Error

The difference between the measured value and true value is

called “Error”
Hence, it is important to know how close the measured value is
to the true value.

True value Measured value Errors

Systematic Errors:
These errors have some
identifiable source and may be
corrected by calibration. Like
zero drift, sensitivity drift, etc.
Random Errors:
These errors can not be sourced out and
hence can not be corrected.
Due to temperature change, humidity,
wind, vibrations, electromagnetic field,
etc.
Since, this error arises from a multiple
sources, it is impossible to quantify.
 Uncertainty Analysis
Since the total error includes random error, which
are uncertain, errors are usually referred to as
uncertainties.
For any experimental study, uncertainties analysis
must be performed and reported along with the
measurements.
 Estimation of Random Errors
Since random errors are not deterministic, a
probabilistic approach is used.
Probabilistic approach involve a probability
distribution
Gaussian or Normal distribution is commonly
used
The function is constructed by taking several
samples of a certain measurement and
constructing a frequency distribution function
Counting the number of occurrences of a
certain value in an interval.
 Propagation of Uncertainties
Consider the measurement of an effective resistance of
a circuit comprising three resistors in series

So, R1, R2 and R3, have to be measured.

There would be uncertainties in the measurement of each of
these resistances, which will affect the Reff .
 Kline & McClintock’ Method, 1953.

Consider a variable N (dependent) which is calculated from

various measurements such as u1, u2, u3,u4…….un and
governed by the function

N f (u1, u2 , u3 ,....., un )
The total uncertainty (in N) n would include uncertainties
of ui ; ie u1, u2, u3, u4, un

Therefore;
N N f (u1 u1, u2 u2 ,......, un un )
 Kline & McClintock’ Method..Condt.
Expand f(u1, u2, u3…un) by Taylor’s series;

f (u1 u1, u2 u2 ,....., un un )

f f
f (u1, u2 ,..., un ) u1 u2 ....
u1 u2
f 2 3
un O( u1 ) O( u1 )
un

Ignoring second and higher derivatives;

f f f
N u1 u2 .... un
u1 u2 un
 Kline & McClintock’ Method..Condt.

Sometimes the estimated error may be wrong . Some time

systematic errors may have equal magnitude in OPPOSITE
sign; they may tend to cancel out each other. So, a reasonable
estimate would be the Root Sum Square (RSS) error given by;

Overall error is given by

2 2 2
f f f
N u1 u2 ... un
u1 u2 un
 Example problem
Calculate the uncertainty in head loss hl expressed as
2
flV
hl
2 gd
Given uncertainties in l,v and d are 2%, 4% and 1%. Ignore
the uncertainties in f and g
Solution
2 2 2
hl hl f
hl l v d
l v d
2
hl fv hl hl 2 fvl hl
where ;
l 2 gd l v 2 gd 2v
 hl fv 2l hl
d 2 gd 2 d
2 2 2 1/ 2
l 1 v d
hl hl
l 4 v d

1/ 2
2 1 2 2
hl hl 0.02 0.04 0.01
4
1/ 2
hl 2 1 2 2
0.02 0.04 0.01 0.03
hl 4

Total Error = 3 %
Points to be noted:
In many mechanical problems, we assume the value
of g is 9.8.
However, in reality; there is an uncertainty in the
value of g, which has to be accounted where the
situation arises.
So, expect for universal constants, all other
parameters used for estimating a quantity to be
considered while calculating the total uncertainties.
 Find uncertainties is the following calculated
quantities

Flow rate in fully developed laminar region

pd 4
Q
128 l
Grashof Number; Gr
2
g (Ts T )l 3
Gr 2

Given uncertainties in p, d, , l, , and T are 4%, 2%,

3%, 2%, 4%, 5% and ±2 C
Airflow rate of 17m3/h through a pipe of 60 mm ID at 20oC is measured
using a square edged orifice ( = 0.4). A pressure drop observed is
157.85 N/m2 with 0.4%. If the area of orifice is maintained within 0.2 %,
estimate the design stage uncertainty in the flow rate. Assume
accuracies of Cd and are 0.5%. Estimate the total error in the
measurement for Cd = 0.63 and P = 0.97 bar abs and R= 287 J/kg K.

Solution For an orifice, Q = CdA(2 p/ )1/2

2 2 2 2
Q Q Q Q
Q Cd A ( P)
Cd A P

Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q
; ; ;
Cd Cd A Cd p 2 p 2
1/ 2
uQ uC 2 uA 2
u 2
u p
( d
) ( ) ( ) ( )2
Q Cd A 2 2 p
 Cd A P
0.005 ; 0.002
Cd A RT
p 95000
0.004 ; 0.005
p 287 X 293
1.13 kg / m3
Total uncertainty
1/ 2
uQ uC uA u u p
2 2 2
( d
) ( ) ( ) ( )2
Q Cd A 2 2 p
uQ 2 2 2 2 1/ 2
(0.005) (0.002) (0.5 X 0.005) (0.5 X 0.004)
Q uQ
0.6%
Q
Total Error
2 P 2 X 157.85
Q Cd A 0.63 X (0.06) 2 0.03 m3 / s
4 1.13
Total Error = 10.7 l/min.
 Properties of the Normal or
Gaussian Function
The area under the Gaussian Curve is 1, hence the
maximum probability is 1. I.e., the probability of any real
value to lie between - to + is 1.
The area lies under [- , + ] is 68%: the change that a
measurement will be out of the given limits is 1 in 3 times
The area lies under [-2 , +2 ] is 95.4% ; in every 20
measurements, one may fall out of the given limits
The area lies under [-3 , +3 ] is 99.7% ; one
measurement in every 300 measurements may fall outside
of the limits
Gaussian function narrows with decreasing
Procedure for expressing experimental uncertainty

Step 1 : Take sufficient large number of samples x

Step 2 : Obtain mean xm, standard deviation
Step 3 : Express measurement as x = xm n