualactivitiesis ana-
lyzed in detailby JeanStarobinski in Jean-Jacques Rousseau,La Transparence et
l'Obstacle(Paris: Gallimard,1971).
76 See, forexample, thelettersofSuzanneCurchodbeforehermarriage to Necker
andthoseofManonPhliponbeforehermarriage to Roland.CertainlettersofJuliede
l'Espinassealso bear a strikingresemblance to thoseof Henriette.
response
intone,Henriette's
respectful thedom-
toEmilechallenges
inantgenderstructures
oftheperiodandundermines theidealsof
domesticityandsensibility
extolledbyRousseau,whomshenonethe-
admired.
lessgreatly Thecorrespondence andRous-
Henriette
between
seaunotonlythrowsaninterestinglightontheimageofJean-Jacques
constructedbyhiswomenreadersaccording totheirownneedsand
butalsopresents
longings, a uniquecasehistoryofRousseau'sinter-
actionwithan unmarried womanwriter-hisgrappling withher
dilemma andwiththeshortcomings onwomen.
ofhisownteachings
ofChicago
University
For lack of space,twoexamplesdrawnfromthecorrespondence of Mme Roland

mustsuffice. As a youngwoman,ManonPhlipon, likeHenriette, hadlamented thepower-
lessnessand obscurity to whichshe feltcondemned bybothhersex and herinferior
social status:"I am trulyvexedto be a woman,"shewroteto a friend."I shouldhave
beenbornwitha different soul or a differentsex or in anothercentury. I shouldhave
beenborna womanin Romeor Sparta,or else a manin France.AtleastthenI could
havechosentherepublicoflettersas mycountry, or anotherofthoserepublicswhere
as a man,one onlyneedsto obeythelaw.... I feelimprisoned in a class andan exis-
tencethatis notat all mine.... Everywhere I turn,mymindandheartrunup against
theconstraints ofopinionandprejudice, andall mystrength is consumedinvainlystrug-
glingagainstmychains.. . . My enthusiasm forthewelfareof societyseemsutterly
wasted,sinceI unableto contribute anything to it!"Laterthatyear,in anotherletter
tothesamefriend, Manonwrote:"I feelso frustrated thatmyimagination hasnooutlet.
... I remainpoorbecauseI am notpermitted to drawon myinnerriches.If onlyI
couldstudyconstantly! I lackeverything; I willneveraccomplishanything worthwhile.
I willalwaysbe a miserablenobody,annoying to myownkindbecauseI don'tresemble
them,andyetlackingwhatittakesto raisemyself up to thelevelofthoseaboveme.
I am as outofplace as one couldpossiblybe."[Lettersto SophieCannet,5 Feb. and
10 Dec. 1776,inLettres de MmeRoland,Nouvelleserie(1767-76),ed. ClaudePerroud
(Paris:Imprimerie 1913),I, pp.374-75and527-28.]UnlikeHenriette,
nationale, Manon
wasableto fulfill theseaspirations,as wellas herardentdesireforunmariaged'estime,
through hermarriageto Rolandand heractivecollaboration in his politicalcareer.

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The Failings of Rousseau's Ideals of Domesticity and Sensibility

1 See, forexample,thestudyof Rousseau'ssexualpoliticsby MaiteAlbistur and

siderablymorecomplexandambiguous andthatto be fullyunder-

hane,"'ButforHerSex... 'The Domestication ofSophie,"University ofOttawaQuar-

Itis clearfromthelargenumber ofenthusiastic to Rous-

foundimpactithadon her:"Itseemedto me thatI thenfoundmytruesubstance, that

men'swill anddesires.To Rousseau'swarning thatwomeneducatedlikemengrowto

subjectoffemaleeducation. Forsomeofhisadmirers, thelimited

welearnshewasa singlewomaninhermid-thirties, whohadbeen

withwhom"Henriette" lived.Anotherpossibleclue to themystery is thatHenriette's

In contrast to thedisillusionment withmarriageas an institution sug-

to marry forlackofa dowry:ladycompanion, keptwoman,nun,

intellectuals,thatHenriette turnedin thehopeofbuildinglasting

oftheInterior. She attempts tojustifytheirexclusionas a meansofmaintaining an at-

21 AtthecoreofRousseau's thoughtis an idealizedconceptofnaturethatservesboth

herman'smindand herwoman'sheart,Henriettefeelsthatshe has

It does notsuitan educatedmanto takea wifewithno education. ButI

criticism.Rousseau'sappealto natureis nowhere moreapparent thaninhisdiscussion

Henriette wasso shakenbythispassagethatshewroteto Rousseau

Muchoftheensuing correspondence reflects

Rousseau'sSternReply:A Case ofMistakenIdentity

andesteemofothers,indifferent totheprestige conferred bywealth,yetdesiring wealth

seau'sclosefriendPaulMoultou, wouldthatsameyearmarry Jacques

lackoffortune andsocialstanding hadcausedGibbon'sfather ofthematch,

morespecifically through marriage).According toRousseau,knowl-

Startlingin itsperspicacityand modernity,thispassage anticipates

thelimited(and in manywaysoppressive)role society

Henriettesees "society"in an oppositional manner,as a collective

Rousseau'sBlindnessto Henriette's Dilemma

entlyhadnotoccurred to Rousseauthatsomewomenwouldbe un-

In Rousseau'sownexperience, thesublimation ofhisunfulfilled

46 to Rousseau,5 Feb. 1765,in CC, v. 23, pp. 297-98.

marginalizationof unmarriedwomen,and theprejudicesagainst

Rousseau'sRepressionofHenriette's Vocationas a Writer

tookupthepenwhichis so foreign tomeandI yieldedtothedesire

49Henriette to Rousseau, 26 March 1764, in CC, v. 19, p. 251.

This passage eloquentlyexpressesthetimorouscomingto writing

howto live;ifyouarenotableto helpme,thenwhoelsecan?The

56 Henriette to Rousseau,18 Dec. 1765,in CC, v. 28, p. 68.

followedyourteachingsconcerning womenscholarsand yourdisap-

60 Henrietteto Rousseau,18 Dec. 1765,in CC, v. 28, p. 68.

enoughto desireto see herwithoutknowingexactlywho she is and

Despite Rousseau'slack of encouragement forher scholarlyand

Readingandreflectingon Rousseau'sworks,I feltas thoughI werecon-

Perhapsbetterthananyother,thispassage illustratesthe religious

64 25 Oct. 1770,in CC, v. 38, p. 124.

seauexerted a determining influence on Henriette'sviewofherself

becamean author." Shewas,moreover, acutelyawareofthedouble

68 Memoiresde MmeRoland,pp. 321; 304.

ofsensibilityhada liberating effectonwomenauthors oftheperiod,

came to view studyand writingas important means of self-consolation and self-

GoingPublic: Henriette's IronicTribute to Her Mentor

71 As I indicatedearlier,Buffenoir maintains thatHenriette's

acttheorists. She doesnotdiscussthesocio-historic contextofthe

formanybitter disappointmentswithfriends andloversthrough thepowersofhisimagi-

For lack of space,twoexamplesdrawnfromthecorrespondence of Mme Roland

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