ACIDS, BASES AND BUFFERS:

Boric acid, Hydrochloric acid, Strong Ammonium hydroxide, Sodium hydroxide and official
buffers.

ACIDS:

An acid is a molecule or ion capable of donating a hydron (proton or hydrogen ion H +), or,
alternatively, capable of forming a covalent bond with an electron pair (a Lewis acid). The first
category of acids is the proton donors or Brønsted acids.

Acids in solution have a pH below 7.0, a sour taste, releases hydroxyl ions in water, and turn
litmus paper red. Acids are divided into two main classes: (1) Strong acids are very corrosive and
cause severe skin burns, examples are hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, and sulfuric acid. Also called
mineral or inorganic acids. (2) Weak acids are mildly corrosive and normally do not affect skin,
examples are acetic acid (vinegar), citric acid (citrus fruit juice acid), and tartaric acid (used in
making mayonnaise). Also called natural or organic acids.

Acids are chemical agents that release hydrogen ions when added to water. Their chemistry
makes them one of the most important classes of molecules in nature and science. This article
addresses acids and their properties.

Introduction to Acids

So many of us have heard of the term pH, which in general is the measure of the amount of
acidity or alkalinity that is in a solution. More specifically, it is a measure of the amount of
protons or hydrogen ions that are present in an aqueous solution. Acids are primary contributors
to the measure of pH in a solution, and the presence of acids a key characteristic of almost all
solutions, from blood in the body to foods and drinks we consume. Let's discuss what an acid is
and how it affects the pH of solutions when added.

How Acids Work

The pH scale is a scale that is used to represent the level of acidity in a solution. A solution with
a pH of 7 is neutral, while a solution with a pH below 7 is an acid, and a solution with a pH
above 7 is a base. An acid dissociates, or breaks apart, and donates protons, or hydrogen ions, in
an aqueous solution, while a base donates hydroxide ions in a solution. Water, for example, is
neutral with a pH of 7. When acids are added, they release more hydrogen ions into the solution,
and this causes the pH of the solution to drop. Let me repeat: more hydrogen ions equals a lower
pH and a more acidic solution.

Acids are chemical agents that release hydrogen ions when added to water. Their chemistry
makes them one of the most important classes of molecules in nature and science. This article
addresses acids and their properties.
Introduction to Acids

So many of us have heard of the term pH, which in general is the measure of the amount of
acidity or alkalinity that is in a solution. More specifically, it is a measure of the amount of
protons or hydrogen ions that are present in an aqueous solution. Acids are primary contributors
to the measure of pH in a solution, and the presence of acids a key characteristic of almost all
solutions, from blood in the body to foods and drinks we consume. Let's discuss what an acid is
and how it affects the pH of solutions when added.

How Acids Work

The pH scale is a scale that is used to represent the level of acidity in a solution. A solution with
a pH of 7 is neutral, while a solution with a pH below 7 is an acid, and a solution with a pH
above 7 is a base. An acid dissociates, or breaks apart, and donates protons, or hydrogen ions, in
an aqueous solution, while a base donates hydroxide ions in a solution. Water, for example, is
neutral with a pH of 7. When acids are added, they release more hydrogen ions into the solution,
and this causes the pH of the solution to drop. Let me repeat: more hydrogen ions equals a lower
pH and a more acidic solution.

An Acid Releases Hydrogen Ions in Solution

BASES:

Bases are substances that, in aqueous solution, release hydroxide (OH−) ions, are slippery to the
touch, can taste bitter if an alkali, change the color of indicators (e.g., turn red litmus paper
blue), react with acids to form salts, promote certain chemical reactions (base catalysis), accept
protons from any proton donor, and/or contain completely or partially displaceable OH− ions.
Examples of bases are the hydroxides of the alkali metals and the alkaline earth metals (NaOH,
Ca(OH)2, etc.).

Examples of Bases and Alkalis

 Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or caustic soda.
 Calcium hydroxide ( Ca(OH)2 ) or limewater.
 Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) or ammonia water.
 Magnesium hydroxide ( Mg(OH)2 ) or milk of magnesia.
 Many bleaches, soaps, toothpastes and cleaning agents.

Base, in chemistry, any substance that in water solution is slippery to the touch, tastes bitter,
changes the colour of indicators (e.g., turns red litmus paper blue), reacts with acids to form
salts, and promotes certain chemical reactions (base catalysis). Examples of bases are the
hydroxides of the alkali and alkaline earth metals (sodium, calcium, etc.) and the water solutions
of ammonia or its organic derivatives (amines). Such substances produce hydroxide ions (OH-) in
water solutions.

Mixing acids and bases can cancel out or neutralize their extreme effects. A substance that is
neither acidic nor basic is neutral. The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is. The
pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.

BUFFERS:

A buffer is a solution that can resist pH change upon the addition of an acidic or basic
components. It is able to neutralize small amounts of added acid or base, thus maintaining the
pH of the solution relatively stable.

A buffer solution is one in which the pH of the solution is "resistant" to small additions of either
a strong acid or strong base. Buffers usually consist of a weak acid and its conjugate base, in
relatively equal and "large" quantities. Calculations are based on the equation for the ionization
of the weak acid in water forming the hydronium ion and the conjugate base of the acid. "HA"
represents any weak acid and "A-" represents the conjugate base.
HA(aq) + H2O(l) --> H3O+(aq) + A-(aq)
Ka = [H3O+][A-]
[HA]
A buffer system can be made by mixing a soluble compound that contains the conjugate base
with a solution of the acid such as sodium acetate with acetic acid or ammonia with ammonium
chloride. The above equation for Ka can be rearranged to solve for the hydronium ion
concentration. By knowing the Ka of the acid, the amount of acid, and the amount of conjugate
base, the pH of the buffer system can be calculated.
[H3O+] = Ka[HA]
[A-]
pH = -log[H3O+]
A buffer solution (more precisely, pH buffer or hydrogen ion buffer) is an aqueous solution
consisting of a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base, or vice versa. Its pH changes very
little when a small amount of strong acid or base is added to it. Buffer solutions are used as a
means of keeping pH at a nearly constant value in a wide variety of chemical applications. In
nature, there are many systems that use buffering for pH regulation. For example, the
bicarbonate buffering system is used to regulate the pH of blood.

BORIC ACID:

Boric acid is a weak inorganic acid with antiseptic properties, and is also called boracic acid or
orthoboric acid.

Formula and structure: The chemical formula of boric acid is H3BO3 (or B(OH)3). Its molecular
formula is BH3O3, and its molar mass is 61.83 g/mol. The chemical structure of boric acid is
shown below:
The central boron atom is connected to three hydroxyl (-OH) groups, which are capable of strong
hydrogen bonding. Its solid crystalline structure consists of parallel layers of boric acid held
together in place by hydrogen bonds.

Occurrence: Boric acid occurs naturally in volcanic areas, and in certain minerals such as borax
(as sassolite). It is also found in sea water, plants, and fruits in small amounts.
Preparation: Boric acid is prepared by reacting minerals such as borax (Na2B4O7·10H2O), with
strong acids like HCl:

Na2B4O7·10H2O + 2 HCl → 4 H3BO3 + 2 NaCl + 5 H2O

It can also be prepared by the hydrolysis of boron trihalides (such as BBr3) or diborane (B2H6):

BBr3 + 3 H2O → B(OH)3 + 3 HBr

B2H6 + 6 H2O → 2 B(OH)3 + 6 H2

Physical properties: Boric acid is a white crystalline solid with a density of 1.435 g/mL, melting
point of 170.9 °C and boiling point of 300 °C.

Chemical properties: Boric acid is a weak monobasic acid, and is considered a Lewis acid. It
dissolves in boiling water and in anhydrous sulfuric acid. When heated to high temperatures
(over 170 °C), it undergoes dehydration to form metaboric acid (HBO2):

H3BO3 → HBO2 + H2O

Uses: Boric acid is non-toxic with antibacterial properties, and it is mainly used as an antiseptic
agent, acne treatment, preservative, insecticide, pH buffer, swimming pool chemical, flame
retardant, and a precursor to many useful chemicals. It is used industrially for the manufacture of
fiberglass, household glass products and the glass used in LCD displays.

Health hazards/ health effects: Low concentrations of boric acid does not pose any toxicity.

However, boric acid is poisonous if swallowed or inhaled in large quantities. High concentrations
of boric acid can potentially lead to reproductive problems. Exposure to boric acid over long
periods of time can cause possible kidney damage.

HYDROCHLORIC ACID:
Hydrochloric acid is the simplest chlorine-based acid system containing water. It consists of
hydrogen chloride and water, and a variety of other chemical species, including hydronium and
chloride ions.

Hydrochloric Acid Formula:

Hydrochloric acid is the aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride. It is a strong mineral acid with
many industrial uses.

Formula and structure: The chemical formula for hydrochloric acid is HCl, and its molecular
weight is 36.47 g/mol. It is the solution of hydrogen chloride in water, and HCl is used
synonymously for both the gaseous form and the aqueous solution. HCl is a simple diatomic
molecule, with a polarized covalent bond between the hydrogen atom and the electronegative
chlorine atom.

Occurrence: Hydrochloric acid is the main constituent of natural gastric acids in our stomach.
Preparation: It is prepared by dissolving hydrogen chloride in water. Hydrogen chloride is
typically generated as the by-product from industrial scale production of other chemicals. It is
also prepared industrially by the combustion of hydrogen in chlorine. High concentrations of
HCl are difficult to prepare due to evaporation.

Physical properties: Hydrochloric acid is a clear, colorless solution and has a highly pungent
odor. It is available in many different concentrations in water, thus its exact physical properties
(boiling point, melting point and density) vary accordingly.

The concentrated grade (fuming hydrochloric acid) is about 38% HCl in water. Industrial-grade
HCl is about 30% to 35%, while the commercial grade (muriatic acid) is between 20% and 32%.
Household cleaning solutions of HCl are typically 10% to 12%, but these still need further
dilution before use.

Chemical properties: HCl is a strong, monoprotic acid, which means it can release only one H+
ion (proton). Being a strong acid, it gets completely dissociated in water to give the hydronium
and chloride ions. It readily reacts with bases to form chloride salts. Concentrated HCl dissolves
many metals and forms oxidized metal chlorides and hydrogen gas. Dilute HCl can break down
or digest many chemical and biological samples.

Uses: Hydrochloric acid has many industrial uses, such as in the production of various chlorides,
plastics (such as PVC and polyurethane), fertilizers, and dyes. It is also used in the photographic,
textile, and rubber industries, as well as in gelatin production, leather processing and household
cleaning products.

Health hazards/ health effects: HCl is very corrosive to the eyes, skin, and mucous membranes.
Skin contact results in severe burns and scarring. Inhalation of the fumes can cause irritation of
eyes, nose, and respiratory tract. Ingestion of the acid causes tissue damage to the mucous
membranes, esophagus, and stomach.

STRONG AMMONIUM HYDROXIDE:

Ammonium hydroxide may not be a familiar formula to you, but it's actually found in the food
you eat and the products you regularly use. This lesson will outline the many uses of ammonium
hydroxide to dilute some of its mystery.

Ammonium Hydroxide

If you follow the news, you might recall some stories about fast food restaurants using 'pink
slime' as meat. Though this description is admittedly gross, it's also a little misleading. This so-
called 'pink slime' is meat that has been treated with ammonium hydroxide. But don't panic;
ammonium hydroxide is an extremely common chemical compound used in more ways than
you'd probably expect.

Specifically, ammonium hydroxide is made up of ammonia and water to form a new solution.
The formula for ammonia hydroxide is (NH4)OH, or you may see it written as H5 NO. It's a
colorless liquid that shares a similar strong odor with ammonia. Ammonium hydroxide is
alkaline, meaning it has a high pH, so it can be used to neutralize acids.

Ammonium hydroxide is found naturally in the air, water, and soil, and even inside humans and
plants. Our own organs produce ammonia as do beneficial bacteria in our intestines. It even plays
a role in protein synthesis. Though ammonium hydroxide is a natural compound, we also make it
by diluting ammonia with water.

While you probably want to learn more about this 'pink slime' business, there are more uses for
ammonium hydroxide than just adding it to fast food meats. Let's take a look at some of these
uses.

Cleaning

Ammonia is a well-known disinfectant but you usually don't use it without diluting it first. As
soon as water is added to ammonia, it becomes ammonium hydroxide, a substance commonly
used for cleaning. The high alkalinity of ammonium hydroxide is effective at killing microbial
agents like bacteria, so ammonium hydroxide is great for sanitation and has both household and
industrial uses.

Manufacturing

Ammonium hydroxide is used in quite a few manufacturing processes too, including fertilizer
and plastic and rubber production. One of the key ingredients of fertilizers is nitrogen, which can
be derived from ammonium hydroxide (it's the N in the (NH4)OH). It can also be used to stain
wood that contains tannic acids and synthesize chemicals like sodium carbonate
SODIUM HYDROXIDE:

Sodium hydroxide, also known as lye and caustic soda, is an inorganic compound with the
formula NaOH. It is a white solid ionic compound consisting of sodium cations Na+
and hydroxide anions OH−
.
Sodium hydroxide is a highly caustic base and alkali that decomposes proteins at ordinary
ambient temperatures and may cause severe chemical burns. It is highly soluble in water, and
readily absorbs moisture and carbon dioxide from the air. It forms a series of hydrates
NaOH·nH2O. The monohydrate NaOH·H2O crystallizes from water solutions between 12.3 and
61.8 °C. The commercially available "sodium hydroxide" is often this monohydrate, and
published data may refer to it instead of the anhydrous compound. As one of the simplest
hydroxides, it is frequently utilized alongside neutral water and acidic hydrochloric acid to
demonstrate the pH scale to chemistry students.

Sodium hydroxide is used in many industries: in the manufacture of pulp and paper, textiles,
drinking water, soaps and detergents, and as a drain cleaner. Worldwide production in 2004 was
approximately 60 million tonnes, while demand was 51 million tonnes.

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), also known as caustic soda or lye, is a highly versatile substance
used in a variety of manufacturing processes. Sodium hydroxide is a co-product of chlorine
production.

Uses & Benefits

Sodium hydroxide is used to manufacture many everyday products, such as paper, aluminum,
commercial drain and oven cleaners, and soap and detergents.

Sodium Hydroxide in Cleaning & Disinfectant Products

Sodium hydroxide is used to manufacture soaps and a variety of detergents used in homes and
commercial applications. Chlorine bleach is produced by combining chlorine and sodium
hydroxide. Drain cleaners that contain sodium hydroxide convert fats and grease that can clog
pipes into soap, which dissolves in water.

Sodium Hydroxide in Pharmaceuticals & Medicine

Sodium hydroxide is used to help manufacture a variety of medicines and pharmaceutical

products, from common pain relievers like aspirin, to anticoagulants that can help to prevent
blood clots, to cholesterol-reducing medications.

Sodium Hydroxide in Energy

In the energy sector, sodium hydroxide is used in fuel cell production. Fuel cells work like
batteries to cleanly and efficiently produce electricity for a range of applications, including
transportation; materials handling; and stationary, portable and emergency backup power
applications. Epoxy resins, manufactured with sodium hydroxide, are used in wind turbines.

Sodium Hydroxide in Water Treatment

Municipal water treatment facilities use sodium hydroxide to control water acidity and to help
remove heavy metals from water. Sodium hydroxide is also used to produce sodium
hypochlorite, a water disinfectant.

Sodium Hydroxide in Food Production

Sodium hydroxide is used in several food processing applications, such as curing foods like
olives or helping to brown Bavarian-style pretzels, giving them their characteristic crunch.
Sodium hydroxide is used to remove skins from tomatoes, potatoes and other fruits and
vegetables for canning and also as an ingredient in food preservatives that help prevent mold and
bacteria from growing in food.

Sodium Hydroxide in Wood & Paper Products

In many paper making processes, wood is treated with a solution containing sodium sulfide and
sodium hydroxide. This helps dissolve most of the unwanted material in the wood, leaving
relatively pure cellulose, which forms the basis of paper. In the paper recycling process, sodium
hydroxide is used to separate the ink from the paper fibers allowing the paper fibers to be reused
again.

Sodium hydroxide is also used to refine raw materials for wood products such as cabinets and
furniture and in wood bleaching and cleaning.

Sodium Hydroxide in Aluminum Ore Processing

Sodium hydroxide is used to extract alumina from naturally occurring minerals. Alumina is used
to make aluminum and a variety of products including foil, cans, kitchen utensils, beer kegs and
airplane parts. In building and construction, aluminum is used in materials that enable building
facades and window frames.

Sodium Hydroxide in Other Industrial Manufacturing Uses

Sodium hydroxide is used in many other industrial and manufacturing processes. It is used to
manufacture rayon, spandex, explosives, epoxy resins, paints, glass and ceramics. It is also used
in the textile industry to make dyes, process cotton fabric and in laundering and bleaching, as
well as in metal cleaning and processing, oxide coating, electroplating and electrolytic
extracting.