ECEN 3413 ADVANCED COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATIONS

Mc WINLEY T. GALLEMIT, ECE

PART I

I. OPTICAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

- A SYSTEM THAT USES LIGHT AS THE CARRIER OF INFORMATION AND GUIDES IT THROUGH GLASS OR
PLASTIC FIBER CABLES, IN A MANNER SIMILAR TO THE WAY ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ARE
GUIDED THROUGH A METALLIC TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
- THE TECHNOLOGY OF TRANSFERRING INFORMATION, FOR EEXAMPLE, IN COMMUNICATIONS OR
COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY THROUGH A NUMBER OF THIN FLEXIBLE GLASS OR PLASTIC TUBES USING
MODULATED LIGHT WAVES

TABLE 1.1: HISTORY OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATIONS

WHEN? WHO / WHERE? WHAT?
1850 JOHN TYNDALL DEMONSTRATED TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
1880 ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL EXPERIMENTED WITH A PHOTOPHONE
1930 J.L. BAIRD & C.W. HANSELL GAINED PATENTS FOR SCANNING AND TRANSMITTING
TELEVISION IMAGES THROUGH UNCOATED FIBER CABLES
1951 C.S van HEEL, H.H. HOPKINS, EXPERIMENTED WITH LIGHT TRANSMISSION THROUGH
AND N.S. KAPANY BUNDLES OF FIBER
1956 N.S. KAPANY COINED THE TERM “FIBER OPTICS”
1958 CHARLES TOWNES AND DESCRIBE HOW IT WAS POSSIBLE TO USE LASER AND
ARTHUR SHAWLOW MASER
1960 THEODORE MAIMAN BUILT THE FIRST OPTICAL MASER
1967 K.C. KAO AND G. A. BOCKHAM INTRODUCED CLADDED FIBER CABLES
1970 KAPRON, KECK, AND MAURER DEVELOPED OPTICAL FIBER WITH LOSSES LESS THAN
2dB/km
1988 NEC TRANSMISSION OF 10GBps OVER 80.1km OF FIBER

II. OPTICAL FIBERS versus METALLIC CABLES

OPTICAL FIBER – CYLINDRICAL DIELECTRIC WAVEGUIDES MADE UP OF CENTER CYLINDER OF GLASS

(CORE) WITH ONE INDEX OF REFRACTION, SURROUNDED BY AN ANNULUS (CLAD) WITH SLIGHTLY
DIFFERENT INDEX OF REFRACTION

A. ADVANTAGES
1. WIDER BANDWIDTH AND INFORMATION CAPACITY – OPTICAL FIBERS ARE CAPABLE OF
TRANSMITTING SEVERAL GIGABITS PER SECOND OVER HUNDREDS OF MILES
2. IMMUNITY TO CROSSTALK – CROSSTALK ARE ONLY PRESENT ON CURRENT CARRYING
CONDUCTORS WITH VARYING MAGNETIC FIELDS
3. IMMUNITY TO STATIC INTERFERENCE – OPTICAL FIBERS ARE IMMUNE TO
ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE (EMI) CAUSED BY LIGHTNING, RELAYS, ETC.
4. ENVIRONMENTAL IMMUNITY – FOC ARE LESS AFFECTED BY WEATHER CONDITIONS AS
WELL BY CORROSIVE LIQUIDS AND GASES
 5. SAFETY AND CONVENIENCE – NO WORRIES OF FIRES AND EXPLOTIONS. ALSO, FOC ARE
LIGHTER THAN METALLIC CABLES
6. LOWER TRANSMISSION LOSS
7. SECURITY – CANNOT TAP INTO FOC AND CANNOT BE DETECTED BY METAL DETECTORS
8. ECONOMICS – REQUIRES FEWER REPEATERS, LOWER INSTALLATION COST AND HIGHER
RELIABILITY

B. DISADVANTAGES
1. INTERFACING COSTS – REQUIRES EXPENSIVE INTERFACES
2. STRENGTH – FOC ARE FRAGILE AND LESS SUITABLE FOR PORTABILITY
3. REMOTE ELECTRICAL POWER – ELECTRICAL POWER SHOULD BE SUPPLIED TO
REGENERATORS WHICH ARE LOCATED MILES AWAY (OR UNDER THE OCEAN)
4. LOSS BY BENDING – A SMALL DEFECT IN MANUFACTURING CAN CAUSE SEVERE SIGNAL
LOSS
5. SPECIALIZED TOOLS, EQUIPMENT AND TRAINING – REQUIRES EXPENSIVE TOOLS AND
EQUIPMENTS, TOGETHER WITH WELL TRAINED MAINTENANCE PERSONNEL

III. OPTICAL SPECTRUM

A. INFRARED – WITH WAVELENGTHS RANGING BETWEEN 770nm AND 106 nm.

B. VISIBLE – WITH WAVELEGTHS RANGING BETWEEN 390 nm AND 770 nm
C. ULTRAVIOLET – RANGING BETWEEN 10 nm AND 390 nm

IV. OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

A. VOLTAGE-TO-CURRENT CONVERTER – CONVERTS THE INFORMATION INTO A VARYING
CURRENT THAT IS USED TO DRIVE THE LIGHT SOURCE
B. LIGHT SOURCE – CAN BE INFRARED LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (IR LED) OR INJECTION LASER DIODE
(ILD)
C. SOURCE-TO-FIBER INTERFACE – COUPLES THE LIGHT EMITTED FROM THE LIGHT SOURCE INTO
THE OPTICAL FIBER CABLE
D. OPTICAL FIBER – CONSIST OF A CORE AND A CLADDING, ENCAPSULATED BY A PROTECTIVE
JACKET
E. FIBER-TO-LIGHT DETECTOR INTERFACE – USED TO COUPLE AS MUCH LIGHT FROM THE CABLE
TO THE LIGHT DETECTOR
F. LIGHT DETECTOR – CONVERTS LIGHT ENERGY INTO CURRENT
G. CURRENT-TO-VOLTAGE CONVERTER – CONVERTS CHANGING CURRENT LEVELS BACK INTO
VARYING VOLTAGE LEVELS TO RETRIEVE THE INFORMATION SIGNAL

V. OPTICAL FIBER TYPES

A. PLASTIC CORE AND CLADDING
B. GLASS CORE AND PLASTIC CLADDING
C. CLASS CORE AND CLADDING

VI. LIGHT PROPAGATION

A. OPTICAL POWER – SOMETIMES MEASURED IN WATTS OR GENERALLY STATED IN DECIBELS

RELATIVE TO A DEFINED POWER LEVEL SUCH AS 1mW FOR dBm AND 1uW FOR dBu, AND SO ON.
 𝑃(𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠)
𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔 [ ]
1𝑚𝑊
𝑃(𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠)
𝑑𝐵𝑢 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔 [ ]
1𝑢𝑊
𝑃(𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠)
𝑑𝐵𝑛 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔 [ ]
1𝑛𝑊
𝑃(𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠)
𝑑𝐵𝑟𝑛 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔 [ ]
1𝑝𝑊
𝑃(𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠)
𝑑𝐵𝑓 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔 [ ]
1𝑓𝑊

B. VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION – LIGHT TRAVELS AT A CONSTANT VELOCITY IN A VACUUM BUT

STUDIES REVEAL THAT IT TRAVELS MUCH SLOWER INSIDE AN OPTICAL FIBER
C. REFRACTION – BENDING OF LIGHT WAVES AS IT PASSES FROM A LESS DENSE MATERIAL TO A
MORE DENSEMATERIAL
1. REFRACTIVE INDEX – THE RATIO OF THE VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION OF A LIGHT RAY IN
FREE SPACE TO THE VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION OF A LIGHT RAY IN A GIVEN MATERIAL

𝑐
𝑛=
𝑣
WHERE,
𝑛 = REFRACTIVE INDEX, UNITLESS
𝑐 = SPEED OF LIGHT IN FREE SPACE (3 × 108 m/s)
𝑣 = SPEED OF LIGHT IN A GIVEN MATERIAL, METERS PER SECOND

TABLE 6.1: TYPICAL INDEX OF REFRACTION

MATERIAL INDEX OF REFRACTION
VACUUM 1.0
AIR 1.0003
WATER 1.33
ETHYL ALCOHOL 1.36
GLASS (FUSED QUARTZ) 1.46
GLASS FIBER 1.5 – 1.9
DIAMOND 2.0 – 2.42
SILICON 3.4
GALLIUM-ARSENIDE 2.6

2. SNELL’S LAW – SHOWS THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE REFRACTIVE INDEX WITH THE ANGLE
OF INCIDENCE AND ANGLE OF REFRACTION

𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2
WHERE,
𝑛1 = REFRACTIVE INDEX OF MATERIAL 1 (UNITLESS)
𝑛2 = REFRACTIVE INDEX OF MATERIAL 2 (UNITLESS)
𝜃1 = ANGLE OF INCIDENCE (DEGREES)
𝜃2 = ANGLE OF REFRACTION (DEGREES)
D. DISPERSION – THE SEPARATION OF VISIBLE LIGHT OR OTHER ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES INTO
DIFFERENT WAVELENGTHS
E. CRITICAL ANGLE – THE MINIMUM ANGLE AT WHICH A LIGHT RAY MAY STRIKE THE INTERFACE
OF TWO MEDIA AND RESULT IN AN ANGLE OF REFRACTION OF 90° OR GREATER.

𝑛2
sin 𝜃𝑐 =
𝑛1
WHERE,
𝜃𝑐 = CRITICAL ANGLE (DEGREES)
𝑛1 = REFRACTIVE INDEX OF MATERIAL 1 (UNITLESS)
𝑛2 = REFRACTIVE INDEX OF MATERIAL 2 (UNITLESS)

F. ACCEPTANCE ANGLE – THE MAXIMUM ANGLE IN WHICH EXTERNAL LIGHT RAYS MAY STRIKE
THE AIR/GLASS INTERFACE AND STILL PROPAGATE DOWN THE FIBER

√𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝜃𝑖𝑛(max) = sin−1
𝑛0
WHERE,
𝜃𝑖𝑛(max) = ACCEPTANCE ANGLE
𝑛0 = INDEX OF REFRACTION OF AIR = 1
𝑛1 = INDEX OF REFRACTION OF MATERIAL 1
𝑛2 = INDEX OF REFRACTION OF MATERIAL 2

G. NUMERICAL APERTURE – USED TO DESCRIBE THE LIGHT-COLLECTING ABILITY OF AN OPTICAL

FIBER

𝑁𝐴 = sin 𝜃𝑖𝑛
𝑁𝐴 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22

H. ENERGY OF A SINGLE PHOTON

LIGHT BEHAVES AS THOUGH IT WERE MADE UP OF VERY SMALL PARTICLES CALLED
PHOTONS

IN JOULES,
𝐸(𝐽) = ℎ𝑓
WHERE,
ℎ = PLANCK’S CONSTANT = 6.625 x 10-34 Js
𝑓 = FREQUENCY, Hz

IN ELECTRON-VOLT,
1.241
𝐸(𝑒𝑉) =
𝜆
WHERE,
𝜆 = WAVELENGTH, μm
VII. OPTICAL FIBER CONFIGURATIONS

A. MODE OF PROPAGATION – MEANS THE PATH OF PROPAGATION

1. SINGLE MODE – LIGHT ENERGY PROPAGATES IN ONLY ONE PATH ALONG THE FIBER
2. MULTI-MODE – LIGHT RAYS PROPAGATE DOWN THE CABLE IN MANY DIFFERENT
ZIGZAG PATHS

NUMBER OF PROPAGATING MODES

2
𝜋𝑑 2 2
𝑁 ≈ ( √𝑛1 − 𝑛2 )
𝜆
WHERE,
𝑁 = NUMBER OF PROPAGATING MODES
𝑑 = CORE DIAMETER
𝜆 = WAVELENGTH

B. INDEX PROFILE – GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE MAGNITUDE OF REFRACTIVE INDEX IN

THE FIBER
1. STEP INDEX – HAS A CENTRAL CORE WITH A UNIFORM REFRACTIVE INDEX
2. GRADED INDEX – THE REFRACTIVE INDEX OF THE CORE IS NONUNIFORM

VIII. OPTICAL FIBER CLASSIFICATION

A. SINGLE MODE STEP-INDEX

1. ADVANTAGES
i. MINIMUM DISPERSION
ii. HIGHER BANDWIDTH AND INFORMATION CAPACITY
2. DISADVANTAGES
i. HAS SMALLER ACCEPTANCE ANGLE
ii. REQUIRES A LASER TO COUPLE LIGHT INTO IT
iii. EXPENSIVE AND DIFFICULT TO MANUFACTURE

B. MULTIMODE STEP-INDEX
1. ADVANTAGES
i. RELATIVELY INEXPENSIVE AND EASIER TO MANUFACTURE
ii. HAS WIDER APERTURE SO ITS EASIER TO COUPLE LIGHT
2. DISADVANTAGES
i. PRONE TO MODAL DISPERSION
ii. LESS BANDWIDTH AND RATE OF INFORMATION

C. MULTIMODE GRADED-INDEX

IX. LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBER CABLES

A. ABSORPTION LOSS
1. ULTRAVIOLET ABSORPTION – CAUSED BY VALENCE ELECTRONS IN THE SILICA DURING
MANUFACTURE
 2. INFRARED ABSORPTION – RESULT OF PHOTONS OF LIGHT THAT ARE ABSORBED BY THE
ATOMS OF THE GLASS CORE MOLECULES
3. ION RESONANCE ABSORPTION – CAUSED BY OH- IONS IN THE MATERIAL
B. MATERIAL OR RAYLEIGH, SCATTERING LOSS – CAUSED BY THE DIFFRACTION IN THE IMPURITIES
OF THE MATERIAL
C. CHROMATIC OR WAVELENGTH DISPERSION – RESULT OF THE DELAY IN THE ARRIVAL OF LIGHT
RAYS BECAUSE OF THEIR DIFFERENCE IN WAVELENGTH
D. RADIATION LOSSES – CAUSED BY BENDS IN THE FIBER
E. MODAL DISPERSION (PULSE SPREADING) – HAPPENS ONLY ON MULTIMODE FIBERS WHICH IS
CAUSED BY THE DIFFERENCE IN PROPAGATION TIMES OF LIGHT RAYS THAT TAKE DIFFERENT
PATHS ALONG THE FIBER

BANDWIDTH LENGTH PRODUCT (BLP) – INDICATES WHAT SIGNAL FREQUENCIES CAN BE

PROPAGATED THROUGH A GIVEN DISTANCE AND BANDWIDTH

𝐵𝐿𝑃 = 𝐵 × 𝐿
WHERE,
𝐵𝐿𝑃 = BANDWIDTH LENGTH PRODUCT (Hz – km)
𝐵 = BANDWIDTH (Hz)
𝐿 = LENGTH OF OPTICAL CABLE (km)

TOTAL PULSE SPREAD – TOTAL PULSE SPREADING THAT OCCUR ON A GIVEN LENGTH OF
OPTICAL FIBER

∆𝑇(𝑛𝑠) = ∆𝑡(𝑛𝑠⁄𝑘𝑚) × 𝐿(𝑘𝑚)

MAXIMUM DATA TRANSMISSION RATE

FOR UPRZ, FOR UPNRZ,

1 1
𝑓𝑏 = 𝑓𝑏 =
Δ𝑡 × 𝐿 2∆𝑡 × 𝐿

WHERE,
𝑓𝑏 = MAXIMUM DATA RATE (BITS PER SECOND)
Δ𝑡 = PULSE-SPREADING CONSTANT (ns/km)
𝐿 = TOTAL FIBER LENGTH

F. COUPLING LOSSES – CAUSED BY IMPERFECT PHYSICAL CONNECTIONS

1. LATERAL DISPLACEMENT – AXIAL DISPLACEMENT BETWEEN TWO PIECES OF ADJOINING
FIBER CABLES
2. GAP DISPLACEMENT – CAUSED WHEN THERE IS A GAP DURING SPLICING TWO FIBERS
3. ANGULAR MISALIGNMENT – WHEN TWO FIBERS ARE SPLICED AT DIFFERENT ANGLE OR
NOT PARALLEL
𝒏𝟎 𝜽
𝑳(𝒅𝑩) = −𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 (𝟏 − )
𝝅𝑵𝑨
WHERE,
 𝑛0 = REFRACTIVE INDEX OF THE MATERIAL FILLING THE GROOVE
𝜃 = MISALIGNMENT IN RADIANS

4. IMPERFECT SURFACE FINISH – CAUSED WHEN ENDS OF ADJOINING FIBERS ARE NOT
POLISHED

X. CONSTRUCTION OF OPTICAL FIBERS

A. DOUBLE CRUCIBLE – MOLTEN CORE GLASS IS PLACED IN THE INNER VESSEL AND MOLTEN
CLADDING GLASS OCCUPIES THE OUTER VESSEL AND LATER FORMS A GLASS-CLADDED CORE
B. ROD IN TUBE – IN THE ROD-IN-TUBE PROCEDURE OF THE ROD OF CORE-GLASS IS PLACED INSIDE
OF A TUBE OF CLADDING-GLASS WHERE THE END OF THIS COMBINATION IS HEATED SOFTENING
THE GLASS SO THAT A THIN FIBER CAN BE PULLED FROM IT
C. DOPED DEPOSITED SILICA (DDS) – THE MOST EXPENSIVELY USED FIBER FABRICATION PROCESS
INVOLVE BUILDING UP A FIBER PERFORM BY VAPOR DEPOSITION OF THE GLASS CONSTITUENTS
D. EXTERNAL DEPOSITION BY HYDROLYSIS– REFERRED TO EXTERNAL CHEMICAL VAPOR
DEPOSITION
E. AXIAL DEPOSITION – THE DEPOSITION OCCURS AT THE END OF THE ROTATING BAIT, WHICH IS
WITHRAWN AS THE PERFORM BUILDS UP
F. INTERNAL DEPOSITION – CHEMICAL VAPORS ARE DEPOSITED ON THE INSIDE OF A GLASS TUBE
THAT IS ROTATING IN A GLASS LATHE WHERE A TRAVELING OXYGEN TORCH MOVES ALONG THE
TUBE, FUSING THE DEPOSITED MATERIALTO FORM A TRANSPARENT GLASSY FILM

XI. LIGHT SOURCES

A. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED) – MOST COMMON LIGHT SOURCE

1. HOMOJUNCTION LEDs – ALSO CALLED PLANAR EMITTER, IS A P-N JUNCTION MADE
FROM TWO DIFFERENT MIXTURE OF THE SAME TYPE OF ATOM. THEY ARE POOR CHOICE
AS LIGHT SOURCE FOR FIBER OPTIC SYSTEMS
2. HETEROJUNCTION LEDs – ALSO CALLED EDGE EMITTER, ARE MADE FROM A P-TYPE
SEMICONDUCTOR OF ONE SET OF ATOMS AND AN N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL
FROM ANOTHER SET
3. BURRUS ETCHED-WELL SURFACE EMITTING LED – MADE BY BURRUS AND DAWSON OF
BELL LABORATORIES, ARE MORE EFFICIEND SURFACE EMMITING LCP THAT ARE ETCHED
WELL WHICH HELPS CONCENTRATE THE LIGHT TO A VERY SMALL AREA
4. EDGE-EMITTING LED – SIMILAR TO PLANAR AND BURRUS DIODES EXCEPT THATLIGHT IS
EMITTED FROM AN ACTIVE STRIPE RATHER THAN A CONFINED CIRCULAR AREA
B. INJECTION LASER DIODE (ILD) – SAME LIKE LEDs BELOW ITS THRESHOLD CURRENT BUT HAS THE
ABILITY RO CREATE LASERS BEYOND A CERTAIN CURRENT LEVEL

ADVANTAGES OF ILD OVER LED

1. ILD EMITS COHERENT (ORDERLY) LIGHT WHILE LED EMITS INCOHERENT (DISORDERLY)
LIGHT
2. ILD ARE EASIER TO COUPLE TO SMALLER FIBER OPTIC CABLES
3. ILD HAS HIGHER OPTICAL POWER (5mW), COMPARE TO LED (0.5mW) BEING ABLE TO
USE ILD IN LONGER DISTANCES
4. ILD CAN BE USED IN HIGHER BIT RATES
5. MINIMIZE CHROMATIC OR WAVELENGTH DISPERSION
 DISADVANTAGES OF ILD OVER LED
1. ILD ARE TYPICALLY 10x MORE EXPENSIVE THAN LED
2. ILD HAVE SHORTER LIFE SPAN
3. LED ARE TEMPERATURE DEPENDENT

XII. LIGHT DETECTORS

A. PIN DIODES – MOST COMMON TYPE OF LIGHT DETECTOR USED IN OPTICAL COMMUNICATIONS
B. APD – A HIGHLY SENSITIVE SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE THAT IS USED TO CONVERT LIGHT INTO
ELECTRICITY

XIII. LASER – STANDS FOR LIGHT AMPLIFICATION BYS TIMULATED EMISSION OF RADIATION AND WAS FIRST
PREDICTED BY ALBERT EINSTEIN. THE FIRST WORKING LASER WAS NOT DEMONSTRATED UNTIL 1960
WHEN THEODORE MAIMAN DID SO USING A RUBY.

A. LASER CHARACTERISTICS
1. COHERENT – PROPERTY OF LASER WHEREIN CORRESPONDING POINTS ON THE
WAVEFRONT ARE IN PHASE
2. COLLIMATED – PROPERTY OF LASER WHERIN LIGHT RAYS TRAVEL PARALLEL WITH EACH
OTHER
3. MONOCHROMATIC – LASER EMITS LIGHT SIGNAL WITH SINGLE COLOR, FREQUENCY
AND WAVELENGTH

B. LASER TYPES
1. GAS – USE MIXTURE OF HELIUM AND NEON ENCLOSED IN A GLASS TUBE
2. LIQUID DYE – LIQUID LASERS USE ORGANIC DYES ENCLOSED IN A GLASS TUBE FOR AN
ACTIVE MEDIUM. A POWERFUL PULSE OF LIGHT EXCITES THE ORGANIC DYE
3. SOLID STATE OPTICALLY PUMPED – SOLID LASERS USE A SOLID CYLINDRICAL CRYSTAL,
SUCH AS RUBY, FOR THE ACTIVE MEDIUM. THE RUBY IS EXCITED BY A TUNGSTEN LAMP
TIED TO AN AC POWER SUPPLY
4. SEMICONDUCTOR – MADE FROM SEMICONDUCTOR P-N JUNCTIONS AND ARE
COMMONLY CALLED INJECTION LASER DIODES OR ILDs. THE EXCITATION MECHANISM IS
A DC POWER SUPPLY THAT CONTROLS THE AMOUNT OF CURRENT TO THE ACTIVE
MEDIUM

XIV. APPLICATIONS OF FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATIONS

A. TV STUDIO TO TRANSMITTER INTERCONNECTION ELIMINATING A MICROWAVE RADIO LINK
B. CLOSED-CIRCUIT TV SYSTEMS USED IN BUILDINGS FOR SECURITY
C. SECURE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS AT MILITARY BASES
D. COMPUTER NETWORKS, WIDE AREA AND, METRO, AND LOCAL AREA
E. SHIPBOARD COMMUNICATION
F. AIRCRAFT COMMUNICATIONS/CONTROLS
G. INTERCONNECTION OF MEASURING AND MONITORING INSTRUMENTS IN PLANTS AND
LABORATORIES
H. DATA ACQUISITION AND CONTROL SIGNAL COMMUNICATION IN INDUSTRIAL PROCESS
CONTROL SYSTEMS
I. NUCLEAR PLANT INSTRUMENTATION
 J. COLLEGE CAMPUS COMMUNICATION
K. UTILITIES STATION COMMUNICATION
L. CABLE TV SYSTEMS REPLACING COAXIAL CABLE
M. INTERNET
N. BACKHAUL FOR CELLULAR COMMUNICATION
O. DISTRIBUTED ANTENNA SYSTEM
P. CONNECTIONS BETWEEN SERVERS, ROUTERS AND SWITCHES IN DATA CENTERS
Q. CONNECTIOIN BETWEEN THE CELLULAR BASE STATION AND THE REMOTE RADIO HEAD
MOUNTED AT THE ANTENNA

XV. OPTICAL FIBER SYSTEM LINK BUDGET

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN DESIGNING A OPTICAL FIBER SYSTEM

A. CABLE LOSSES
B. CONNECTOR LOSSES
C. SOURCE TO CABLE INTERFACE LOSS
D. CABLE TO LIGHT DETECTOR INTERFACE LOSS
E. SPLICING LOSS

𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃𝑡 − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠