TEACHING METHODS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

JCE 211

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 FOREWORD
This course book, “Teaching Methods in Early Childhood” has been written by seasoned tutors of
Colleges of Education in the discipline to up-to-date you on the general knowledge of methods of
teaching children under the age of nine, in order to equip you with the basic tool you will require
for your professional training as an early childhood teacher/professional as well as administrator.
This is a two-hour credit course book of five units structured to reflect bi-weekly lectures for the
course. As a distance learner however, you are expected to spend maximum time on your own to
study this course material.
To help you to study effectively, questions and activities have been designed to guide you to be
particularly attentive to identify the kinds of quizzes, assignments and examinations and to draw
your attention to those that you have to perform.
Remember to bring any difficulty you may encounter in your course of study to your tutors during
the face-to-face meeting.
Happy and successful study.
MARY DORCAS APPIAH
ISAAC KOW GAISEY

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is a tradition in academic circles to acknowledge the assistance one received from people in
writing of an academic document. Those who contributed in diverse ways toward the production
for some reasons like they have worked beyond their limits in writing, editing and provided
constant support and encouragement without which the likelihood of giving up the task was very
high with regards to time span for writing, typing and editing of the book.
It is the foregoing that the names of all authors whose names appear at the reference column of
this book is acknowledged.
I am greatly indebted to my good friend, Ms. Justina Owusu, a colleague tutor in the Science
Department and her son, Michael Mantey for taking time off their busy schedule to type out the
scripts.
Any limitations in this course book however are exclusively ours. But good comments must be
shared among those named above.
MARY DORCAS APPIAH
ISAAC KOW GAISEY

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 COURSE CONTENT
Unit 1: The Nature of Early Childhood Instructional Practices.
i. Basic concepts: Instructional methods, strategies, practices, procedures and management.
ii. Instructional procedure in Early Childhood Education
iii. The source of instructional methods

Unit 2: The Environment of the Nursery/Kindergarten.

i. Classroom/sitting arrangement
ii. Scheduled Plans and Routines
iii. The sources and importance of variety
iv. The social Learning Environment.
v. Behavior Modification – reinforcement, praise, contingency management, token systems.

Unit 3: Teacher Centered/Assisted strategies.

i. The nature of teaching process of the nursery/Kindergarten.
ii. Whole class activities – discussions, storytelling, field trips etc.
iii. Teacher-led group activities.
iv. Questioning – levels of questioning, functions of questions, effective questioning
strategies.

Unit 4: Child-Centered and Peer Assisted Strategies.

i. Co-operative learning strategies: play, songs and rhymes dramatization.
ii. Individualized instructional strategies: Learning centers, projects, etc.
iii. Elaboration strategies: creating imagery and analogies sing technology.
iv. Planning for children-centered strategies: selecting and using themes.

Unit 5: Lesson planning for the nursery/kindergarten.

i. The structure/components of the kindergarten lesson.
ii. Instructional objectives.
iii. Instructional materials – indoor and outdoor, procurement, production, effective use, etc.
iv. Designing lesson plans for the nursery/kindergarten.

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 COURSE INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTION
The course is designed to help the Early Childhood Education acquire knowledge, skills, methods
and strategies used in delivering instruction in early childhood centres. It will expose the trainee
to the general teaching methods and various methods unique and appropriate for early childhood
training and development, such as storytelling, play and dramatization.
The course will also equip the trainee with instructional skills in managing the learning
environment of the child’s behaviour issues pertaining to early childhood. It is expected that
trainees will engage in classroom observation alongside the study of this course. In other words,
the course will equip the student trainee with skills and knowledge that will enable you to have a
thorough understanding of pre-school and kindergarten education so that trainees can function
effectively at that level.
It is therefore crucial that professionals who will be teaching at this level are adequately prepared.
Hence, the need for a course like this. This is a two-credit course which is made up of five units.
The first unit deals with nature of early childhood instructional practices. We shall discuss issues
on instructional methods; strategies, procedures and management of early childhood setting that
would make early childhood teaching and learning effective.
Unit two deals with the learning environment of the nursery/kindergarten child. We will take a
look at the early childhood classroom/sitting arrangements, schedule plans and materials that
would make early childhood settings orderly and well composed. We will look at the sources and
importance of the three learning environments of early childhood centres. The last of this unit will
turn our attention on behaviour modification that children need to exhibit and redirect these
behaviours.
The third and fourth units shall talk about specific strategies of the early childhood education such
as teacher led strategies like, play, drills, songs, demonstrations, whole class and the like.
Cooperative strategies and analogies, elaboration and child centred strategies as well as using
themes would follow suite.
The fifth and the last unit would take us to plan lessons for the nursery/kindergarten lessons.

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 COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of the course, Early Childhood Education trainees will be able to:
- apply strategies, skills, knowledge and technologies appropriate for pre-school settings.
- use variety of teaching methods, strategies and approaches in teaching children.
- make use of various strategies when applicable.
- select appropriate methods for young children.
- create opportunities for children to learn through play.
- lay firm and solid foundation for young children in pre-school environment.
- deliver lessons in ways that meet the appropriate needs of pre-school children.
- practice teaching and ;learning programmes effectively in pre-school setting.
- deliver lessons in ways that meet the appropriate teaching philosophy at the pre-school
level.
Have a nice studies.

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 UNIT 1 COURSE OUTLINE

Session 1: Basic Concepts: Instructional methods, strategies, practices, procedures and

management.
Session 2: Instructional procedures in Early Childhood Education.
Session 3: Sources of instructional methods.

Introduction
Dear learner, you are about to begin your study of the course in Teaching Methods in Early
Childhood Education. This course is very interesting, not only for teachers, but everyone that is
interested in educating young children. We therefore hope that you will enjoy it. More, it is very
important as a trainee to look at instructional practices in teaching. You will need these to be
effective in teaching and for pupils to learn from you.
To begin with, we shall be looking at the definition of Teaching Methods and Instructions.
Why do you need to worry yourself teaching children by using methods and instructing your
pupils? Of course to help them learn. This unit will attempt to define the basic concepts of teaching
methods, instruction, management and the like to facilitate smooth learning. Then we shall proceed
to the factors to consider instructional procedure in Early Childhood Education. Our last issue to
be looked at will be sources of instructional methods if we really want learning to occur in children.

Objectives: After going through the unit, you should be able to:
- explain teaching.
- state methods and instruction.
- instruction procedures in ECE.
- state at least two reasons for managing an ECE setting.
- discuss some three sources of instructional methods in ECE.
We wish you all the best as you go through this unit.

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 UNIT 1: Session 1: Defining Teaching

1.1.1 What Teaching Really Means

Let us try to find out what teaching really means. Teaching is an activity that is performed by
a more experienced and knowledgeable person with the view to helping a less experienced and
knowledgeable person to learn. This means that, the teacher is expected to be a more
experienced and knowledgeable person than the learner.
Teaching involves helping others to learn to do things, to think and solve problems and to
react in new ways. It therefore involves the act of giving information. The situation under
which the information is given may either be structured or unstructured. The important thing
is that the information influences the individual and causes a change in behaviour of some sort.
For instance, parents, peers, adults, members of the community, preachers and educators all
influence learning in people by telling them something. What they tell us is supposed to
influence us in new ways and change our behaviour. To this extent, they are all teaching.

1.1.2 Comments on Teaching by Educators

Now, compare what these educators have said about teaching.
- Nacino Brown, et al (1982) defines teaching as an attempt to help someone acquire or
change some skills, attitude, knowledge, ideas or principles. It is also explained as an
attempt to bring about desirable changes in human learning, ability and behaviour.
- J. S. Farrant (1980) defines teaching as a process that facilitates learning through
knowledge and skills acquired by a learner from an experienced person.
- John Dewey maintains that teaching is helping someone to acquire knowledge and
skills that bring about changes in behaviour.
- Moore (1998) also defines teaching as “the action of someone who is trying to assist
others to reach their fullest potential in all aspects of development.”
 Activity 1.1
Mention any two authors and state their ideas about teaching.
Author Ideas about teaching
1. ……………………………………… …………………………………………..
2. ……………………………………… …………………………………………..

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1.1.3 Teaching Activities in the Early Childhood Setting
- Organising classroom learning.
- Talking or speaking with children in class.
- Learning centre activities.
- Listening to children’s responses.
- Reinforcing children’s behaviour.
- Explaining and asking questions.
- Individual project work of children.
- Giving verbal and non-verbal directions to pupils.
- Using play, role plays, simulation, songs, rhymes and poems to facilitate learning.
- Chalkboard summaries, examples and illustrating.
- Conferencing.
- Reading environmental prints.
These are just a few of the varied activities that can be identified. The common thing about
all these activities is that they all have the purpose of assisting children to learn and so they are
teaching. Try to add four activities to the above mentioned ones.

 Activity 1:2
Write down any four activities in the classroom that bring about learning among pupils.
1. …………………………………………………………………………………….
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………
3. ……………………………………………………………………………………
4. ……………………………………………………………………………………

1.1.4 Teaching as an Art and Science

Teaching and learning are the most essential activities that go on in the educational environment.
Searles, (1967) describes teaching as an Art and Science. Let us consider why that assertion.
Moore, (1998) asks the question whether some teachers have better teaching instincts than others.
This is the basis of teaching as an Art. It is explained as an Art in terms of the different skills, tools,
verbal and non-verbal communicative skills and materials with which the teacher presents the

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learning activities in a meaningful way to the pupils. If these skills come automatically to some
teachers, and not much to others, then teaching is considered an art. In this case, the teaching
competence in terms of his/her mastery of the action, system and positive personality become the
important idea that gives meaning to art of teaching.
Teaching becomes a science when it is well structured and systematic approach is applied to test
theories to teaching. For instance, if instinted characters are displayed and possibly are identified
and trained to exhibit them, then we need scientific prove to verify these characters to confirm
before we use them.
One major character of science of teaching is the ability to predict and control behaviour. For
instance, if you give verbal praise to children, they will put in more effort. Since you predict this,
you can control the behaviour of learners by either applying or failing to apply the treatment.
In sum, we can practice and become prefect in applying our teaching skills like any art. We also
study the scientifically tested strategies and procedures for good teaching.

Activity 1:3


In a sentence, state why teaching is an art and the same time a science.

1.1.5 Methods of Teaching

My dear learner, what is meant by “Methods of teaching?” The answer to the question above is
not far-fetched. As a teacher, before entering the classroom to teach, what normally comes into
mind first is the method you should employ in teaching children.
A method may be explained as a teacher’s overall tools and approach to a lesson. As a result of
this, many educational authorities are of the view that there are only two ways/methods of teaching.
These are teacher-centred and child-centred methods.
- Teacher-centred method of teaching can also be referred to as the teacher transmission
method. It is called so because most of the activities in the classroom are performed by
the teacher. In other words, the teacher’s approach is to tell the learners what they need
to know.
- Child-centred method of teaching is also known as problem solving method. With this
method, it is the child who examines, investigates or explores the subject matter. In

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 other words, most of the activities selected for the lesson are performed by the learner.
For instance, when K.G children visit the learning centre, any activity the child chooses
to do is a learner/child centred method.

 Activity 1:4
What is meant by teaching?
Method of teaching is……………………………………………………
What is the difference between teacher-centred and child-centred method of
teaching?...................................................................................................

1.1.6 Teaching Strategy

A good teacher should not depend on only one technique of teaching right from the beginning of
a lesson to the end. You need to use two or more techniques in any single lesson.
Strategy is simply the sequencing or ordering of the techniques a teacher has selected to teach the
lesson. For example, in an early childhood class if there should be a discussion on oral hygiene of
cleaning the teeth, the discussion will depend on introduction of the topic, groups of children to
talk on the topic and the techniques sequenced one after the other is referred to as strategy. In this
case, the proper sequencing of the techniques to achieve the smooth transmission of the content
and objectives of the lesson is the strategy.

1.1.7 Instruction Defined

Instruction is basically the structured, ordered or organised information that learners receive in a
designed programme, such as Diploma in Early Childhood Education. The information through
instruction is always structured or organised in a form that ranges from simple to complex, basic
to advance and concrete to abstract.
Gage (1972) asserts that any theory of teachings explains, predicts and controls the way the
behaviour of the teacher affect the ways pupils learn.
- Instructional method in Early Childhood means all the activities that target specific
skills within the context of functional and normal daily activities rooted in the social
interactions between children and other significant persons such as their teachers and
parents, as well as between children and their peers.

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 - Instructional management is the carefully setting up of early childhood environment,
arranging materials, objects, furniture, equipment for effective teaching and learning in
the kindergarten/nursery.
There are other appropriate modes of instruction suitable for facilitating kindergarten children’s
development and learning. Children enjoy and benefit from short group sessions during which they
listen to each other and the teacher, sing together, listen to stories and develop a sense of time by
remembering what they have done and planning ahead. Learning centres are sometimes designed
to focus children’s attention through instruction on a concept, process or skill and provide an
opportunity for self-initiated investigation and practice. Children benefit from well-planned
instructions from nature-walks (field trips) as well as learn from well-guided discussions
The most preferred instructional approaches are those that build on the children’s interest and self-
initiated activities.

- We have learnt the meaning of teaching as a random and structured information

and activity performed by a well-experienced and knowledgeable person with the
view of helping less experienced person to learn.
- We also looked at teaching as an art and science.
- Methods of teaching and strategies of teaching were also discussed to make the
basic concept clear to learners.
- Lastly, the instruction and instructional methods in ECE were discussed to help
trainees plan effectively in the K.G learning situation.

Progress Tests
Write one word of answer to the following questions.
1. A series of actions meant to help another person to learn is known as ……………………
2. The person who engages learners on activities to get them to learn something new is…….
3. The outcome of learning is…………………………………………………………………
4. The opposite side of teaching is ……………………………………………………………
5. Teaching becomes an art when it depends on the teacher’s personality and ………………
6. Any structured, ordered or organised information that learners receive in a designed
programme is known as ……………………………….

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7. The sequencing of the technique a teacher has selected to teach a lesson is……………….
8. This is explained as the teacher’s overall approach /tools to a lesson……………………...
Good Luck

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 UNIT 1: Session 2: Instructional Procedures

Dear learner, we have come to yet another interesting topic of our study – Instructional Procedures.

It is a process which is adopted by both the teacher and the learner to induce learning in a teaching
interaction. For instance, in teaching of a rhyme or verse, the instructional procedure for the
interaction is first to select or compose a rhyme/verse that children’s interest and preference are
likely to enjoy. Secondly, the teacher has to identify the rhythmic or rhyming patterns. Thirdly,
the appropriateness of language structure and vocabulary need to be identified. Going on, the
teacher needs to read the selection to children thrice using a clear but relatively in an expressive
voice to make the rhyme/verse accessible to all students. Have children read the selection together
from an experience chart or chalkboard. Then, select as a class, appropriate arrangements or
patterns for an oral interpretation (pictures can be used). The procedure includes inviting children
to recite in groups or individually using and conveying gestures or actions that would make
meaning to the recitals.
Dear learner, you could fanthom that we have just finished going through the instructional
procedures of teaching a rhyme/verse. Can you think of some rhymes that you were taught way
back in K.G?
Let us now focus on how some instructional procedures can be induced to facilitate
children’s learning in instructions at the kindergarten and nursery settings.

1.2.1 Conferences
Conferences provide opportunities for children and teachers to discuss a drawing, experience or a
project and to plan future learning experience. As teachers, “conference” with individual children
or small groups help the professional to learn a great deal about children as they discuss their
success and difficulties, children are guided to resources relevant to their interests and needs or to
more challenging activities.

Procedure:
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 - Converse with children while they work, posing questions that encourage them to talk
about their tasks.
- Help children to benefit from “talking through” activities with teachers.
- Keep a conference log to record the date of the conference and the children’s
comments, concerns and understanding about specific learning activities.
- Monitor growth and quality and quantity initiated questions and comments.
- Record conferences on audio cassettes and in logs to assist in analysing an individual
child’s growth and the effectiveness of the conference.

Teacher’s Role
- Provide a friendly, relaxed environment. Conference with a child as he/she paints or
builds.
- Focus on one or two topics per a conference.
- Begin and end each conference with positive, encouraging remarks.

1.2.2 Illustrating Stories

By illustrating particular events or sections of a story, children can improve their
comprehension and interpretation of the selection. In this instructional procedure, children
can employ personal understanding and responses when they visually depict story
characters, settings, events and objects.
Procedure:
- Introduce this activity by using picture books.
- Choose a story with characters, events and settings that are interesting and relevant
to children.
- Establish a purpose for listening by asking children to imagine or visualise the story
as it is read aloud.
- Encourage children to imagine how things look, sound, feel, smell and taste.
- Do share the book illustration with children.
- Stop reading occasionally to review children’s comprehension of the story, event
or ask children to tell why/what they saw during certain parts or events of the story.

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 - Model descriptions and details by closing your eyes and sharing what they saw as
teacher reads.

Teacher’s Role:
- Encourage the value of individual interpretations and illustrations.
- Frequently illustrate the artists’ techniques and the details provided in pictures.
- Encourage children to discuss images evoked by literary selections they hear.

1.2.3 Reading Environmental Print

Through the incorporation of this strategy, children and teachers explore print and its many
functions using those that are readily available in the immediate environment. In this instructional
procedure, children should be encouraged to add collection and classroom displays of
environmental print. These displays should change and expand to include materials related to
specific themes of study kindergarten children have interests, experience and community events.
Examples of prints which would interest children and provide relevant material for them to practice
reading include:
- Labels in the classroom e.g. tables, chairs etc.
- Posted instruction e.g. “Please keep this door closed.”
- Printed resources from home and community e.g. Advertisements and flyers.
Instructional Procedure:
- Introduce this strategy by using classroom labels.
- Ask children in turn to point to an object or surface, naming the objects.
- Print the label for each object, modelling the process by sounding the words slowly
forming letters carefully.
- Read completed labels and ask children to read with you.
- Encourage children to scan the environmental print display frequently.

Teacher’s Role:
- Introduce classroom labels gradually. Three to four labels per week is suggested.
- Realise individual name tags and important labels.
- Print labels in upper and lower case letters.

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 - Arrange a basic classroom display of environmental print, comprised of print
materials found in most household and in the community.
- Change display items frequently.

Dear learners, we hope that with this few instructional procedure illustrations, you are now poised
for others such as:
- Making books and chart.
- Journal writing.
- Maths/Number activities
- Brainstorming.
- Guided discussions.
- Cooperative learning.
- Games.
- Storytelling.
These are very simple instructional procedures that go on in the kindergarten setting everyday.
Hope you are going to encourage participation by all children under your care. Good.

Activity 2:1


Describe your own instructional procedure, how you would induce children to learn a verse you
composed recently.

S So soon we have come to the end of session 2 by discussing instructional

procedures in our various kindergarten settings. Hope professionals would use
these procedures to make children see patterns and connections to develop abilities
to manage and organise information.

UNIT 1: Session 3: The Sources of Instructional Methods

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 Have you ever stopped to ask yourself where the sources of instructional methods you are
using come from? The answers can be revealing if you do.
If we look back at our school days and remember how we were taught are our own styles
of teaching today similar to some of the ways in which we were taught? What specifically
is similar or different? Do you initiate some style in your own teaching methods,
procedures and strategies in your instructional interactions?
Our beliefs about kindergarten and nursery children are likely to indirectly influence the
ways we treat them and the methods we use in teaching them. A good instructional
professional employs various teaching strategies to improve his/her words growth and
development instead of stressing on their weaknesses. Let us therefore improve on their
little efforts.

1.3.1 Sources of Instructional Methods

- From great thinkers and philosophers of education who are influential and great men like
Socrates, Jesus Christ who used parables and questions to teach.
Others like Herbert, Rosseau, John Locke, Pertalozzi and Maria Montessori belong to the
middle ages. They were the great school masters who tried to apply their methods in the
schools they set up.
- Socrates hardly answered anybody’s questions, but questioned him in turn to lead him/her
to his/her own understandings. Similarly, Jesus Christ questioned his disciples and used
parables (examples) to enlighten them. The two methods have been perfected by teachers
as the questioning method and the use of illustrations.
- The methods followed by the ancient philosophers were concerned with transmitting
knowledge. Teachers became a link between learners and knowledge. Teaching was
therefore teacher-centred. However, by the 18th and 19th centuries, men like Rousseau,
Pestalozzi emphasized the need and abilities of the child in his/her education. Teaching
now began to move away from teacher-centred methods to methods which considered
different objective for different learners (needs) and different methods of instruction for
slow, average and fast learners.
- Frobel, a German educator developed teaching methods which recognised play as one of
the child’s main way of learning.

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 - Maria Montessori, an Italian doctor strongly emphasised play and developed play things
that helped mentally retarded children to learn so well that they out-classed normal children
in public examinations. Her classroom emphasized free movement and working at your
own speed. The Montessori instructional method, today, dominates several nursery and
primary schools.

1.3.2 Educational Psychology

We cannot end this session of instructional methods without mentioning the contributions of
modern-day educational psychologists. Educational psychologists study how people learn under
carefully arranged conditions. From their observation, they attempt to formulate explanations of
learning and how it may be effectively organised. Their methods are therefore more scientific than
those of the philosophers or the great school masters. The list of psychologists is a long one. They
include Jerome Brunner, Jean Piaget, Miller, Benjamin Bloom, John Dewey, B.F. Skinner, David
Ausubel, Robert Gagne, Albert Bandura and Noam Chomsky.
Learning and teaching today is such a wide field of study that groups of psychologists have
concluded on different aspects. Let us look at a few of them.
Jean Piaget: For fifty years, Piaget studied how children learn, especially the changes that take
place in their thinking at different stages of development. His experiments, materials and methods
have led to developments in the discovery method.
Ausubel: David Ausubel was popular in the 1950s and was more concerned with the learning of
facts and principles or rules. His emphasis was a meaningful learning, useful content and relevant
subject matter. He suggested that:
- A new idea must be embedded in a related bigger idea (man, dogs, cowsare all mammals).
This is the idea of teaching a lesson in a meaningful context.
- Learning by kids must start from the known to the unknown. This is the concept of relevant
previous knowledge.
Skinner: B.F. Skinner, an American psychologist, has added to our understanding of the
methods of instruction through his principle of motivation, cues and the use of rewards. His
experiments suggest that the instructional process can be controlled if cues and reinforcements
(rewards) are arranged in proper sequence. His methods of shaping behaviour through chaining
are used in the techniques of programmed learning as a system of instruction.

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 - Sources of instructional methods can also be obtained from contemporary educationist such
as G.S Morrison who has written a lot of facts of kindergarten kids learning in his books
“Fundamentals of Early Childhood Education and Early Childhood Education Today”.
- Furthermore, sources like the net/websites of kindergarten education and for young
children can be an effective place to obtain improved instructional methods for early
childhood education.

1.3.3 Importance of Instructional Methods, Strategies, Procedures Etc

- The acquisition of instructional methods will help professionals to understand and plan
their instructional activities to the level of children to enhance their understanding.
- To choose appropriate strategies for interaction that they would enjoy learning.
- In order to structure, order, organise information for children to receive lesson.
- Good strategies lead to achievement of instructional objectives.
- They lead children to create, explore and investigate learning for themselves as well as
express meaning for their work.

 Activity: Write an essay discussing any five sources of instructional methods as

used in the kindergarten today.

This session has discussed major areas of instructional methods. It is our hope that
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a different types of learning requires different instructional methods, students
would select and use suitable instructional methods that would enhance children’s
learning and other classroom interactions.

UNIT 2: THE ENVIRONMENT OF THE NURSERY/KINDERGARTEN

Session 1 – Classroom/sitting arrangement.

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Session 2 – Scheduled plans and routines.
Session 3 – The sources and importance of variety.
Session 4 – The physical, social learning environment.
Session 5 – Behaviour modification – reinforcement, praise, contingency management, token
systems.
Introduction
Welcome to Unit 2. In this unit, we are going to take a look at the learning environment of
the nursery/kindergarten children. We hope you would find the lessons interesting and challenging.
We shall also look at scheduled plans and routines that normally go on in our classrooms. We shall
also learn of sources and importance of variety in the K.G./nursery setting. Our last lesson will be
on behaviour modification of children. It is the wish of the writer to discuss good education
practices that are essential elements in guiding children’s learning and behaviour so as to promote
their developments.

Objectives: By the end of the unit, trainees should be able to:

i. promote good learning environment of the nursery/kindergarten settings.
ii. plan good schedules and routines in the nursery/kindergarten settings.
iii. identify sources and importance of variety of activities at the nursery and kindergarten
settings.
iv. promote concepts essential to guiding children’s behaviour.

UNIT 2: Session One: Classroom/Sitting Arrangement

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2.1.1 What is Learning Environment?
Dear learner, remember that good instructional planning and effective teaching depends
largely on the conditions in which teaching and learning will occur. One method for coping with
the individual’s learning rate is to improve the learning environment of the child.
Learning environment of the early childhood includes the classroom’s physical structures
and facilities, all the instructional materials needed to improve teaching and learning as well as the
teacher and the pupil’s interaction with instructional materials and equipment in the classroom.
It is also an environment that is affected by the social climate established in the school and
in the classroom by means of the teacher’s personality and interaction styles.
It is also the interaction between the teacher, the pupils and the instructional objects and
ideas that constitute the learning environment or instructional climate.
If effective learning is to be promoted, positive interaction must occur to enrich the
learner’s experience then the intellectual environment or learning atmosphere must be facilitated.

2.1.2 The Physical Learning Environment Of The Nursery/Kindergarten Settings

Can you identify some of the physical structures and objects you see in your school?
I believe these include the school buildings, the compounds or grounds, including trees,
the scrubs, flowers, playground, the furniture and facilities in the classroom. These and other
physical items in the school constitute the physical environment of the school.
- The physical arrangement of the nursery and kindergarten determines what often happens.
The physical arrangement conveys a message to the children, telling them what they may
or may not do and what is expected of them.
- Wide open spaces tell children they should run and shout. Small closed in space indicates
quiet and limited access for only a few children at a time. Carpeted areas invite children to
sit on the floor and work. Pillows near book shelves say “relax and look at the book”.
School grounds, buildings, the compound or grounds including trees, scrubs and other
facilities planned to provide experience of order, beauty, sanitation and cleanliness from
which children will build standards for the future makes children to love active, provide
skills at balancing and provide needs and interest of children to play and walk along.
- A classroom with good physical environment should be large enough to occupy a class of
forty or forty-five; it must have good ventilation and lighting. The rooms well painted and
well demarcated to separate the nursery from the kindergarten.
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 - Activity areas are called by a variety of terms in different schools. E.g. they may be stations
referred to as learning centres, corners, zones, station or play units. Whatever, it is the area
in the classroom denoted to a particular activity. The number and kinds of activity areas
the classrooms should contain depends upon the subject, materials and equipment, required
space and the number of children. These activity areas may include the following:
 Block building - Music/dace and movement
 Art - Play
 Science and Maths - Library
 Sand/water - Shopping
2.1.3 Effects of Poor Physical Environment
- It creates obstruction i.e. when tall children sit in front rows, the shorter ones suffer.
- It restricts free movement i.e. when tables, and equipment are not arranged well.
- It promotes inattentiveness i.e. when a teacher cannot have eye contact with his/her pupils.
Also, pupils do not feel comfortable.
- It affects the physically challenged.
- Promotes unhygienic and insanitary conditions among children. Any epidemic breakout in
the school would affect many of the children and teachers.
- Playground should be devoid of stones, rocks, broken iron gadgets and equipment which
promote injuries during play time.

2.1.4 Arrangement
- The classroom should be large enough to accommodate children.
- Good ventilation and lighting.
- Enough cupboards with shelves to store books/folders and instructional materials that
children need. The furniture should be the right size for children as well as various shapes
and positions for group activity e.g. in circles, semi-circle, lines, rows and columns.
- Children’s classroom equipment should differ according to the age of the children. The
nursery children should have several open shelves/space/areas where they would measure
objects, liquids, weigh blocks/rocks, mould clay and other substances into various shapes.
- The floor of the classroom should be cemented and carpeted with mats around for children
to spread on the floor and rest or sleep.

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 - Story-telling areas should be equipped with walls displaying charts of themes and
children’s work on stories.
- Many activities can be carried outside the classroom. E.g. clay work, construction and
assemblage, story-telling, free play etc. under shades of trees or huts.
- There should be lavatories/urinals, chamber pots, hand washing bowls, towels, sinks and
other items to keep good hygienic conditions.
- There should be toys and other playing objects that children can handle and play with.

Activity 2.1 Discuss any five good provisions physically fit for your K.G setting.


UNIT 2: Session 2: The Social Learning Environment of the Nursery/Kindergarten Setting

Dear learner, we are now shifting our attention to an important aspect of the nursery/kindergarten
which is the social learning environment.

2.2.1. The Social Learning Environment

The teacher and pupils in the nursery/kindergarten classroom constitute a social unit. The
type of interaction between the teacher and pupils and among the pupils forms the social
environment. Many of us understand that young children are highly self-centred or ego-

24
 centred beings and that they seem not to appreciate the news and ideas of other children.
We are also aware that as the child grows older, he or she needs to develop into a social
being as well, in order to get along in society. The social environment of the classroom can
therefore hinder or promote the child’s acquisition of social skills as well as effective
teaching and learning. It should also be that nursery/kindergarten classroom is created by
interaction of the early childhood professional, the physical environment of the classroom
and the learning environment.
The competence, ability and personality of the professional, the space available,
interactions, instructional approaches/strategies/techniques, methods determine the social
environment of the nursery/kindergarten classrooms and to a large extent, classroom
efficiency and effectiveness.

2.2.2. Arrangement
 The professional provides opportunities for promoting children’s social development. As
already mentioned, the social environment of the nursery/kindergarten has great effect on
the children’s learning and social development. The nursery school professional should
therefore provide opportunities for children to develop socially through creating of various
means such as leadership skills in group activities.
 Learning on group/cooperative basis: Children in a centre must learn to work and play
cooperatively. They need to be able to get along with older children in their peer group.
Professionals should therefore help children learn how to get along with other children and
how to develop good relationships with teachers. Thus, in the classroom, these pro-social
interactions should be encouraged to play and work on other tasks in groups.
 Play: One effective opportunity of encouraging pro-social development in children is
through play. E.G. Role playing often called “dramatic play”. Most classrooms have an
activity area where children are encouraged to pretend to fake up roles i.e. family roles.
They see at home mother, father, baby, sister, brother etc. these kinds of activities make
children to be responsible by trying out the real life roles they see enacted around them.
 Sharing Materials/Objects/Equipment: Another important area of the social learning
environment is sharing materials, objects and equipment. A self-centred person has great
difficulties seeing things from the point of view of others than his or her own. Because of

25
 this self-centredness, children often disregard the rights of those around them. E.g. if a
child wants a toy another child is playing with, he may take it forcefully. He does this
because the social skills of sharing, taking turns and waiting turns are simply not yet part
of young children’s behaviour and must be learned. The professional or teacher should
therefore create opportunities for children to share materials such as crayons, pencils,
blocks etc. with others or wait for their turn in the use of such instructional materials.
 Prompt Action on Deviant Behaviour: The professional should point out or deal
appropriately with unacceptable behaviours on the part of children such as fighting,
stealing or insulting others.
 Modelling: Children learn from exemplary lives of adults in homes and professionals in
the classroom. The professional should make it obvious that you respect their rights and
will stand up for them if necessary. Make it a point of thanking children who wait their
turn or share. Make children with deviant behaviours see their faults through appropriate
corrected good behaviour and courtesies like; please, I am sorry, may I borrow your crayon,
thank you for the pencil etc. greetings and other good moral needs are to be skilled in them
through classroom routines and schedules.
 Imposition of Ideas: A teacher permits children to do whatever they want to do to please
themselves if that teacher or professional is a laisser-faire type of teacher. This approach
advocates the release of the children from restrictions from the organised curriculum and
the child learns to do anti-social skills that interest him/her without any guidance. Children
make their own laws and live their own lives which creates an atmosphere or an
environment of confusion and poor social behaviour.

On the other hand, an authoritarian professional imposes his/her ideas on children and
empty respect that should be shown by a teacher. Those two impositions in a
nursery/kindergarten environment is a slur on the competence of a teacher in the
institutional process. Therefore classroom interaction should be democratic where both the
teacher and the children are well organised in sharing of leadership. By this group
organisation and leadership where each other’s ideas and suggestions are respected, an
enhanced ability to learn democratically endures. Smith and Hudgins (1964) have reported
that in a classroom social environment where pupils/children have the opportunity to

26
 engage actively in group discussion, practice good leadership, learn leadership roles as
teacher helps them to mould their behaviour, they perform better. A friendly and interesting
learning atmosphere leads to learning and self-discipline.
 Avoid beating children or giving very stressful sanctions. These things scare children from
classes.

 Activity 2.2. State any four pro-social activities would you direct children to avoid so
as to create a conducive atmosphere for learning.
I hope your answers would include fighting, biting………………………………….

UNIT 2: Session 3: The Intellectual Learning Environment

2.3.1 The Intellectual Learning Environment

The intellectual learning environment refers to how the classroom environment or setting
facilitates children’s learning. The classroom environment is organised in such a way that it will
stimulate children to learn. Teaching and learning in such a situation becomes resource-based.

 What are resource-based learning environments?

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 It is full of pictures, charts, models, film and film-strips, tapes, slides, textbooks, counters,
colours, real objects, display boards, balloons, flip charts, paintings, writing materials such
as chalk, crayons, pencils, pens, markers, sand tray, wall paintings, tracing papers, writing
sheets, drawing books, exercise books, empty cans or tins, blocks, legos and so on.

2.3.2 The Organisation and Arrangement of Materials

 In the intellectual learning environment, the above-mentioned materials and others are
organised and arranged in such a way that it enables children to learn independently. The
duty of the teacher is not to show how much he knows, but how best he/she can guide and
direct the pupils to find out things for themselves.

2.3.3 Teacher/Professional’s Role in Promoting a Good Intellectual Environment

 It is the responsibilities of the teachers to prepare, provide and organise the classroom
environment in such a way that will encourage children to learn. The teacher can do this
through various ways including the following.
- Motivation: The more the teacher is able to motivate the children to learn, the better they
do learn in a classroom environment which is resource-based. Professionals should
therefore look for suitable books, rhymes, play objects and stories which will motivate
children to learn.
- Acquisition of needed materials and equipment: Kindergarten professionals should try to
acquire the appropriate and needed materials and equipment which will facilitate
children’s learning.
- Proper arrangement of materials/equipment: in an intellectual learning environment, all
the necessary materials and equipment should be organised and arranged in such an array
that children would love to learn on their own.
- Giving children many and varied experiences: Different activities and play environment
lend themselves to the teaching of different skills, concepts and processes. Thus, children
should spend time daily in both indoor and outdoor activities.
- Model appropriate tasks and behaviours: Children should see adults reading and writing
helpful for children to view brief demonstrations by peers or professionals possible ways
to use certain materials.

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 - Provide a rich print material/environment: The physical environment should display
room labelling, class story books, children’s art works, pictures and others. These
stimulate a variety of literature for children to read, including books, magazines,
newspapers, colourful printed cut outs. These stimulation of interest widen up children’s
intelligence in the development of language and literature in a meaningful context.

2.3.4. Implications of Classroom Environment and Arrangements

 The classroom environment influence greatly on the extent of learning by pupils, so there is
the need to make efforts to improve the physical materials and social environments of
children.
 The classroom environment also gives children the opportunity to test and develop their
power of exploration and discovery and to express themselves freely, so there is the need to
make the classroom environment attractive to children.
 Instructional materials so arranged facilitate and promote children’s learning.
 Good spacing of children’s seating arrangement facilitates easy access to use spaces in the
classroom and outside the classroom.
 No obstructions would be created to restrict free movement both outside and inside the
classroom.
 It promotes discipline, regularity of pupils and punctuality among children because they feel
secured, loved and are happy.
 Trees around the school compound provide shade from the sun, places for group or
individuals to work outdoors, a place for drama, music and dance.
 Children practice balancing on rails and tyres fixed firmly on the ground and are active with
playing objects and equipment, climbing and playing with balls.

Activity 2.3

1. Write down any two activities that should be included in the intellectual environment
of the nursery/kindergarten.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
2. List any two materials that help children to learn independently.

29
 …………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
3. List any four materials or things that can be added to resource materials.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

4. Suggest any two ways which the nursery/kindergarten teacher can use to promote a
good intellectual environment.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

UNIT 2: Session 4: The Sources and Importance of Variety

2.4.1 Variety in the sources of Early Childhood Education

The sources of Early Childhood Education’s variety of activities and in the learning
environment, so organised, lead to the acquisition of various skills can be obtained from the
kindergarten curriculum based on the principle to total development. The curriculum focuses first
on the child as a total person. It deals with the child’s emotional, mental, social and physical
development. A typical curriculum for the nursery/kindergarten would therefore include the
following:

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  Language skills development: this promotes language development for effective
communication e.g. listening, understanding, speaking, pre-reading and pre-writing
activities.
 Pre-mathematical/nursery skills: these include ordering, classifying, matching, sorting,
measurement, adding etc. These enable children appreciate differences and identify objects
by their correct descriptions.
 Creativity: Children seem naturally creative and their creativity is geared towards giving
opportunity to children to explore things around them by their senses of smell, hearing,
taste, sight and sound. Children use variety of materials such as clay, plasticine, crayons,
paint and markers to create original work.
 Music/dance/Movement: This science and art of the rhythmic combination of tones, vocal
or instrumental, embracing melody and harmony can be used in diverse ways for children
to enable them have fun, explore and identify sounds, sing, work, play simple instruments
and express their national pride.
 Physical development: These are throwing, balancing, running, chasing, jumping etc.
which help children build up their bodies and bones to be healthy and strong. Muscles
control and body coordination all come under physical development.
 Other sources apart from the curriculum: These are activities from traditional sources and
the community which the early childhood professional deem fit to be carried out in the
early childhood education. Traditional games like “ampe”, “tuumatu”, folk tales, local
songs, ways of worship in the communities, greetings and their responses etc. resource
persons in the community can be invited to provide lesson for children.
 Another source is the use of local materials such as fish scales, newspapers, cartoons, tins,
old nets, magazines etc to construct objects. Moreover, the teacher/professional can find
good information from the mass media, books, networks, looking for information from
peers etc.

2.4.2 Importance of Variety

- It enables the early childhood professional to develop the child’s potential capabilities
making the child a total being.
- It imbibes knowledge and inculcates good skills into the child.

31
 - It provides nurturing/care abilities to the early childhood professional in terms of healthy
physical personalities.
- Sources make professionals teach with ease and learning appeal to children’s senses that
makes recall easy.
- It also helps the professional to stay put to what he or she is supposed to teach in a class
during instructional period.
- It also provides professionals with information valued to be given to children.

 Activity 4:1. Write down any five sources of variety of the K.G setting. Does your
answer include Nature and Environment?

UNIT 2: Session 5: Scheduled Plans and Routines

2.5.1 Scheduled Plans and Routines

Scheduled plans and routines dear learner, are activities in the nursery and kindergarten education
where children perform during the instructional periods both outdoor and indoor activities at the
centre. Apart from the classroom academic activities, children perform a lot of other activities at
school. The following descriptions illustrate the daily schedule of an ideal nursery/kindergarten
school.

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- Opening Activities: As children enter, the teacher/attendant greets each child individually.
Daily personal greetings make the child feel important and respected, builds positive
attitude towards school and provide the change to practice language skills. They also give
the teacher the chance to check each child’s health and emotional status.
- Group Meeting/Planning: After all children arrive, they and the teacher plan together and
talk about the day ahead. This is also the time for announcement, sharing what they plan
to learn during the day. This makes it child-based or child-centred learning.
- Learning Centres: After the group time, children are free to go to one of the various learning
centres organised and designed to teach various concepts.
- Hand washing: Before any activity in which food is handled, prepared or eaten, children
should wash and dry their hands with soap and towels.
- Outdoor Activity/Play/Walking: ideally, outside play should be a time for learning new
concepts and skills not just a time to run around aimlessly. Children can practice climbing,
jumping, swinging, throwing, hopping, balancing and body control. Professionals may
incorporate walking trips (nature walk) and other events into outdoor play.
- Snacks: After centre activities, snack is usually served. It should be nutritionally sound and
something the children can serve themselves.
- Bathroom/Toileting: Bathroom/Toileting times offer opportunities to teach health self-help
and inter personal skills. If children have been soundly groomed on personal hygiene, there
is no cause of alarm on this routine. Children should be allowed to use the bathroom/toilet
whenever necessary. After every use of the facilities, children need to wash their hands
with soap and water and dry them with towels.
- Lunch: Lunch should be a relaxing time. Children should take their meals together (at the
same time). They should be involved in cleaning up after meals and snacks.
- Relaxing: Relax, perhaps to the accompaniment of stories and music.
- Naptime: Children who want or need to should have a chance to rest or sleep. Quiet time
activities should be available for those who do not need or cannot sleep.
- Centres or Special Projects: Following naptime is a good time for centre activities or
special projects. Special projects might involve mock cooking, collecting things, work
project, art activities and nature walks.

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 - Group Time: The day can end with a group meeting to review the day’s activities. This
meeting sees to any announcements for parents or the next day’s activities. These give rise
for children to develop listening and attention skills and promote oral communication.

 Activity 5.1.
List down any five each of academic and extra-curricular activities children or
nursery/kindergarten go through at their settings.
Academic Extra-curricular
1. ……………………………………………… 1. ………………………………………
… …
……………………………………………… ………………………………………
… …
2. ……………………………………………… 2. ………………………………………
… …
……………………………………………… ………………………………………
… …
3. ……………………………………………… 3. ………………………………………
… …
……………………………………………… ………………………………………
… …
4. ……………………………………………… 4. ………………………………………
… …
……………………………………………… ………………………………………
… …
5. ……………………………………………… 5. ………………………………………
… …
……………………………………………… ………………………………………
… …

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2.5.2 Class Routines
Dear learner, class routines need to be enforced in the nursery/kindergarten set up to ensure
good, orderly and sound atmosphere for learning. There is the need for the professional to work
up routines with parents and children in these areas.
- Time to report for class or closing.
- Seeking permission to go out or to be excused e.g. “May I go out” etc.
- Asking for objects e.g. crayons, coloured chalk etc. from friends and partners by using
words like “please, can/may I borrow your crayon?”
- Showing appreciation and gratitude for an assistance.
- Sharing objects.
- Showing remorse/regret e.g. “I am sorry”, “Sorry, it would not happen again”. Reporting
back to the classroom after playtime or nature walk.
- Washing hands before and after meals.
- Time outs.
- Raising hands before talking/questions.
- Assigning roles and responsibilities.
- Responding to names.
- Taking turns/waiting for turns in the classroom to answer questions.
- Greeting adults and visitors into the class.
All the above-mentioned routine activities in the classroom should be geared towards
maximum serene atmosphere so that children carry about their learning in a sound environment
devoid of fighting and other distractions that occur in the classroom.
Dear learner, do you have rules, regulations and sanctions in your classroom?


Activity 5.2.
Design any 5 classroom rules and regulations with your friend that is suitable for the
nursery/kindergarten settings. Hang these rules and regulations in the classroom and remind
children of them everyday.

K.G. 2 Classroom Rules and regulations

1. Ask permission before excusing/going out.
2. …………………………………………………………….
3. ……………………………………………………………
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4. ……………………………………………………………
5. …………………………………………………………….
6. ……………………………………………………………
 UNIT 2: Session 6: Behavior Modification of Nursery/Kindergarten Children

Dear Learner, in this lesson, we are looking at behaviour modification and its techniques
at the nursery/kindergarten level. Hope you will enjoy the lesson.

2.6.1 What is Behaviour Modification?

Behaviour Modification means the conscious application of the methods of behavioral
science with the intent of changing children’s behaviour. In its simplest form or term, we can refer
to it as changing behaviours.
Behaviorist’s theory maintains that all behaviour is learned and in sense, all behaviour is caused
by re-inforcers from which individuals gain pleasure of some kind. This also follows that
behaviour learned, can be unlearned.

2.6.2 Re-Inforced Misbehaviour

In our efforts to change or modify children’s behaviour, we need to recognize that our behaviour
and attitudes can cause a great deal of child misbehavior. Many children misbehave because their
misbehavior is re-inforced. For example children enjoy receiving attention; therefore when a child
who is noisy receives attention by being scolded, the chance of exhibiting the same behaviour is
greatly decreased as a result of re-enforcement (scolding). We sometimes also encourage children
to do sloppy work or hurry through an activity when we emphasize finishing it.

2.6.3 Techniques for Modifying Children’ Behaviour

Can you think of a way by which we can modify or change children’s behaviour? Well
let’s consider the following:
- Positive re-inforcement:
This refers to providing rewards or re-inforcers that promote behaviours that are desirable.
This can come in the various forms such as a hug, gifts, and word of encouragement, facial
expression like a smile, candies and best foods of children’s interest.
Positive re-enforcement makes the child behave in desirable ways.

36
 Activity 2.6.1


Suggest one other form of positive re-inforcement.

- Use of appropriate re-inforcers:

A re-enforcer is only as effective as the child’s desire for it. In other words, if the re-inforcer
has the power to re-enforce the behaviour that precedes it, then it will work. This means that if the
re-enforcer is not something that children desire to have or do, then it will not work. Some activities
that children like to do or privileges they often choose like watering the plants, feeding pets,
washing and cleaning chalkboard, running errands, playing games with friends, using toys/objects
and equipment like TV and computer games.

- Praise as a re-enforcer:
Giving praise is probably the most frequent method of rewarding or re-enforcing children’s
behaviour. Praise as a re-enforcer is either general or specific praise is more effective because it
describes the behaviour we want a child to build. The child has the feeling that he/she is being
praised, and what he/she is being praised for.

2.6.4 Contingency Management

Early childhood professionals frequently find it helpful to engage in contingency
contracting or contingency management to re-enforce behaviour. With this strategy you might tell
a child, “If you put the materials away when you are done with them, you can watch Scoobydoo’s
cartoons for thirty minutes. Sometime contingency management is accompanied by a written
contract between children depending of course on the child’s age and maturity.

2.6.5 Token System

Re-enforcement works best when it occurs at the time of the behaviour we want to re-
enforce. To provide immediate re-enforcement, some teacher’s use tokens such as plastic disks,
buttons, trading stamps and others which the child later trades for an activity. If children like to do
a particular activity, the teacher might allow them to exchange ten tokens to perform that activity.

37
 Activity 2.6.2

Suggest any one other item that can be used as a token.

- Time Out:
Time out is the most favoured form of discipline used by most teachers and parents. Time
out is the removal of a child from an activity because that child has done something wrong.
Presumably the time out gives the child an opportunity to think about the misbehavior. After a set
period time, when the child says he/she is sorry and can behave (which of course, all children say)
the child is allowed to return to the activity.

- Model Appropriate Behaviour:

Action they say speaks louder than words. Children see and remember how other people
act. As an early childhood care giver, you need to model and demonstrate appropriate social and
group-living behaviours as well as using simple courtesies (saying, “Please, thank you, I am sorry,
you are welcome etc.”) as well as practicing co-operation sharing and showing respect for others.

- Provide Guidance:
Children need to act their way out of undesirable behaviour. The problem sometimes is
that the child may not know what he wants to do, or may not know what is appropriate. In other
words, he needs an organized procedure on how to act. Building behaviour then is a process of
getting children to act in new ways. The teacher should therefore provide the needed guidance to
assist children to act appropriate.

- Promote Empathy and Pro-Social Behaviour:

One trend in Early Childhood Education is for the teacher and other professionals to focus
on helping children learn how to share, care for and assist others. We call these and similar
behaviours pro-social behaviours.
We now know that children as young as two and three, four and five years are quite capable
of empathy (showing concern for others). You can do a number of things to promote pro-social
behaviour that will enable children to show concern for others.

38
For example:
i. Model behaviours that are caring, loving and helping.
ii. Provide opportunities to engage children in helping and giving service to others e.g. drama,
assigning roles.
iii. Help children “put themselves in someone’s place” e.g. ask them what they think about a
particular situation or event. E.g. injury, sickness etc.
iv. Teach co-operation living by supporting and fostering belongingness, well feeling among
children.
v. Use conflict management and resolution techniques to solve children’s quarrels, fight that
may occur at the centre.
vi. Do something else – Direct children’s attention to other activities that are worthwhile.
vii. Take turns: Taking turns is a good way for children to learn that they cannot always be first
or have their own way.
viii. Share; Children should be taught how to share and how to behave positively if others do not
want to share.

 Activity 2.6.3
Identify any two other caregivers who can work in partnership with teachers to guide
children’s behaviour.
a. …………………………………………………………………………………………………
b. …………………………………………………………………………………………………

6.3 List any 5 inappropriate children behaviours that the teacher needs not ignore.
a. …………………………………………………………………………………………………
b. …………………………………………………………………………………………………
c. …………………………………………………………………………………………………
d. …………………………………………………………………………………………………
e. …………………………………………………………………………………………………

S Summary

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 All too soon, dear learners, we have come to another successful end of unit 2. We journeyed
through the Learning Environment of the Nursery/Kindergarten settings. All the three
environments were carefully discussed as well as the Sources of Variety, Scheduled Plans and
Routines and ended with Children’s Behaviour Modification. See you at Unit 3.

UNIT 3: TEACHER CENTRED/ASSISTED STRATEGIES

Session 1: The nature of teaching process of the Nursery/Kindergarten

40
Session 2: Whole class activities – discussions, storytelling, field trips etc.
Session 3: Teacher-led group activities.
Session 4: Questioning – levels of questioning, functions of questions, effective questioning
Strategies, modification.

Introduction
Dear Learner we have come to Unit 3 where Teacher Centered Assisted Strategies is our focus.
Teacher centered or assisted strategies in the Early Childhood Education are referred to as the
teacher transmission methods.
The nature of the teaching/instructional/learning process of the Nursery/Kindergarten is different
from the primary school. When children enter nursery/kindergarten from age 2 – 5, they come with
tremendous informed experiences.
In the nursery/kindergarten instructional process, the curriculum recognizes the principles that
children at this age learn by doing. Children are therefore provided with activities that require their
participation in all learning.
Due to the above introduction teachers/professionals of Early Childhood Education are expected
to use instructions through imitation play, groupings, story-telling problems solving, discussion,
whole class activities, storytelling etc. to inculcate experiences of human lives into children.

Objectives
By the end of the sessions, learners would be able to:
- describe the steps followed by using any of the instructional strategies by teachers.
- use role play and simulation activities.
- apply various types of questions during instructional time.

UNIT 3: Session 1: Whole Class Activities

Whole class activity is a teacher centered/strategy that deals with teaching children as a whole or
unit. When a teacher instructs all children the same thing (topic) at the same time and at the same

41
speed without considering individual differences then, the whole class activity or instructional
method/strategy is being applied. By whole class activity consideration of children as a uniform
group, therefore we teach and manage them together with the same activities.

3.1.1 Features/Characteristics of Whole Class Activities:

 All children are taught with the same materials at the same time.
 One topic is taught all children.
 Teachers play the role of acting information.
 Suitable for learning things we can remember e.g. a rhyme.
 Everything depends on teacher.

Advantages/Merits/Benefits of Whole Class Activities:

 It’s economical of time, effort, energy and resource e.g. TLM.
 Teacher talks to the whole class instead of individuals.
 One teacher teaches many children at the same time.
 It caters for children’s inactive desire for working and playing in a group.
 It is easier to stimulate interest and activity. E.g. a few children become interested and it
spreads to others.
 It promotes co-operative learning among children.
 It promotes healthy competition in class.

Demerits/Disadvantages
 It does not cater for individual ability, experience and emotional development.
 Difficulty in knowing inattentive children.
 It is not good for learning higher cognitive objective values/attitudes.

Activity 3.1.1

In pairs bring out two benefits each of whole class activities.

UNIT 3: Session 2: Whole Class Activities – Discussions, Storytelling, Field Trips etc

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3.2.1 Discussions
Discussion involves a free-flowing conversation giving children an opportunity to express
their opinions/ideas and listen to those of his/her peers.

- When to use discussions:

 Children’s opinion and experience need to be known by the teacher or are valuable and
interesting to the other children in a group.
 The topic involves values, attitudes, feelings and awareness rather than exclusively factual
material.
 It is necessary to give children practice in evaluating opinions.

3.2.2 Planning a Discussion

The teacher must have objective that she or he hopes to achieve during the lesson. The plan
must be produced and may simply take the form of an ordered list of questions to be put across to
the discussants to generate or resort the discussion.
Factors to consider in discussion lesson in kindergarten: Choose an appropriate question –
open-ended questions e.g. how do we cross streets? The seating arrangements should be looked at
as children need to be able to see each other’s face, so a circle or horse-shoe formation is the best
arrangement.
If the topic is a matter of dispute, the introduction should be as unbiased as possible. As a
discussion leader, do not give away your opinion on the matter as this may inhibit children from
expressing the opposite opinion.

3.2.3 Advantages/Merits/Benefits of Discussion

1. Well managed discussions are interesting, absorbing and a active.
2. They produce a safe environment for children to examine their opinions and where necessary,
change them.
3. There is an opportunity for pupils to use higher-order cognitive skills.
4. Useful for effective communication and education e.g. establishing empathy and examining
social and moral values.
5. Discussion offers an opportunity for children to get to know each other’s opinion is important
and to feel at ease and become communicative.
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3.2.4 Disadvantages
 It may be noisy if the topic is a general one.
 Some children may disagree to other areas not under the discussion.
 Some misconceptions may arise.
 Other children may not accept others opinions.
 Some children may dominate the discussion.
Teacher’s Role in Discussion
 Check excessive noise that may arise.
 Bring back children to the point under discussion when digression sets in.
 Help children to accept the views, ideas and opinions of others, other than their own.
 Make points clear whenever there is misconception of false hold.
 Lead children to summarize the points made during the discussion.

Activity 3.1.2

a. State any three features of a healthy discussion in the KG
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
b. Mention any two factors to consider as a teacher/professional when using discussion in the
instructional process.

3.2.5 Story Telling

Story telling or stories help us make sense of our lives. There are many traditional stories
that have been passed down from one generation to another generation which were told to use
when we were young that explain some rule, principles, attitudes and values of the society that we
were born if they are well told and written.
Stories are entertaining, exciting, stimulating and can transport us out of our everyday lives
into fantasy words, but they can also be challenging. They can provide guidance about how we
live our lives; they can stimulate our thinking about new ideas. They can help us explore our

44
feelings and help us to think through problems in a context that is detached from reality and
therefore less threatened.
Stories have a strong role to play in the classroom in all curriculum areas and can be used
in a number of ways for a range of purposes. The next part explores when and how one might use
a story in the Kindergarten classroom to develop children’s knowledge and understanding of their
world.
 How to use stories in the K.G.
Stories can be used at the start, middle and at the end of Kindergarten lessons.
 Start of the lesson: Most often, stories used at this stage are to set the scene for the lesson, to
stimulate interest, find out what pupils or children already know and to provide a context for
the main work of the lesson.
 Middle of the lesson: Stories used at this stage provide a context for the work, the class is
doing. They may be analyzing or using:
 The values in the story.
 The reactions of the characters.
 The ideas contained in the story.
 The claims made in the story.
 The structure of the story.
 The ideas in the story to broaden and develop understanding of the subject.
 End of the Lesson: Stories used at this stage are often used to pull learning together, so
selecting a story for this stage are often not much difficult.
 They can be used to just relax the children and give them a pleasurable experience before
they go home from school. Stories have an immense value in themselves.
 They provide more comfort and self-esteem.
 Help children learn more about themselves as they relate to the characters in the story. Just
telling or reading stories for pleasure cannot be over-estimated.
 Stories are used to pass on listening and values.

3.2.6 Where to find/select Stories

 Stories can be found in books, the local community, the teacher/professional himself/herself
and the children themselves.

45
  Stories selected should carry a message and a purpose for which the professionals want to
use. E.g. the class may be investigating the sun/moon in an Environmental Studies Lesson
and use a traditional tale about how the sun/moon came to be in the interest and to explore
the truths of the story.
 The professional may find a story from the local environment that has not been written surely
from childhood or that of the children can be used.
 The professional also invent his or her own story to tell or read to the class or ask them to
write stories in a pictorial form. These could be collected and made into a book of local
stories or into books of stories about a particular curriculum area. There is no age limit to
using story with your pupils, but obviously need to select appropriately for those in your
class.
 Stories can be made in pictorial form by using pictures while telling the story or as shown to
the class to make inferences as they correspond to the talking.
 A renowned or resource story teller can be invited to come and tell stories to children.

 Activity 3.1.2
Suggest any two more sources of selecting story for your K.G. class.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Does your answer include the mass media, and other countries or continents?

3.2.7 Types of Stories that can be selected

Stories are derived from Folk tales, Myths, Fables and Legends. Folk tales are defined as
“all forms of stories passed down through the ages”. This definition can include fable, legends,
myths and folk epics.
A fable is a very brief story usually with animal characters that clearly points to a moral
lesson.
Myths are stories that originate in the folk beliefs of different cultures and stories and which
present episodes in which supernatural forces operate seen in nature and show the ways human
beings see forces that control them.

46
 Legends are similar to myths because both are traditional narratives of people. Legends
often have more historical truth and rely less on the supernatural.

 Activity 3.1.3
Write down a title each of a story under the following.
Myths Fable Legend
E.g. The old woman and the ………………………………… ………………………………
Pestle that made God live on high ………………………………… ………………………………
……………………………… ………………………………… ………………………………
……………………………… ………………………………… ………………………………
……………………………… ………………………………… ………………………………

3.2.8 Roles of the Teacher in Setting up Story Telling Session

1. Basically, choose a story wisely and learn it with love, practice and improve warmly in
pleasant atmosphere.
2. The teacher can use the classroom if the space is enough to arrange the seating arrangement
to suit the session.
3. It can be recorded on tape, tried and broadcast to children.
4. Children can be taken outside under a shade in a horse shoe form or in a circle so that children
would face each other and also be able to see the teacher or the story-teller talk.
5. Be loud enough and distinctly clear for everybody to hear.

3.2.9 Evaluating the Storytelling

1. Children can re-narrate the whole story.
2. Questions can be asked for pupils to bring out the characters in the story.
3. Moral issues in connection of the story should be re-emphasized for children to learn from
e.g. courage, values, attitudinal change that are positive, wrong doing, help, love, sympathy
etc.
4. Children can be asked to draw, act or write the most part that they find most interesting.

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3.2.10 Importance/Benefits of Stories in the Early Childhood Setting
1. Story telling conveys useful education information: Story telling is used to convey
information to the young. Stories about war heroes, about the earth, about spirits of the
departed people and other important personnel are of a clan ethnic group, family etc. e.g.
AsebuAmanfi, YaaAsantewaa, Oseagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, God our Creator etc.
2. Story telling introduces the child to important literature: The young child’s introduction to
the vast store house of the world’s literature,provides a rich and rewarding learning
experience and is an occasion worth every moment of the preparation involved. For children
who cannot read, it is an important way to introduce them to literature and to provide
motivation to want to read through the use of the pictures provided.
3. Story telling makes reading desirable: When children become excited about stories that are
read to them from a book once they learn they read they will book, once they learn to read
they can read the stories themselves. Thus reading of a story to children will create the
demand for literary books containing stories or types that they have enjoyed.
4. Storytelling helps to establish rapport between professional and the class: When a
professional shares a story which delights his or her children it leads to laughter and
merriment which is enjoyed by all. These feelings carry over into other classroom
experiences and this help strengthen the rapport between the teacher and pupils.
5. It improves children’s communication/speaking skills: Through storytelling, children are
encouraged to speak and become involved in the use of conversation, dramatization and role
play.
6. Quality of life that existed in the community: Stories can tell us of the quality of the life that
existed in the community at the time they had their origin and they can also reveal important
feelings and emotions such as love, hate, fairness, courage, fear etc. storytelling plays an
important key role in holding many communitive together and so their important should not
be ignored in the Early Childhood Education.

Activity 3.1.4


48
 List down any two advantages of storytelling in your K.G. Classroom
1. ………………………………………………………………………………………
2. ………………………………………………………………………………………

3.2.11 Field Trips/Nature Walk

A field trip sometimes called field study or in Early Childhood Education known as Natural
or Local Walks are carefully selected instructional practices whereby children are taken for
educational visit to different places and exposed to these environments as much as possible.
This will help the children get first hand experiences e.g. when talking about the market,
children can visit a nearby local market, stream, pond, playfield, pick types of leaves around the
school compound, pebbles, objects etc. for immediate or future lessons.

3.2.12 Planning/Implementing field/local trips

Before the trip
1. The ECE professional must become familiar with the legal aspects of the liability involved
E.g. a parent can sue the school for injuries/dangers caused to a ward outside the school.
2. The professional should make sure that the local trip is of educational value and that it is
related to what is being taught.
3. The trip should be planned by visiting sites or places and talking to the people that children
would meet before actually making the visit.
4. Identify and plan what children would see.
5. Obtain permission from the school authorities and parents if it involves the use of any school
plant and equipment. E.g. travelling out of town or a place very far away from the school.
6. Prepare the children adequately by relating the trip to what is being studied and what they
might observe or collect.
7. Establish safety codes and behavioral standard, as well as the number of children taking the
trip should be recorded.

? Would you like to establish anything else?

During the Trip:

1. At the site, provide for adequate supervision.

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 2. Be sure that all children are supposed to be where they should.
3. The professional should be near so that the children can be controlled.

After the Trip/Follow up Activities:

 Consolidate the knowledge gained from the trip by reporting/telling of the knowledge and
experiences gained and ask children to do exercises on their observation.
 If it is specimen of collections of objects there should be an assemblage of the specimen
collected e.g. shells, pebbles, leaves, etc.
 Ask questions or let children describe any interesting experience or event during the trip.

3.2.13 Benefits/Advantages
1. Trips provided children with interesting first had experience.
2. It’s a common experience for the learning of basic activities.
3. It extends classroom realities.
4. Trips add significantly and greatly school-community relationships.
5. It is a multi-sensory approach to learning.
6. The procedures can be utilized by teachers of all areas of the curriculum.
7. It enhances co-cooperativeness.
8. Children learn to become leaders and play roles in their respective groups.
9. This teacher led strategy is good for observation.

3.2.14 Limitation of Trips/Nature Walks

 The legal responsibilities of the professional accompanying children or field trips/local walks
are serious.
 Discipline can easily become a problem.
 Limited period on the classroom timetable makes it difficult to make arrangements which
are not.
 If properly not organized, the trip becomes a waste of time.
 Transportation arrangements are often difficult and costly.
 It can disorganize the daily schedules.

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51
 UNIT 3: Session 3: Teacher-led Group Activities
3.3.1 Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a small or large group activity which encourages children to focus on a trip and
contribute to the free flow of ideas. The professional may begin to pose a question or a problem or
by introducing a topic. Child then expresses possible answers, relevant words and ideas.
Contributions are accepted with criticism or judgment.
Initially, some children may be reluctant to speak out or participate by expressing ideas and
listening to what others say. Children adjust their previous knowledge or understanding,
accommodate new information and increase their levels of awareness.
Teacher becomes active listener during these sessions. Children are encouraged to listen
carefully and politely to what their classmate’s contributions tell the speakers or the teacher when
they cannot hear others clearly and think of different suggestions or responses to share.

3.3.2 Role of the Teacher in Brainstorming

 Introduce or pose a question.
 Ask children to take turns sharing ideas and possible answers.
 Encourage all children to participate.
 Print the main words or phrases of children contributions on a chalkboard or chart while
children observe.
 Teacher ideas may be added.
 Acknowledge and praise children for their contributions.
 Establish that a quantity of ideas is the goal.
 Discourages evaluative or critical comment from peers.

3.3.3 Benefits of Brainstorming

 Focus on children’s attention on a particular topic.
 It generates a quality of ideas.
 It creates acceptance and respect for individual differences.
 Brainstorming encourages learners to take risk in sharing their ideas and opinions.
 It demonstrates that their knowledge and language abilities are valued and respected.

52
  It’s a positive practice of collection of ideas prior to beginning tasks such as writing or
solving problems.
 It provides an opportunity for children to share ideas and expand their existing knowledge
by building on each other’s contributions.

How would you as a professional assess a brainstorming session?

a. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………....
b. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Your answers should include:
 Observe children’s ability to focus on a topic or task in a group situate.
 Note children’s participation and oral expression of ideas.
 Monitor listening behaviours of children.
 Records children oral language, strengths and weaknesses in their portfolio periodically.

3.3.4 Demonstrations
Demonstration is a teacher-led group or individual strategy whereby the teacher shows
his/her class how to do something or perform a skill. The main purpose is to allow children to
witness the procedure of an act to practice it.

3.3.5 Roles of the Teacher

 Explain the purpose of the demonstration.
 Demonstrate procedures while children watch attentively. Be clear enough.
 Ask pupils questions on the activity.
 Guide children to practice the skill/activity.
 Children practice on their own.
 Provides circumstance for children to explore and experiment the process for themselves.
 Offer models of good practice.

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 
Activity 3.3.1
Write down any two topics/activities of the curriculum that you have demonstrated recently
with your K.G. class.
a. …………………………………………………………………………………………………
b. ………………………………………………………………………………………………….

3.3.6 Importance of Demonstration

 Demonstration adds to learning by giving children the opportunity to see and hear what is
actually happening.
 It can an be used to illustrate ideas, explain concepts for which words are inadequate.
 It captures children’s attention.
 It helps builds children’s skills and attitudes.
 It utilizes both auditory and visual means of communication of children.

3.3.7 Drills
Drill is a repetition of facts and skills which professionals wish to re-enforce with the aim
of promoting over learning in children e.g. rhyme/verse.

Types of drills:
 Oral drill.
 Written drill.
Oral drill is mostly used in literacy instruction, while written drill is more often used in teaching
writing skills of beginners.
In Early Childhood Education drills are used orally and in writing. For oral drills the professional
uses them to promote over learning in rhymes, poems, words and sentences formation as well as
communication development.
For writing, they are used in pattern making, scribbling, numerals, writing in the air and alphabet
writing.

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Steps in Drills:
 Professionals say the word, sentence etc several times loud enough for children to listen.
 Children respond after teacher.
 Encourages individual/re-enforcers to improve performance it is writing/recitations.
 When drill period is over, let children work on tasks related to the drill.

Activity 3.3.2

Give any 2 importance of drills
a. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
b. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
 Helps children to develop vocabulary and structure.
 Help to develop the awareness of sound system.
 Through listening and playing with words, children gradually become accustomed and
absorb the individual sound and patterns of a new language, word or numeral.

3.3.8 Role playing and Simulation Activities

When children begin to imagine that they are somebody else-father, mother, nurse, market woman,
teacher, doctor, driver, engineer, policeman/police woman, carpenter and to pretend to do those
jobs they use role cause to pretend to do those jobs, learn about the people around them and their
environment. Role play is a technique or method involving a spontaneous portrayal (acting out) of
a situation, condition or of circumstances selected members of a learning group. The situation to
which pupils respond may either be structured or unstructured i.e. telling children what to do before
hand is structured and calling out children to respond spontaneously is unstructured role play.
Simulation on the other hand is pretense or an imitation. It allows learners in a particular field or
course to assume roles, which resemble those of the real situations. Boxers, for example use
punching bags as simulators to practice boxing. Such punching bags dangle in mid-air, like a rival
boxer and the real boxer uses it for practice by dodging the blows, punching the bag and following
all other roles of boxing. In this case, he pretends to be fighting his real boxer. The difference
between role play and simulation is that role play is acting out while simulation is imitating.

Activity 3.3.3


55
 Show which one is a simulation or role play
- A child bathing her doll ………………………………………………………………
- A child giving lessons to her peer……………………………………………………..
- A boy hitting the ground with a stick killing a paper snake..…………………………
- A girl cooking with sand and empty tins …………………………………………………
- Children imagining to be doctors, nurses and patients ……………………………………
- A technique that promotes the spirit of team work among the learners …………………
- A boy wearing the father’s shoes ………………………………………………………….

Dear learner, simulation and role playing are powerful tools for professionals to use in the
Kindergarten setting to minimize distractions in the classroom.

3.3.9 How to organize role play/simulation

 The child needs an environment with rich materials in which he/she can play.
 Too little materials to play with will limit and restrict the experiences to such an extent that
children may not discover the patterns of relationship in this world.
 Teaching should suit the age and level of children otherwise they will be easily bored and
frustrated.
 Teacher/parents should show interest in what they are doing; talking about them and with
encouraging remarks will build up their confidence.
 Give children the freedom to practice and overate them with least restrictions; building up
their independence.
Teacher/parent should show that he/she is prepared to answer their questions as honestly
as possible to make children fearless in finding out the truth and realities about the world round
them.
 If it is structured role play, the children should be well prepared for the role to be played. If
instructional resources are available, it can be videotaped for self-evaluation and debriefing.
 Debriefing or summarize the activity of the class and reflect on the role play. Though its time
consuming, it’s the most important part of the teacher-led activities.

3.3.10 Importance/benefits:

56
  In role-playing/simulation; the child expresses his/her feelings and attitudes e.g. injection
giving by a nurse at a hospital.
 Both encourage creativity.
 The methods provide the children with useful development of interpersonal skills than
merely intellectualization about it.
 Apart from being fun, role-play/simulation helps children to practice skills. Standards,
attitudes and moral habits children will later use in life e.g. cleanliness, cooking, serving,
sorting, mothering, measuring appropriate contents etc.
 Role play/simulation improves imagination and language acquisition as well as
communication.
 Both are used to improve and develop social and interpersonal skills.

3.3.11 Limitations/Weakness
 Role play/simulation can be time consuming.
 Sometimes, children may overact performance over the intended lessons to be learned.
 Hot topics and controversial issues can get out of hand.
 Sometimes it benefits only the actual performance unless the objectives for the class have
been clearly specified.
 The method may be harmful to those who lack the necessary skill (shy or special children
with speech defects or physically challenged).

UNIT 3: Session 4: Questioning – Levels, functions and Effective questioning strategies in

the Kindergarten.
A question is a problem or point which needs to be discussed or solved. As an Early
childhood Professional a question is statement you say or write in order to ask about a particular
matter. If you questions a child of the pre-school years you ask him/her a question in oral or written
form, it should be related to good teaching. Good classroom questions acts and prompts children

57
to develop meaning out of the lesson content. Questions are also important potent tools of
classroom interaction. A question can be in a command or implicit form.
Example:
a. Raise your hand if you know the answer.
b. Aren’t you going to answer the question?
The first is expressed in command form (raise your hand) yet it, contains an implicit question. The
question is not directly expressed.
The second question sounds like a question yet contains and implicit command. Thus, you will
note that teacher’s questions are not always realized by interrogations e.g. “What can you see in
this picture” may be expressed by the statement “We will describe what is going on in this picture”.
Or by the command: “Tell me what you see in this picture”. So, perhaps, a question in the context
of early childhood instructional process is an oral or written statement, or gesture intended to evoke
a response from either children or pupils.
There are various reasons for asking questions in the classroom:
 Read children’s minds and make contact with it.
 Make the children express what they have understood in the lesson.
 Make children thick.
 Remind children about things they otherwise might not bother about.
 Evolve a response from the teacher.
 To link new knowledge to the old knowledge.
 To stimulate interest and effort of children.
 To recall something.
 To enable them think.
 Promote initiative and originality.
 To recognize something.

 Activity 3.1.8
Write down any other three reasons why you will ask questions in class.

Kinds of Questions in the Kindergarten Setting

58
 In the process of instruction, professionals may ask different kinds of questions. These may
include:
 Fact questions – use to test memory of names, dates etc. fact questions call for quick
response. E.g. What is your name? What is the capital of Ghana?
 Drill questions: They are asked to sharpen children with or and to memorization. Drill
questions are rapidly distributed over the whole class and call for brief ready responses are
aimed at remedying children’s difficulties e.g. b, d, p, q, 6, e, 3E, m, n, O, Q, etc.
 Thought Questions – Require reasoning or judgment on a problem. These are meant to
encourage originality in answers to let children think or discriminate before answering. E.g.
In a poultry farm a man is found there with six chickens, how many feet are there?
 Discussion Question: These allow children to form different points of view. The teacher
originally should not explain what he/she can get a child to explain e.g. when a pupil fails to
answer a question and a second succeeds, the teacher returns to the first and lets him/her
repeat the correct response or let him explain why his own answer was not correct.
 Exploratory Question: Are asked to introduce a new lesson. This is based on what children
have been taught before, to serve as a checkup. They are meant to cause pupils to want more
and to let the teacher know what you have to build on.
 Education Question: Are meant to make pupils compare, imagine or infer so that pupils build
upon their ideas in the way you want it.
 Aid-to-memory Questions: Are meant to let children remember things they constantly forget.
E.g. if children fail to put up their hands and wait their turn to be called for their responses,
you can recall your instruction to their memory by asking, “What did I ask you to do that you
answered a question”. Remember that Aid-to-memory questions are only used when pupils
go against instructions.
 Convergent Question is a narrow question that inhibits responses. It is also called direct or
closed question. Such questions give rise to previously heard answer and only needs to recall
certain facts. E.g. “Name the main characters in the story of Ananse and the wisdom pot”.
Teacher can see that the answers to these questions can easily be judged right or wrong.
 Divergent Questions: This is a broad type of questions that encourages a general or open
response. These types of questions are indirect and have no single best answer, but it can
give wrong answers. E.g. Answers given in a brainstorming lesson is diverse.

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  Activity 3.1.9
Write down four more types of questions that can be asked in the Kindergarten classroom.
1. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

How to use questioning for effective Early Childhood Development

1. Describe upon the purpose of the question to be used.
2. Structure in advance the more difficult type of questions to be used.
3. State the question clearly and concisely.
4. If the question is complicated, state it more than once, varying the wording.
5. It is important to ask the question before naming the person to respond to so as to set the
whole class; else the rest of the class may not bother to listen to it. It also encourages more
complete and interesting answers to be produced if all listen and take part.
6. Pause so that everyone will have time to think about the question.
7. Call children by their names through random selection. Avoid the pattern in selecting same
learners to answer the question.

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 8. Listen to the answer to determine how appropriate the responses are. It is also good to redirect
the question.
9. Emphasize the correct answer, but the respondent should not be embarrassed.
10. Use who, what, when, where, to check information. For higher order probing questions use
why and how.
11. Distribute questions evenly and widely as possible. Encourage the shy ones and those who
deliberately “sit outside your area of vision” to answer questions. Ensure that the classroom
seating plan should help you to distribute questions widely and fairly.

When to Use Questions:

 A good question should encourage all children to think. It should avoid an “I am trying to
catch you out” atmosphere and should give the chance to get some positive feedback to
demonstrate their success in learning.
 At the beginning of learning:
This is known as set induction. It is to arouse pupil’s interest that would last throughout
the lesson. This can be done through.
a. Presenting a TLM and asking questions about it.
b. The previous lessons could also be reviewed.
c. Thematic questions around which teaching is going to be organized sometime it can be
predicted or forecast the lesson to be learned. E.g. mention some of the foods you took this
morning before school. Such a question can lead to an hour’s lesson of “the foods we eat for
breakfast”. So at the beginning of a lesson;

1. Help teacher find out what the children already know about the lesson.
2. To arouse children’s interest in the lesson.
3. To turn children’s attention to the ideas or facts the teacher wants children to have as a
starting point for some new knowledge.

In the Course of the Lesson:

1. To ensure that children understand the concepts, skill or knowledge that is being transmitted.
2. To connect the various segments of the material they are going to be taught.

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 3. To call attention to important points.

At the End of the Lesson:

This is known as evaluation of the lesson. It is to assess the success or the extent to which learning
has taken place. It is a means to check if lesson or instructional objectives have been achieved.

How to Treat Children’s Answers

 Listen to children’s answers.
 Comment on the answers if necessary to give effective communication feed-back or reaction
by means of verbal or non-verbal. Derogatory remarks should be avoided.
 Praise/reward the child. This encourages children to answer questions.
 Use incomplete answer as a starting point for building up a correct answer through further
questioning.
 Correct wrong answers or better still, use it as a starting point.
 Let children answer their own questions when the questions seem very interesting and
important enough to be used as a starting point.

Blooms Taxonomy of Cognitive Development Blooms (1956) stated a classification of questions

to guide the teacher. They are in levels.
Level 1: Knowledge: ability to remember previously learned material. E.g. what do the letter
AIDS stand for?
Level 2. Comprehension: Ability to grasp the meaning of material learned e.g. yesterday we
discussed some uses of water, who would summarize it in his/her way or words.
Level 3: Application: Ability to use learned materials in a new environment e.g. if Ekua has
five oranges and gives Kobi two oranges, how many oranges would be left for
Ekua?
Level 4: Analysis: Ability to break learning material into its component parts. E.g. why do
you think that fishermen do not go to sea on Tuesday?
Level 5: Synthesis: ability to put parts of a learned material together to form a new whole?
E.g. What do you think would happen if it does not rain for six months?

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Level 6: Evaluation: Ability to judge the value of the material learned. E.g. what is the result
of littering our environment?

Activity 9.3

1. In the contest of teaching, explain what is a question
…………………………………………………….………………………………………..

2. What is a drill question meant for?

……………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. What type of question(s) will you use when introducing a new lesson?
…………………………………………………….………………………………………
4. What is a probing question?
………………………........................................................................................................
5. Give two examples of a divergent question.
……………………………………………………………………………………………

10.1 Motivation and Stimulus Variation

Motivation is a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic influences on learning. Intrinsic
refers to c influences coming from within the learner’s environment.
Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are important in stimulating learning. However, in
Early Childhood education, intrinsic motivation is more desirable than extrinsic motivation
because intrinsic sustains learning. Conditions in classroom of the ECE are necessary for
motivation in the instructional process of the child to improve learning. In this regard, teachers
need to:
 Pay attention that relates to the need for children to assign value to the subject matter being
taught.
 Whatever children learn should be relevant to the needs of children.
 Children need to have confidence in the teacher.
 Children should be satisfied to the types of reward that is being given as a consequence of
learning.
These conditions imply that motivation may not take place if the learners do not:

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 i. Pay particular attention to what they are learning and vice versa.
ii. View what they are doing as important as them.
iii. Show confidence in what they are learning.
iv. Envisage a reward at the end of a learning task the motivation would not be effective.

Role of the Teacher in Motivation

 Make learning attractive and stimulating.
 Provide opportunities for children to do participative learning and the environment should
be very simulating.
 Match children’s interests with learning activities so that development of competence would
take place in children.
 Elements of perception, values, personalities and judgments which are the final outcome of
children’s motivation should be developed and sustained in learners.
 Teacher should know their learners well – their development level, feelings, interest and
home backgrounds as well as their unique talents.

Activity 10.1

Add any two roles of how you motivate learners in their setting.
1. .......................................................................................................... ........................................
...................................................................................................................................................
2. ...................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................... ........................................
Stimulus Variation
Stimulus variation is a skill that relates to how to motivate learners to learn during an
instructional period. It means switching from one technique or activity to another without unduly
disrupting the lesson. Very often, we use them either consciously or unconsciously in the
Kindergarten setting. They can be verbal or non-verbal.

How Stimulus Variation Occur in the Early Childhood Setting

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  The use of positive re-enforcers. They include asking children to clap, “shine and light”,
shower, “rain and thunder” for their peers who give correct or right responses. Others are
passing positive remarks such as “good”, “well done”, “excellent”, “that’s my girl/boy etc.”
 Nodding the head to show approval when a child is trying to give a right response to a
question. This is non-verbal communication.
 Others are maintaining eye contact while the learner tries to come out with a response, facial
expressions and use of gestures.
 Use of wait time after asking a question
 Change tone in voice while asking a question.
 Teacher movement around the class.
 Giving prompt feedback to children.

S Summary
Dear learner we have come to the end of Unit 3. We have journeyed through Teacher
Centered/Assisted strategies. It is the hope and wish of the writers that the nature and teaching
processes of the Kindergarten/Nursery would be more interesting in our set ups.
Thank You.

UNIT 4: CHILD-CENTERED AND PEER ASSISTED STRATEGIES

Session 1: Co-operative Learning Strategies. Play, songs, rhymes and dramatization.

Session 2: Individualised Strategies. Learning centres, projects etc.
Session 3: Elaboration Strategies.Creating imageries/analogies, using technology.
Session 4: Planning for Child Centred Strategies. Selecting and using themes.

Introduction

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 You are welcome to Unit 4. We have journeyed through the first three units and we have
been successful. Now in this unit, learners will be taken through Child/Peer assisted learning
strategies which would see us examining the child’s effort to investigate and explore his/her
subject matter. In other words the activity selected for the lesson is performed by the learner, hence
the name child centered and peer assisted strategies.
This section is important to you because it will assist in employing appropriate instructional
strategies during the instructional process. It will also help you to strategize the lessons well.

Objective
By the end of the unit, you will be able to:
 use co-operative learning strategies in the K.G. setting.
 apply individualized learning strategies in the use of learning centres and projects etc.
 create imagery and analogies and the use of technology.
 plan for child-centered strategies by using thematic approach.

UNIT 4: Session 1: Co-operative Learning Strategies

Co-operative learning is a, learning approach that emphasizes working together. This strategy of
learning experience is effective particularly in Early Childhood Education because the children at
that level are developing socially and intellectually and tend to prefer working with peers.
Accordingly, the features of co-operative learning include:
 Positive Independence: Refers to a situation where children realize that although they are
each independent, everyone must contribute to the group’s success. Learners are responsible
for their own learning as well as the learning of all members of the group.

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  Face to face Interaction: In co-operative learning situation, children interacts, assist one
another with learning task, and promotes one another’s success.
 Individual Accountability: Individual goals are based on the effort and contributions of the
individual in achieving the group goal and not just an achievement of the on individual.
 Development of Social Skills: It offers children the chance to develop the interpersonal and
intrapersonal skills needed to succeed at school work and within learning.

4.1.1 Characteristics of Co-operative Learning

 Uses small groups of two-five children project together in such a way that each group
member contributes to the learning process and then learns all the basic concepts being
taught.
 It focuses on a task to be done or accomplished.
 It requires group co-operation and interaction.
 It mandates individual responsibility to learn.
 Supports division of labour.

4.1.2 Kinds of Co-operative Groups

There are many kinds of co-operative groups. These groups of teaching are a successful strategy
that small teams of children of different levels of ability use a variety of learning activities to
improve the understanding of a subject. Each team member is responsible only for learning what
is taught but also for helping team mates learn. Thus creating an atmosphere of achievement, there
different types of groups.
These include:
Small groups
Single task groups
Buzz groups
DYAD,
Snowballing etc.

A small group: The teacher breaks the class into small groups of 3, 4, 5, in a class (10 groups etc.)
for a task.

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Advantages:
1. Group work is active. It gives the pupils/children a chance to use the methods, principles and
vocabulary that they are been taught.
2. Shy children who will not contribute to the full class can usually be coaxed into contributing
in the small group.
3. There is peer-tutoring aspect to most group work, where errors in understanding are ironed
out in a relatively supportive atmosphere.
4. Group work involves task-centered talking, as well as being an enjoyable activity in itself;
this provides huge opportunities for learning.
5. Children get chance to practice high order mental skills such as creativity, evaluation,
synthesis and analysis. They also practice common skills such as ability to work with and
communicate with one another.
6. Group work gives pupils a universally well-come opportunity to get to know each other. It
can also arouse loyalty, especially if there is an element of competition. This can produce
strong motivation to learn or to work harder.
7. Group work is useful in practical activities where materials and equipment will not go round.

Values of small group work – Whitaker, (1984)

1. It creates a climate in which children can work with a sense of security and self-confidence.
2. It facilitates the growth of understanding by offering the optimum opportunity for pupils to
talk reflectively with each other.
3. It promotes a spirit of co-operation and mutual respect.

Limitations
 Groups can go off in the wrong direction.
 Groups can be hijacked by some determined individuals.
 Some children may become “passengers”, letting others take the lead.
 Individual creativity may be stifled.
 Supervision by teacher can be difficult. Whitaker, (1984)

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  Activity 2.1
Discuss with your partner and give 4 benefits of small group work.

Single task group work:

In this group, groups are asked to carry out sequence of tasks. For example, an experiment
involving water measurement, a question to answer, or a series of calculations. These tasks can be
a set of problems to be researched, investigated or recited for special information or learning. The
task needs to be very clearly stated and broken down into steps if necessary. An instance is ‘Group
A’ to measure a volume of water given, ‘Group B’ to solve a mathematic problem etc. each group
needs to be given a good orientation as to how to use the required procedure to arrive at the results.

Same, selected and different task:

This is similar to the single task activity. The only difference is that, the task can be
identical for some groups, or selected by the group from a list of options. Alternatively, different
related task can be entrusted to each group. E.g. Each of the 10, 8, 5, 6 or so groups comprising 4
children or 3 children in a group can do a similar activity and report. E.g. each group will
investigate into measure of volume of some given water. Their findings can be reported to the
whole class as a whole. One advantage of such activity is that pupils often respond well to the trust
in giving them a unique task to carry out for the class. In the Kindergarten situation, children can
find out their favourite T.V programme and tell the class.

Buzz group
These small group activities can be used to answer questions, solve problems, draw up
ideas for a lesson or decide on children’s attitude to a scenario. The group is called Buzz because
the children/pupils discuss undertone like making honey.

Guidelines for Buzz group:

i. The teacher should ensure that the topic for discussion is clear, concise and structured.

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 ii. The task should be broken down and displayed for children during the group work. E.g.
puzzle – fixing. It could also be written on the chalk board or provided on a hang out card.
iii. Arrange seating so that children face each other.
iv. Buzz group sessions usually work best when they are kept short, a maximum of five minutes.
It is important to summarize all the main points at the end of the lesson or session.

Snowballing (Pyramiding)
Snowballing or Pyramiding is a way of extending buzz groups. After a buzz session in
pairs, two pairs combine to make a foursome in order to combine their ideas. If necessary these
groups of four then combine again to create groups of eight. Snowballing as a method is so called
because it is liken to when snowball rolls down a hill, it gathers some snow and gets larger, and
larger. The snowball technique starts with very small groups of children which join together and
get larger and larger.

Stages of Snowballing:
1. Start with a clear statement of the situation and as is expected of everybody. (Puzzle-fixing)
2. Allow few minutes for everybody and combine their ideas.
3. Let pupils from groups of two and combine their ideas.
4. The pairs join to form fours to decide on what to do.
5. One group of four tries to persuade the members of another group of four to accept their
decision as the right one.

Role of the teacher in Snowballing:

 Identify a situation for action discussions.
 Keep time and control the children so that they form new groups quickly.
 Listen to discussions from the source of the groups to prepare for the final review.
 Review the conclusions and the arguments used.

Learning cell –
DYAD

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 It is a combination of two or more small groups of children approximately two to seven
groups put together to help share ideas and bring individuals together for discussions or problem
solving. The smaller the group, the greater the chance of individual participation.

Process of DYAD
 One task is assigned to all groups or a different task is assigned to each individual group.
 The purpose of each task is clearly stated and a time limit is imposed.
 How the group work is to be presented is clearly defined.
 Shared responsibility for presentation is given to all members of any group.

It is important that in co-operative work children’s opinion are valued and accepted. In
direct teacher – talk they may be ignored. This has important implications for all teachers who are
tiring to change attitudes, values or prejudices.

Group size in co-operative learning

It is suggested that, group size should be kept between 2 and 5. Indeed, groups between
these numbers are ideal, while’s groups than these numbers become increasingly unworthy and
“passengers” become common.
A second issue to consider in ensuring the maximum use of the co-operative groupings is
how to assign children to various groups. Among the strategies/techniques usually used by
professionals in this regard are:
i. Random grouping.
ii. Friendship grouping.
iii. Achievement grouping.
iv. Experience grouping.
v. Deliberate/mixed grouping.
vi. Proximity grouping.

Benefits of co-operative groupings

1. Improves comprehension of basic academic content.
2. Re-enforces social skills.

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 3. Allow children decision – making.
4. Boosts children’s self-esteem.
5. Focuses on success for everyone.
6. Promotes spirit of co-operation.
7. Creates climate where children work with a sense of security and self-confidence.

? What are any two views of yours in Friendship and Proximity groupings?

Individualized instructional strategies

Individualized instructional strategies are the situation whereby professionals monitor the
progress during a lesson and in giving specific attention to a child’s particular learning needs.

Reasons for individualized strategy

 The child can receive individual help.
 The child can ask professional questions without publicly exposing his/her ignorance.
 Work can be closely and accurately monitored.
 A close relationship often develops between the professional and the child.

Weakness for individual strategy

 The child has less opportunity for collaboration with other children.
 Teacher driven interaction may stifle the child’s initiative.
 The child has little opportunity to use important coping strategies such as day dreaming,
diversions of activities or causal conversant with a friend.
 It is intensive and demanding whereby heavy demands can be on the teacher.
 Attention given to one child can lead to accusations from other children of preferential
treatment.
 There is also the danger of the professional attention and responsibilities to only one child
leading to independence and self-sufficiency in learning.

Younger children need to help to bridge the gaps which exist between what they can do alone and
what they can do with support. If teacher are fortunate to have assistants, they may be able to
organize events in such a way that one or other has the opportunity to spend additional time with

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the needy child. Otherwise space has to be found during assembly time, break-time etc. to help the
needy child.
Many professionals accepting one-to-one engagement is unrealistic; utilize whole class
teaching or instruction as a means of enhancing the quality of teaching. Despite the cost,
individually when children need to he helped in reading.
 Conferencing normally takes exclusively with the child weekly, monthly, or termly
discussing the child’s work. Professionals need to consider the issues of privacy and
confidentiality as a means of sustaining interrupted contact with the child.
 There is the need to set targets to be achieved. These targets should be specific e.g. solving
a puzzle on Math.
 It must be realistic-thus it must be gradual and not ambitious if children are not to lose interest
in learning.
 It must take account of time factors; not overnight, but it should take a lot of trial and error
before understanding of abilities is achieved.
 The target should be manageable: manageable strategies include giving children “small
targets” to avoid workloads and not to distract the child from the main purpose of promoting
successful learning.

 Activity 2.2
Discuss any five views that professionals accept one-to-one engagement of instruction is
realistic.

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 TEACHER LED GROUP ACTIVITIES
PROJECT METHOD

In this method a theme is chosen and the children learn about it. It is the co-operative study of a
real life situation by the class or even whole school under the guidance of the teacher. It was
Dewey’s ideas which were developed by his followers.
In the project method a topic chosen embraces all or most of the subjects in the curriculum and
lasts for weeks and even for a term. For example, a class may develop a project on ‘OUR TOWN’
which involves a study of an all aspect of the economic, geographical, historical, civic, racial and
intellectual development of the town, in which the children dwell. Other possible topics for project
works are; our country, farming, the office, the cocoa industry. The children are divided into small
groups, each of which sets to work to study some aspects of the topic. At the end of the project,
each group presents its report and the teacher attempts to bring together all the information thus
proceed, so that the results of the project is seen as a united whole.

AIMS OF PROJECT
- To bring children into real contact with the activities of the school neighborhood.
- To present children with real life problems which they solve by thinking and working together.
- To develop further skills and new knowledge to school subjects while working at the project.

ADVANTAGES OR VALUES OF A PROJECT

-It involves the pupils in purposeful activity. The children know what they want to achieve.
-It integrates the subjects of the curriculum. It brings to board for study difficult subject areas with
the curriculum.
-It provides realistic studies in the pupils own environment and the subjects of the curriculum are
seen to be connected with real life outside the school. It exposes change to familiar areas of study
connected to the curriculum.
- The children come into close contact with the problems of life which they may fail to do
by studying in school.
- It develops the curiosity, initiative, enterprise and imaginative faculties of the pupils as
well as spirit of inquiry.

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 - It offers a valuable training in team work as children learn to plan and co-operate with each
other, which is good social training.
- It puts responsibility on the pupils and gives scope for their initiative and thereby trains
children in qualities of leadership.
- It makes learning clear because it supplies a concrete objective so that the children know
at the end if they have succeeded.
- It develops proficiency in the basic skills. To develop a good standard in basic skills.
- It provides the pupils with a sense of achievement.

THE DISADVANTAGES OF PROJECT WORK

i. The individual may be neglected by the emphasis on social activity.
ii. Some subjects of the curriculum will be neglected.
iii. It is very difficult to ensure systematic progress in school subjects by this method. That is, it
disrupts the time table and the curriculum there is no certainty that all the children will be
interested of that all of them will take a full share in the work.

REQUIREMENT FOR A SUCCESSFUL PROJECT WORK

i. The project must be well planned by the teacher.
ii. The children should know clearly what they have to do.
iii. The teacher at the end of the project should write all the various contributions into a whole.
iv. The project and each section of it must have a clearly defined purpose easily understood.
v. It must awaken curiosity and create its demand for new information.
vi. It must contain problems which the children have to solve.
vii. The project must be workable-not merely pleasure giving or make believe.
viii. The project must fully engage the pupils’ interest. The teachers’ task in a project is simply
to guide the children as they find need for his help thus the teacher is mainly a consultant.
He must assess the value of the project.

THE DALTON PLAN OR ASSIGNMENT METHOD

The method which is known as assignment method is another form of individual method the main
principles underlying the Dalton Plan (named after Dalton, a town in America, where it was

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started) are freedom and co-operation. The pupils are free to continue without being hampered by
time tables. The Dalton plan claims that there are many ways of learning something, therefore, to
restrict a child in a particular way is not right. The Dalton Plan admits of no ‘method’ and ‘system’
as such but recognizes the need for planned course of work activities which have to be graded to
suit the age and abilities of the workers.
In practice, the essence of the plan consists of giving each pupil a written statement of the work to
be done, leaving him freely to do it in his own way and at his own rate, obtaining help from a
teacher whenever he needs it.
The main advantage of the plan or system is that a pupil is able to advance steadily, task by task,
through the curriculum.
In our classroom situations, we can use this method in two ways; first in giving the pupils exercises
to do, after a lesson has been taught. The exercises are to be finished before the next class or next
day. The teacher, during the next class or on next day, work through the exercises with the pupils
so that the necessary corrections are done on what has been taught which is reinforced properly or
discussion is done on alternative ways of solving the problems.
The other way is a topic is given to the pupils. The assignment is done by individual pupil though
they are at liberty to consult one another.
A good assignment is the one which is clear to the pupils, and the sources of materials to do the
assignment are made known to the pupils. The assignment must be given enough time and the time
of submission of the assessment given to the pupils.
There is the need for the assignment when completed to be corrected immediately. The main value
of the assignment method is that the pupil is engaged in active independent discovery and he/she
assumes personal responsibility for learning.

THE PROBLEM SOLVING METHOD

The problem solving method is an application of the unit idea, because it embraces a
continuous, meaningful, well integrated activity beginning with a problematical situation and
ending when the problem has been solved and the solution checked. The series of action involves
in the process constitute a unit of experience.
The solution of a problem often takes a number of steps:
1. First, one considers or examines the nature of the problem.

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 2. Secondly, one gathers relevant data of information about the problems.
3. Thirdly, one provides attentive solution, a hypothesis.
4. The fourth step is to test the hypothesis by examining its likely implications. I.e. what results
from such a solution?
5. Finally, one applies or modifies the solution and tests it for acceptance or rejection. Take the
problem of erosion as an example in the country. Pupils daily see the havoc of erosion in and
around their environment. They can all discuss the danger of erosion to mankind and to
themselves in particular. For instance, the washing away of top soil means less and less plant
life crops as well as grasses for animals. Consequently, there is progressively less food for
man. The pupils know the dangers of starvation.
Through discussion, learners should become familiar with the causes of erosion. Rainfall is the
immediate cause, but man is largely responsible for the exposure of land to the agents of
degradation. An unfailing remedy would be to stop rainfall. But this is beyond the power of man.
Even where it’s within man’s power to control, can man survive without rain? Man can combat
Poor Land use such as customary or habitual burning of bush, deforestation, poor landscaping,
building of houses and construction of roads without proper drainage possible solutions can
emerge from this stage. They can suggest new practices which can be experimented upon.
The kind of problem just illustrated will take a long time for its proper solution to be ascertained.
The steps adopted can equally apply in dealing with simpler problems that teacher and pupils
encounter during instruction. It is worth observing that there are two general types of problem
solving procedure. These are the inductive and the deductive. They are fully described in a later
section of this note.
Key skills which are involved in the use of problem solving methods are: Discovering, rules and
concepts, collecting information, organizing information collected, explaining events, and
experiencing-trying a process to see what happens, observing events, describing events or parts of
objects, and recombining, using rules and relationships.

Teachers’ role in problem solving method or implications of problem solving for teaching.
 The teacher should allow the pupils to do the greater part of the activities while the teacher
stays in the background.

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  He should encourage the pupils to acquire the skills which are involved in the problem
solving method.
 The problems which have been chosen for solving must be those on which pupils have some
background knowledge. The problems should also be those that the pupils have interest in
and have seen them as being relevant. The problem selected must be clearly defined for the
pupils to know.
 The pupils should be given the opportunities to discuss the results or the outcome of the
assignment with the class.
 The problem must have some relationships with the subject on the curriculum.

THE INQUIRY METHOD

The inquiry method is an example of discovery method. In the inquiry method the pupils are guided
to find out or discover things such as information or principles for themselves. It can be done
through questioning, experiments, observations and deduction. The inquiry method is relatively
unguided discovery method.
A description of an inquiry learning of training session indicates the amount and the nature of the
instructional guidance provided. The sessions are divided into three phases. The first phase is
presenting the problem. An example is demonstration in a silent film of a problem in science.
The second phase is the practice session: Here the children ask questions about the film for about
thirty minutes. The teacher usually limits his answers to these questions to yes or no. It is believed
that the question must be answered yes or no to discourage the pupils from transferring control of
the inquiry process to the teacher.
The questions are to be questions of information or verification. The practice sessions end when
the children arrived at the proper explanation of the observation or phenomena, can go no further
or have exhausted the time they are allowed.
The third and final phase of the training session is the teacher’s critique. The teacher reviews and
evaluates the strategy and tactics of the group and tries to suggest ways in which they can improve
their qualities.

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GROUP TEACHING
Group teaching is more demanding than required for whole class teaching. Effective
management of group teaching therefore requires the following on the part of the teacher.
a. Careful preparation and planning.
b. The tasks given to the pupils must be of appropriate level of difficulty – not too difficult or
too easy.
c. There should be suitable arrangement of furniture and sufficient space between the groups.
d. There should be smooth and orderly transition from one activity to another.
e. Clear instruction should be given so that the pupils know what they are supposed to do as a
group and as individuals.
f. The teacher’s presence also serves to enforce discipline.
g. The teacher is to be available all the time so that the pupils can question and consult him.
h. The teacher should take note of the following particular problems met by the pupils in doing
various tasks. The individual pupil contributions to group work and the quality of pupils
work, each group’s contribution to the work of the class and the direction in which activities
are leading so that they may be followed up in the near future.
i. Finally, each group should have a leader.

Why Co-Operative Learning in Early Childhood Setting?

When we talk of c-operative learning it is not having students sit side by side at the same table to
talk with each other as they do their individual assignments. It is assigning a report to a group of
students where one student does all the work and the others put their names on the product as well.
Co-operative is much more than being physically near other students, discussing materials with
other students, helping other students or sharing material among students, although each of these
is important in co-operative learning.
There are four basic elements which must be included in order for small groups learning to be
really co-operative. The first is “positive interdependence”-students must perceive that they “sink
or swim together” and this may be achieved through mutual goals (goal interdependence) division
of labour (task independence), dividing materials, resources on information among group members
(resource independence), assigning students different roles (role interdependence) and by giving

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joint rewards (reward interdependence). In order for a learning situation to be co-operative,
students must perceive that they are interdependent with other members of their learning group.
Secondly, co-operative learning requires face-face interaction among students. It is the interaction
patterns and verbal interchange among students promoted by the positive interdependence that
affect educational outcome.
The third basic element of co-operative learning is individual accountability for mastering the
assigned material. Every group member is responsible for learning the material.
Finally, co-operative learning requires that students appropriately use “inter-personal and small
group skills”. The students must be taught the social skills needed for collaboration and they must
be motivated to use them. Students must also be given the time and procedures for analyzing how
well their learning groups are functioning and the extent to which students are employing their
social skills to help all group members to achieve and maintain effective working relationships
within the group.

Differences between co-operative group learning and traditional learning

There are a number of differences between the typical use of classroom learning group. These
differences are as follows:
1. Co-operative learning groups are based on positive inter-dependence among group members
in which goals are structured so that students need to be concerned about the performance of
all group members as well as their own.
2. In co-operative learning groups there is a clean individual accountability such that each of
his or her progress and the group is given a feedback on how each member progresses and
the group members knows how to often hold individually accountable for providing their
share of the group’s work and occasionally students will be accountable for providing their
share and occasionally students will hitch-hike” on the work of others.
3. In cooperative learning groups, all membership is typically heterogeneous inability and
personal characteristics, traditional learning groups are often homogenous in membership.
4. In cooperative learning groups all members share responsibility for performing leadership
action in the group.
5. In co-operate learning groups’ responsibility for each other’s.

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 6. In co-operate learning group students’ get focused on bringing each member’s learning to
the maximum and maintaining good working relationship among members, in traditional
class room learning groups, students most often focus only on completing the assignment.
7. In co-operative learning groups, socially accepted skills that students need in order to work
conflicts are taught directly. In traditional classroom learning groups, interpersonal and small
group skills are assumed most often mistakenly.
8. When co-operative learning groups are used, the teacher observes the group on how well
they are managing the group task. The teacher’s objection and interaction rarely takes place.
In traditional learning group that are used, the teacher observes the group on how effectively
they are working.
9. In co-operative learning, the teacher structures procedure for groups to process how
effectively they are working .In traditional grouping situations, no attention is given to the
way the group is working or not working.

Activity 1.1: Bring out any 4 differences between co-operative learning and traditional learning.
Co-operative Traditional
1. ………………………………………………… 1. …………………………………………
2. ………………………………………………… 2. …………………………………………
3. ………………………………………………… 3. …………………………………………
4. ………………………………………………… 4. …………………………………………

PLAY IN THE NURSERY/KINDERGARTEN

THE PURPOSE OF PLAY

Children learn many things through play. Play activities are essential for their development
across all domains-physically, socially, emotionally, cognition and linguistic. Play enables
children to do the following:

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1. Learn concept: play is the integrator of the curriculum. Basic skills and concept in
mathematics, sciences and language art, in addition to social studies can all be learned as
children play with materials and ideas. Arts and music and movement education are perhaps
even easier to adapt to a play approach because these subjects provide children opportunities
to explore material, place and arrangement without rigid standards and criteria. Children
learn as the move between work and play. Some researchers claimed that meaningful
learning occurs mainly in play situations or in situations where children transform non - play
into play (von aufshnaiter & Schwedes 1989). Balancing play with work therefore becomes
an important framework for developing curriculum and learning environments for children.
Play enables children to develop an expression of new ideas and development of
concentration.
2. Practice Language Processes: Literacy development involves a child’s active engagement
in co-operation with peers; it builds on what the child already knows with the support and
guidance of others. Play provides this setting. During observation of children at play
especially in free choice, co-operative play periods, one can not underestimate the functional
uses of literacy that children incorporates into their play themes. When the environment is
appropriately prepared with literacy materials in play areas, children have been observed to
engage in attempted and conceptual reading and writing in collaboration with other
youngsters.
3. Master life situations: Play enables children learn self-control, co-operation with other
children and understand the need in order to master life situations. The children express fears
on actual experiences in a safe environment and takes risks. The children express sense of
the world. Through play, children are prepared for adult occupation. Play enables children to
experiment beyond the real level of their development without dangerous consequences.
4. Development of Physical Skills: Play helps children develop the large muscles. The
children have this development when they pull a wagon, lift blocks, dig a hole with a shovel,
climb on a jungle gym, throw beanbag. In addition, children develop the small muscles by
using paint brush, crayons and scissors, handling manipulative toys like cars, trucks and
puzzles, by lacing shoes. Through play they explore their immediate physical environment.
Thus play enables children to exercise their competences.

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 5. Development of Social Skills: children play to develop social skills such as care for others,
be creative and imaginative, sharing of things with others, communication with others.
Through play, children are able to express their happiness. The play provides contexts in
which children learn how to compromise, learn to be flexible in demand and resolve conflict.
They learn leadership skills.

KINDS OF PLAY
1. SOCIAL PLAY
Much of children’s play occurs with or in the presence of other children, social play occurs
when children play with others in groups. Mildred Partens (children’s play researcher now
deceased) developed the most comprehensive description and classification of the types of
children’s social play, they are as follows:
 Unoccupied Play: The child does not play anything or anyone, the child merely stands or sits
without doing anything observable. He watches anything of momentary interest.
 Onlookers’ behavior: The child spends most of the time watching other children play. The
centre of interest is others play.
 Solitary play: The child although involved in a play alone, seems unaware of other children.
The child may play with the toys different from those used by nearby children and makes no
effort to get close to them. This type of play is seen being exhibited by 1-2 year old children.
 Parallel Play: The child plays independently but among the other children, playing with toys
and other materials similar to those of the other children, but not necessarily playing with
them, play besides rather than with the others, the parallel player does not try to influence
the other children’s play. This type of play is by 3 to 4 year old children.
 Associative Play: Children interact with each other perhaps by asking questions or sharing
materials. They tend to exclude others in this and limit play to two or three others.
 Co-operative Play: Children actively play together, often as a result of organization of the
teacher. They share equipment and respond to each other’s play. This type of play is by 4-6
old children.
Social play supports many important functions. First, it provides the means for children to interact
with others and learn many social skills. Play provides a context in which children learn how to
compromise (OK, I’ll be the baby first and you can be the mammy”) learn to be flexible (We’ll do

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it your way first and then my way”), resolve conflicts and continue the process of learning who
they are. Children learn what skill they have such as those relating to leadership; second, social
play provides a vehicle for practicing language and developing literacy skills. Children have others
with whom to practice language and learn from. Third, play helps children learn impulse control,
they realize they cannot always do whatever they want, and fourth, in giving a child other children
with whom to interact, social play negates isolation and helps children learn how to have the social
interactions so vital to successful living.

2. COGNITIVE PLAY
Frobel, Montessori and Piaget recognize the cognitive value of play through gifts and occupation
with concrete materials as a direct link to knowledge and development. Piaget’s theory influences
contemporary thinking about the cognitive basis for play. From a Piagetian perspective, play is
literally cognitive development Piaget described four stages of play through which children
progress as they develop, functional play, symbolic play, playing games, with rules, constructive
plays.
 Functional Play: In this type of play, children practice physical and language skills that allow
them to explore the immediate environment and lay a foundation for the next stage. Very
young children are especially fond of repeating movement for the pleasure of it. They engage
in sensory impression for the joy of experiencing the functioning of their bodies. Repetition
of language also is common at this level.
 Symbolic Play: The second stage is symbolic play, which Piaget also referred to as “let’s
pretend” stage of play. During this stage, children freely display their creative and physical
abilities and social awareness in a number of ways for example, by pretending to be
something else, such as animal, symbolic play also occurs when children pretend that one
object is another – that is a building block is a car for example and may also entail pretending
to be another person-mummy, daddy or caregiver, as toddler and pre-scholars grow older as
their symbolic play becomes more elaborate and involving.
 Playing Games with Rules: This involves the setting of rules and procedures of games, it
usually starts during nursery school age. E.g. in running, children may divided themselves
by saying mercy go and stand there, john come here” then they are put to run in competition
to see who runs faster.

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  Constructive Play: Piaget fourth stage develops from symbolic play and represents children’s
adaption to problems and their creative acts. Constructive play is characterized by children
engaging in play activities to construct their knowledge of the world, they first manipulate
play materials and then use these materials to create and build things (a sand castle, a block
building, a grocery store) and experiment with the ways things go together they play with
some bricks, drawing and playing with sand and other natural materials.

3. INFORMAL OR FREE PLAY

Free play is one of the most important activities in a pre-school sufficient time should be given
each day for children to play freely with materials and one another. Play is spontaneous and it
gives the children a chance to choose activities themselves. During free play children are able to
adapt their impressions and adjust their experiences to their own understanding. They get a sense
of freedom, chances to be at the center and to control and have influences on their surroundings.
This is also a golden chance for children to discover that they can do something by themselves.
The expected learning outcomes are socialization, emotional development, self -control and
acclimatization to a school setting.
Teachers should provide plenty of playing materials to stimulate children’s free play.
Participation of the teachers in children’s free play is another effective way to stimulate them.
Observation alone is not adequate. For instance, if children are performing a role-play on a
hospital, the teacher may be one of the patients to be treated during the play.
In her concept regarding “practical life experience”, Maria Montessori explains out that a
child of three years has an urge to imitate or do the same thing they see/learn from their
environment. For instance they will imitate mother cooking, would like to wash plates, clothes or
nurse a baby. According to Montessori, for those children, there is no difference between work
and play. To a child sweeping the floor, washing and ironing clothes are as enjoyable and much
fun as playing with construction blocks.
When working, we aspire for an end result. Thus also for the child, during free play each action
aims at an end result, therefore, when the child plays, he/she learns to work towards a result.
As mentioned earlier, it is also through free-play that children are exposed to practical life
experiences that give them a feeling of independence. They learn to concentrate and attain self-
confidence.

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In a quality programme of free play, both indoors and outdoors, teachers are participants,
sometimes, they observe something, they play with children, sometimes to they help the children,
but they never intrude or impose.

4. SOCIO-DRAMATIC (PRETEND) PLAY

Dramatic play allows children to participate variously in a wide range of activities associated with
family living, society, and their other cultural heritage. Dramatic play is generally of two kinds:
Socio-dramatic” and fantasy”. Socio-dramatic play usually involves everyday realistic activities
and events, whereas fantasy play typically involves fairy tale and superhero play. Dramatic play
centres often include areas such as housekeeping, in dress-up, occupations, dolls, school and other
situations that follow children’s interest.
In Socio-dramatic play children have an opportunity to express themselves, assume different roles
and interact with peers. Socio-dramatic play centres, thus acts as a nonsexist and multicultural area
where all children are equal. Teachers can learn a great deal about children by watching and
listening to their dramatic play, for example, one teacher heard a child remark to the doll he was
feeding that “you better eat all (if this) because it’s all we got in the house” after investigation the
teacher linked the family with social service agency that held them obtain food and assistance.
Teachers must assume a proactive role in organizing and changing play areas. They must see the
stage for dramatic play and participate with children. They must also encourage those who “hang
back” and are reluctant to play and involves those who may be particularly popular with the other
children. Surprisingly because of their background and environment, some children have to be
taught how to play. In other words, as in an area of early childhood education, teachers must deal
with the children’s dramatic play in an individual and holistic way.

5. OUTDOOR PLAY
Children’s play outside is just important as that inside. Unfortunately many consider outdoor play
relatively unimportant and needed only as an opportunity for children to let off steam and get rid
of excess energy. Children do need to relieve stress and tension through play, and outdoor activities
provide this opportunity, however teachers should plan for what children will do and what
equipment will be available. Outdoor play is not chance for children to run wild.

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Outdoor environments and activities promote large and small-muscle development and body co-
ordination as well as language development, social interaction, and creativity. Teachers should
plan for a particular child or group of children to move through positively higher skills levels of
running, climbing and throwing. The outdoor area is a learning environment, and as such, the
playground should be designed according to learning objectives.
Many teachers also enjoy bringing the indoor learning environment outdoor, using easels, on
dramatic play props to further enhance learning opportunities. In addition, taking a group of
children outdoor for story or music time, sitting in a shade of a tree, brings a fresh perspective to
daily group activities. As with indoor activities provisions for outdoor play involve planning,
supervising and helping children be responsible for their behavior.
Children, to a greater or lesser degree, engage in rough and tumble play. One theory of play says
that children play because they are biologically programmed to so, (that is, it is part of children
and (adults) generic heritage to engage in play activities, indeed, there is a parallel in children’s
rough-and tumble play and behaviours in the animal kingdom for example-run-and chase activities
and pretend fighting. Rough-and-tumble play activities enable children to learn how to lead and
follow, develop physical skills, interact with the children in different ways, and grow in their
abilities to interact.

3. THE ROLE OF THE PROFESSIONAL IN PLAY

The following responsibilities are for supporting a quality play curriculum.
1. Plan to implement the curriculum through play and integrate specific learning activities with
play to achieve specific learning outcome. Play activities should match children’s
development needs and be free of gender and cultural stereotypes. Professionals have to be
clear about curriculum concepts and ideas they want children to learn through play.
2. Provide time for learning through play. Include it in the schedule as a legitimate activity in
its own right.
3. Structure times for learning through play. Create both indoor and outdoor environment that
encourages play and supports its role in learning.
4. Organize the classroom or centre environment so that co-operative learning is possible and
active learning occurs.
5. Provide materials and equipment that are appropriate to children’s development level.

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 6. Educate assistants and parents about how to promote learning through play.
7. Supervise play activities and participate in children’s play. In these roles, help, show and
model when appropriate and refrain from interfering when appropriate.
8. Observe children’s play. Teacher can learn how children play and the learning outcomes of
play to use in planning classroom activities.
9. Question children about their play, discuss what children did during play and “debrief”
children about what they have learnt through play.
10. Provide safety for indoor and outdoor play.
Providing a safe and healthy environment is an important part of an early childhood
professional’s responsibility and applies to the playground as well as to the inside facilities outdoor
areas should be safe for children to play in.

4. ROUGH AND TUMBLE PLAY

Children to a greater or lesser extent engage in rough and tumble play. As already mentioned, one
theory of play says that children play because they are biologically programmed to do so, (that is,
it is part of children and adults) generic heritage to engage on play activities. Indeed, there is
parallel in children’s rough and tumble play and behaviours in the animal kingdom for example
run-and-chase activities and pretend fighting. Rough-and-tumble play activities enable children to
learn how to lead and follow, develop physical skills, interact with the children in different ways
and grow in their abilities to interact.

OBSERVATION AND ASSESSING OF LEARNING THROUGH PLAY

Through observation, teachers can understand the meaning play has for children. As you observe,
reflect on the stage of development and types of play. Careful observation can help you determine
if a child is having real difficulty with an activity and needs help, or if the child is momentarily
stuck and will be able to resolve the problem alone. Observation gives clues to a child’s level of
thinking.
Teachers may be able to discover if toys or materials are beyond a particular child’s ability or if a
situation doesn’t provide enough stimulation for thinking, socialization or expanding motor skills.

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As you observe children’s play, you should be available to recognize children, offer feedback, or
give support with a nod or a smile, occasionally, it may be appropriate to make comments to
support their play or keep it in “bonds” you stopped carefully at the interest, “keep the blocks here”
etc.
While observing and supervising children play, you should continually evaluate it because play is
a primary learning mode for children observing them as they play is a means of assessing their
social, intellectual, emotional, and physical skills and growth.

Some examples of questions to focus on the observation are:

 Are children showing progress in relating with another?
 Are they expressing joy, jealousy or fear in their play in ways that allow them to cope more
effectively with their feelings?
 Do they run, skip, climb and move with greater ability?
 Are they using language effectively?
 How do they solve problems?
 What new concepts do they seem to be exhibiting through their play?
 The quality of play is also assessed. Some questions to ask.
 Does the play seem rich in ideas?
 Is the play flexible and flowed?
 Do shy children find ways of entering into dramatic plays?
 Do aggressive children share ideas and co-operative in play?
 Can children sustain play episodes for longer periods of time?
 Do the play themes become more varied and complex?
Progress and growth in and through play vary for each child. To validate and assess growth
through play you can use a formal observation device such as the Tran disciplinary Play-Based
Assessment (Linder 1993) or you can keep charts for each child, noting growth in different
curriculum areas on attainments of different skills.

 Development of assessment and plans

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 The starting point for individual learning plan is the child. This means that practitioners
begin the process of drawing up an individual learning plan or plan by assessing the child’s
development interest and needs.

 Ways of assessing children

There are several methods that can be used to assess children’s development; ideally
arrange of methods should be used to gain a full picture of the child although this in practice rarely
happens as most settings find it hard to release one member of staff to carry out observations. It is
also important to look at children in arrange of situations i.e. in group situations as well as when
they are playing alone or with other children.

 Factors affecting viability and reliability of assessments.

It is very hard for practitioners who are closely involved with children to be completely objective
when observing and assessing them. This is known as observer bias. The danger in observing bias
is that the observer tends to home in on behaviours or skills that confirm their current view of the
child. One way of limiting observer bias is by setting clear aims for observations e.g. noting down
every time a child interacts with an adult to get a picture of a child’s interactions with adults.
It is also important when completing checklist task or ticks charts which require adults to ask
children to do certain tasks to remember that children may not always “perform” well if they think
that they are being watched or tested. Many skilled practitioners therefore try to incorporate these
types of assessments into planned play opportunities, e.g. putting out some buttons for children to
play with and then asking them if they would like to count how many there are.

 Uses of assessment
Once a practitioner has completely finished some observations, it is important to develop an overall
picture of the child’s development. What strengths and interest has the child shown? Are there any
areas where the child has specific developmental needs? It is also good practice for early year’s
setting to involve parents in the process. Parents see their children in different contexts and will be
able to provide additional information. It is also important to find what parents feel are the
priorities for their child e.g. a parent of a Toddler may want to concentrate on feeding skills.


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 Activity: Discuss any four ways to assess children’s play.

UNIT 4: Session 2: Individualised Strategies: Learning Centres, projects etc

4.2.1 Learning Centres

Learning centre is defined as an area of the classroom containing materials selected by the
teacher to facilitate the teaching – learning process in which a small group of children generally
from one to six in number may work independently. The activities and materials are usually multi-
levels. The activities may include games, objects, worksheets, pictures and puzzles.

4.2.2 The Purposes Of Learning Centres

In an early childhood classroom, the environment is designed to nurture the total
development of young children, classroom activities provide opportunities for children to
participate individually, in teams and in small groups. Included are both teacher- directed and child
–directed activities. Centres are especially component, allowing children to participate in play
activities which are self –directed. In centres, there are opportunities to interact with different
children. In centres the child works individually or with a partner, helping him or her to become
independent or learn to work cooperatively.
When playing in centres young children:
 Make choices, developing confidence in their problem-solving abilities.
 Expanding their oral language and combining words with activities.
 Enhance their creative abilities, determining the direction of play and selecting materials.

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 Developing social skills as they work with others.
 Understand others as they try out roles and participate in play.
 Developing responsibilities as they build with and care for the materials they are using.
 Learn how to make plans, carry them to completion, developing persistence in the task.
 Move into more advance play as they develop roles, sequencing and working cooperatively
with others in the episodes.
 Develop longer attention spans as they increase the length of time they work in the centres and
participate in activities which interest them.
 Enhance their understanding of symbols as time can prey use concrete items in their play and
move to imaginative representations.
 Enhance self - image as they learn that they can influence their world as they participate in
the centres.
 Experience integrated learning as they use all areas of the curriculum in meaningful ways.
Teacher –directed activities such as circle time can proceed into centre time which is child directed.
Alternating teacher-directed and child-directed activities provide variation while helping children
learn to control their own behaviour. They can focus better on the teacher –directed activity since
they know that it will be followed by centre time they can choose the activity. Centres also provide
an opportunity to rotate active and quiet periods in the day. For example, follow a quiet time, such
as listening to a story, with the children actively working in the centres.

Activity: What any five skills will you inculcate into children by the use of learning centres?

4.2.3 Setting of Learning Centres

Indoor space is often organized into the learning centres (also called interest or activity areas).
In setting up learning centres, one must consider goals of the programme, the number, ages,
abilities and interest of the children and the size and shape of the room.
The goals of the programme will determine the priorities for the inclusion or exclusion of specific
learning centres. If the programme goals put a high emphasis on academic skills, their language,
mathematics and science centres receive top priorities. If social skills are highly prized dramatic
play, building and construction which require co-operation and project which require team-work
would have high priority.

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In planning learning centres, the number of children in the class, the size of the room and the length
of time children will be there should be considered together for these factors have interactive
effects.
In small room with a fairly large number of children there will need to be enough centres and
materials provide d that all children may be kept busy but not so much that the children are falling
over each other and the materials. If it’s a long day, more choices will need to be provided than if
there is a short day remembering that we need to consider these aspects in an interactive way, let
us consider each one separately.
When there are fewer children in a class, the centres may be fewer in number but will need to be
changed frequently as the children appear to lose interest and are ready for new experiences. For
a large class, more centres will need to be provided, but change may not need to be frequent since
not every child will have opportunity to work in each centre as often.
The number of centres depends to a large degree on the physical characteristic of the room, in
which the class is held – size, shape, location of doors, built in furniture, and windows. In small
room or one in which doors, build-ins, and windows take up much space, one should avoid a too-
crowded, cluttered appearance and choose a few well- equipped centres, changing materials as
interest wanes. A crowded cluttered room with many attractions tends to be confusing and overly-
stimulating and may result undesirable behavior.
The length of the school day needs to be considered, for longer time in school means more
opportunity to choose more different kinds of activity.
The age, abilities and interest of children will determine not only the centres to be set up but also
the materials to be placed in the centre. A language centre which includes writing materials, tape
recorders and alphabet letters would be inappropriate for most groups of three year olds for
example. Not that they need not to develop language skills, but that for this age, skill related to
language are more appropriately developed in dramatic play where they will engage in
conversation, manipulative where they practice perceptual-motor skills and the art centres where
they will learn to handle implements similar to writing materials. Looking at picture books and
having an adult read to them leads to the three year-olds appreciation of books also.
On the other hand, a dramatic play area which includes toys, housekeeping materials and doors,
may well be inappropriate for a seven-to-eight year old who are ready for real cooking experiences
and are beginning to grow out of doll play. Setting up a store which involves buying and selling,

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making change, communicative skill and recording transaction would be appropriate for these
older young children.
Over and above these practical considerations is that of aesthetic appeal. The centres should be
attractive in the literal sense of the word; that is, children should be drawn to them both by nature
of the materials in the centres and the way they are arranged. In effect, the centres should by their
appearance, say to the child “come, play, explore, discover”. Each centre should provide a variety
of related materials displayed in a manner which is neither cluttered nor barren. The materials
should provide a range of difficulty from those which are simple enough for the youngest child to
use successfully to that complex enough to challenge the most mature.

Activity: Add any two considerations of setting up a learning centre.

4.2.4 Designing Learning Centre Activities

Learning centres can include art, manipulative, dramatic place, sensory, experiences,
blocks, music, science, mathematics, computers, books, language art, woodworking, cooking and
a variety of other areas that fit the unique interest, needs and characteristics of a group of children
and teachers (Esa and Rogers 1992).
Understanding the background of the children in her class helps the teacher as she
constructs traditional centers and determines the props that will be included. In centres, children
learn while participating actively, observing and interacting with others. She selects materials and
props to meet the range of development levels of the children. By including real objects and
realistic toys, young children can select tools that meet their needs in symbolic play. Include open-
ended materials in each centre for the young children who are ready for more abstract
representation in their play. Scraps of wood, small boxes and pieces of fabrics inspire a child’s use
of imaginative play.

Why is it important to demarcate learning centres?

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4.2.5 Establishing Boundaries of Centres
Establishing centres with clearly defined spaces. The children may be able to identify the centre
and determine where it begins and ends. A clear visual identification of the centre helps children
know where to go, what the boundaries of the space are and activities that go on within the centre.
When determining the boundaries look at the spaces from the child’s eye level. Sit on the floor or
crawl around the space to see what they will see and construct boundaries that are appropriate for
the children’s size. Young children who are one and half to three feet tall do not need walls that
touch the ceiling to separate the centres space. Folding screen, book-cases or other dividers only
need to be slightly above the children line of vision to communicate where the centre stops. Other
advantage of low boundaries is that the teacher can easily observe what is happening in all the
centres.
If boundaries do not exist, children wander in and out or run aimlessly between the centres. By
establishing clear borders, children learn to manage their own behaviour and remain focused on a
task in the centre. Dividers also help eliminate visual distraction that can cause children to lose
their concentration as they see others moving around the room.
When you arrange learning a centre, it is important to take into account the size of the activity
area. Researchers have found that smaller, more defined and secluded areas encourage children to
entre more quickly into play, sustain play for a longer period of time and engage in more complex
play (Tegano, Moral, Delong, Brickly and Ramassini 1996). Evaluate your classroom to look for
all areas that can be creatively used as interest areas.

4.2.6 Guiding And Assessing Learning Centre Activities

The use of learning centre in the educative programme is at one end and the same time an easier
and more difficult way of teaching. It is easier because children become more self-directive, self-
sufficient and more interested in learning. It is more difficult because it requires the teacher to be
aware of what each child is doing in order to ensure that children make progress in each area of
learning deemed important. It also requires the teacher to be creative and analytical “Going by the
book” is simply not part of this kind of teaching. The following are the teachers’ role in this style
of teaching;
 Arranging the environment and providing experiences.

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  Helping children make choices.
 Observing children’s responses and asking probing questions.
 Observing children engage in activities and listening to them talk.
 Making comments on activities and materials.
 Asking questions which require children to solve problems.
 Determining what the child knows and what he/she is ready to learn.
 Recording data as basis for evaluating progress and planning for change.
Centres are set up originally based on what the teacher expects children of the age of the class to
know and to be able to do. When they arrive, they are introduced to the centres and to the
procedures of the classroom. Then they are allowed to choose the centres in which they wish to
work once children are active in the centres, the role of the teacher becomes one of the keen
observer who listens, watches and learns about the abilities and interest of the children.
The teacher intervenes when a child is having a difficult time making a choice. When a child is
interfering with another child’s activity and that child cannot deal with the intruder when it appears
that a child needs encouragement or a suggestion for using material in a different way, when a
careful question will help a child discover a new concept or when the child appears to be ready to
verbalize what has been learned. Through this process of listening, watching and questioning, the
teacher ascertains what new materials should be added and what materials have grown stale and
should be put away.
A record-keeping system will be needed to ensure that each child has a well –rounded learning
experience and progresses at a reasonable rate.

Question: How would you assess learning centre activities?

4.2.7 Evaluating Learning

The successful teacher using a learning centre approach has broad general goals which usually
reflect a minimum standard which she expects all or nearly all children to reach. For example, a
Kindergarten teacher may expect that by the end of the year children will be able to count objects
up to ten, initiate and complete a project without assistant, recognize and name the letters of the
alphabet and so forth.

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For individuals in her class, she has specific goals related to their own needs and abilities. E.g.
overly dependent Mercy can count twenty objects with ease. For her is the goal of initiating and
completing a project without the need for frequent approval. Socially skilled Edwin has difficulty
counting pass five. For him the goal is to extend his numerical ability.
A check list of objectives may be devised. There may be a checklist for each child or the teacher
may prefer a large chart on which the children’s name appears across the top and the objectives
written in abbreviated form listed in the left column of the chart. When a child has achieved an
objective, the date is written opposite the objective. Knowledge of this achievement may come
either through observation of the child or through a one-on-one test situation set up by the teacher.
Specific goals for individuals might not appear on the checklist described above or the teacher
might want to record intermediary progress towards an objective. An anecdotal record is useful in
these cases. For example, the teacher overheard Mercy ask Edwin for eight blocks and observed
that Edwin counted out and handed her precisely eight blocks. She makes an abbreviated note of
the event and later recorded for Mercy that she had started a block structure without promoting
and without prompting the teacher, asked Edwin for needed blocks. She states this recorded events
and then turns Edwin’s folder and records that he accurately counted out eight blocks, a stepping
stone on the way to counting ten objects.
Gathering and keeping samples of children’s work graphically illustrate progress which
has been made. From time to time, children’s drawing and written work may be collected, dated
and put into a folder. His helps the child evaluate his own progress and is invaluable in parent
conference.

4.2.8 Guidelines For Learning Centres

1. Centres and materials to be used in centres should be selected on the basis of class goals and
objectives, number, age, abilities and interest of children, physical characteristics of the
classroom and the length of the day.
2. In each centre there should be a variety of materials including those which are simple enough
to be successfully accomplished by the youngest and complex enough to challenge the oldest.
3. Materials in the centre should be changed as children’s abilities and interest change.
4. Inanimate aspect of the room will affect children’s behaviour as well as social aspect.

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  Materials are more at apt to be put away. If storage places are clearly marked and teacher
reminds children before they leave the centre.
 The desired number of children in any one centre is more easily maintained. If the
furnishings and materials provided are the same in number as that which the teacher
announces.
 Running is eliminated when spaces which invite running are eliminated.
 Climbing on furniture is eliminated when children can see and obtain materials without
climbing.
 Children will be more deeply involved in activities when there is no interference from
adjacent, centre of traffic.
 Children will choose activities when materials are well displayed and the way they are
to be used apparent.
5. When children are engaged in activities, the active role of the teacher continues.
 The teacher is a keen observer, listening and watching for behaviour which indicates the
abilities and interest of children.
 The teacher is a guide, asking children questions and making suggestion which will
further their learning.
 The teacher is an evaluator, checking complete work and watching for evidence of
concept or skills learned.
 The teacher is a mediator helping the children to settle disputes.
 The teacher is an encourager commenting appreciatively on children’s work.
 The teacher is a planner and provisionary, deciding on new materials to be added and
old ones to be retired.
6. Evaluating learning including insuring that each child participates in the wide variety of
activities and ascertaining when goals and objectives have been reached.
 A checklist of objectives and date when they are achieved by a child may be used to record
progress.
 A system for checking on individuals’ participation in a various centres should be devised.
 An anecdotal record of behavioral event which indicate progress towards objectives may
use to record progress.

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  Sample of children’s work, dated and filled illustrated progress to the children themselves
and their parent as well as to the teacher.

Activity: Discuss any 5 ways you would use evaluate your kindergarten children at the
learning centre.

UNIT 4: Session 3: Elaboration Strategies-creating Imagery and Analogies

Elaboration strategies of instruction include simulation whereby an elaborate role-play

activity is acted out. Examples include war games on cartoon series, homemade simulations like
health and safety etc. which has been discussed extensively in Chapter 3. (Refer.)

4.3.1 Creating Imagery and Analogies

This strategy of instruction is a system whereby the professional of ECE uses to ask children to
glean from an activity or activities that they had done since the time of coming to school till the
close of the day at school. The imagery includes:
What experience they felt during the instructional hours may be in Math, Literacy etc.
What were their surprises?
Did they have enough time to practice?
How would they describe it to someone of friend who did not come to school that day.

There are two types of Imageries

1. The guided Imagery.
2. The unguided Imagery.

4.3.2 Guided Imagery

In the guided Imagery, children are asked to close their eyes and to think back to the beginning of
the day.
i. Ask them to think about how they arrived at school.
ii. What skills have they developed in e.g. Literacy?

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iii. Ask them questions that will allow them to think about cognitive, attitudinal and behavioural
aspect of the day’s work.
iv. Teacher accepts responses of the child and helps them to make analogies of the day’s work
or schedule by reflecting and analyzing.

4.3.3 Unguided Imagery

Here the professional does not ask children anything, but the children themselves reflect and
analyze the day’s schedule as it appeals to their senses. Children themselves take the changes of
what has been learnt and make a reflection and analyze to peers what progress, development,
attitudinal change etc. they have made.
Advantages:
 These strategies help the professional to assess children’s learning if they are making
progress or not.
 It also helps to ascertain whether children can remember things they experience in the world
around them. E.g. their homes or places of abode, house numbers or streets names, their
drivers who bring them in and out of school, their siblings etc.
 Inferences can be made about children’s ability to think about cognitive, behaviour
inculcated into them
 It can be used to promote children’s learning so that new materials can be taught.
 It can also develop creative skills in that child who would be able to use their imagination.
 It also helps children to understand differences in fantasy and reality. The real world becomes
more real to children who have the opportunities to imagine.

4.3.4 Using games as methods

1. Teacher must decide what purpose a game will serve in teaching.
2. Select or invent a game
3. Have rules to be followed otherwise the game degenerates into arguments quarrels and fights.

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 4. Check rules if they are simple, clear and few. These make them easy to follow and master.
Rules often include how one wins if the game is a competition. Younger children cannot
follow many rules.
5. Consider how many people can play individually, pairs, as a group or the question of how
many are very important especially in the class room because of supervision, and materials
needed.

Where games can be played

1. Inside the classroom-ludo, puzzle solving, card, owareetc
2. Outside the classroom –‘’jack where are you’’.
3. On the play-ground – football, “ampe’’
4. Home- puzzle, ludo, oware, “ampe”
5. On the road- all red cars are mine, all green cars are yours.

When to use games

1. When introducing a new unit or topic to capture pupils interest.
2. After the teacher set the class into two groups, for example, sentence card game e.g. the fox
is in the box. The challenge is that children sort the underlined word in a sentence. The first
group to sort them correctly will win the game (is, the, box, the, fox, in).

Using games with pupils

When a teacher intends to use a game with pupils:
1. Familiarize oneself with the game. Read through the game, noting its purpose, materials
required if any, numbers of pupils who play at a time and the rules the participants have to
learn.
2. Play the game once or twice with a couple of pupils to get a feel of it noting possible
difficulties the pupil may encounter at the start,
3. An open climate should be maintained free from leader domination.
4. Purpose and rules of the game must be clearly established and understand to avoid rancor or
own misunderstanding.

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 5. Assemble all materials from home or they may be prepared ahead of time e.g. a lesson on air
children can bring their cloths for experiment.
6. Teacher should demonstrate how the game is played with one or two pupils in the class
explained briefly the rules including how a winner is declared.

4.3.5 Free Play/Information

This is learning through spontaneous informal activities. Learning materials may be grouped at the
centers with-similar equipment. E.g. Kitchen center, shopping center, market center, legal block
center, an art center, water or sand area and free play center usually with material that would
promote large-muscle development. Such an un-pressured. Talks and interacts with teachers and
adults are spontaneous. Play and learning episodes are generally determined by the inter-activities
of the children and to an extent, teacher based on what they think is the best for children. The
expected learning outcomes are socially emotional development, self-control and adaption to the
school setting.

4.3.6 Problems With Free Play

a. Some teachers interpret Free Play to mean that children are free to do whatever they wish
with whatever materials they want to use.
b. Aside from seeing that children have materials to play with some teachers do not plan for
what special play materials to have, how children will interact with the materials, or what
children are to learn while playing.
c. Sometimes professionals do not hold children accountable for learning from free play. They
rarely question children about concepts or point out the nature of the learning. Such teachers
are seldom part of the play processes. They act as disinterested by standers, their primary
goal being to see that children do not injure themselves while playing.

4.3.7 Role of The Teacher In Free Play

1. In quality programme of free play, both indoor and outside, teachers are active participants.
Sometimes, they observe, sometime they play with children, help children but do not intrude
or impose any idea or suggestions.

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 2. Teachers should avoid the possible pitfalls of the free play format that enables children to
learn many things as they interact with interesting activities, materials and people in the
environment.

4.3.8 Directed Play

In directed play, the extent of the play is more controlled and monitored by the teacher. E.g. in
socio-dramatic (pretend play/fantasy plays such as fairy tale and hero sans super hero. Socio-
dramatic plays such as doctor and patient housekeeping, dress-up, dolls, schools etc. while fantasy
plays are Cinderella, Rupunzel, Beauty and the Beast etc. activities provided are deliberately
restricted by provision of certain resources and the exclusion of the others.
Directed play outcomes are targeted in terms of measurable learning outcomes which targeted in
forms of measurable learning outcomes which are not necessarily academic, but relate to social
harmony, respect of property, health, tolerance, moral respect for another. Directed play is seen as
opportunity children work through situation, solve problems, employ their imaginations powers to
come to terms with new or exciting situations and exercise authority over confusing circumstances
and worrying uncertainties.

ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN DIRECTED PLAY

1. The teacher must assume proactive role in organizing and charging dramatic play areas.
2. Set the stage for play and endure the participation of children.
3. Encourage those who “hang back” and are reluctant to play and involve the unpopular
children with other children.
4. Create opportunity to extend pupils thinking and knowledge. E.g. what do teachers and pupils
do at school?
5. Help children to use play to confirm ideas; the concept of cleanliness is next to godliness.
6. Use the opportunity to interact with children, listen to their language and questions and
determine their understandings.

Activity 4.4: Write down any two more roles of the teacher in children’s directed play.

Directed play is teacher-influenced strategy for learning than a completely child centered
one.

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4.3.9 Semi-Directed Play
Semi-directed plays are outdoor plays in which children play outside just as important as
inside play. Unfortunately, some teachers consider outside play as unimportant and those children
need play only as an opportunity for them to let off steam and get rid of excess energy. Children
do need to relieve stress and tension through play and outdoor activities provide this opportunity,
however, children will do and what equipment will be available. Outdoor play is not a chance for
children to run wild.
Outdoor environments and activities promote large and small muscle development and
body co-ordination as well as language development, social interaction and creativity. Teachers
therefore need to be involved and plan for a particular child or group of children to move through
progressively higher skill and levels of running, climbing and throwing. The outdoor area is a
learning environment and as such the playground should be designed by the teacher according to
learning objectives.
Many teachers also enjoy bringing the indoor environment outdoors; using clay or music
instruments for further enhance learning opportunities. As with indoor activities, provision for
outdoor play involve planning, supervising and helping children to be responsible for their
behaviour.

ROLE OF THE TEACHER

1. Provide opportunity for children to have break-times or periods to exert excess energy.
2. Plan for what children will do and what equipment will be available.
3. Make sure the playing ground is safe for children’s health.
4. Provide supervision as children go out to play and if possible participate in the play by being
a model but not interfering.
5. Observe children play and use the play outcomes to plan classroom activities.

4.3.10 Play And Act (Drama)

Using Drama in the classroom; is a good strategy to motivate most pupils. It can be used in many
different ways and provide opportunities for the whole class to be involved in the creative process

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of producing a drama. Not everyone has to be an actor in a play; some pupils can be used in other
ways that may relate more to their talents, potentials creative abilities and personality.
Drama or telling a story through acting or dancing can be a stimulating way to encourage pupils
to think about issues such as relationships, power struggles, local environment issues and debates.
It is unlike role play, but has an end product. This is a production of some kind that can be shown
to the rest of the class, the school at assembly or to the parents and the local community.

HOW TO USE PLAY AND ACT (DRAMA)

1. A script play that has been written down or teacher’s own draft outline could be used or the
children’s own written down play.
2. Let children improvise the drama by working out what to say as they practice acting out the
scenes.
3. When setting up the drama to help your pupils to learn. E.g. bravery, courage, moral, fun,
social skills etc.
4. Give clear instructions and explanations about the purpose of the drama.
5. Have an outline of the drama in mind if your pupils need such support when improvising, so
you can make suggestions.
6. Building in time for them to practice.
7. Be ready to give support and suggest idea they have difficulty.
8. Use language lessons for them to rehearse their line and dialogue.
9. The play can relate to a topic in science, social studies, citizenship, life skills lessons.
10. Give children the opportunity to perform to an audience whenever possible, as this will boost
their self-esteem and confidence, even for those who work only on the production rather than
performance side.
11. Children should be involved in all stages or process of the drama.

? Why would you as a kindergarten teacher use drama in your instructional process?

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BENEFITS OF PLAY AND ACT
1. Play and act gives children to work towards and motivates them.
2. It is used to explore children’s ideas around issues.
3. It is used to assess pupils and their understanding about a topic.
4. It gives children pleasure and enjoyment which lasts for a long time.
5. It develops creative abilities in children as far as acting is concerned.

UNIT 4: Session 4: Planning for Child Centered Strategies

4.4.1 Teaching or Instructional Method

A teaching or instructional method is described as pupil-centered/child-centered or learner
centered if it takes the interests and characteristics of the pupil into consideration and makes the
pupil an active participant in the instructional process. Basically, the idea of child centered
instruction tries to do the following things.
 Acknowledge that children needs should determine what they learn at school. This means
that the instructional activities are to be planned to meet the needs of the learner.
 Recognize the characteristics that distinguish children of difference ages. This is because
children in two different class-rooms may differ in many aspects of life. What they are
capable of doing at any given way therefore they differ. This means that all activities of
learning should be planned to cater for their differences. Children will not perform well if
learning programmes are above their ages and mental capabilities.
 Base new learning tasks on what pupils, children already know. This means that the previous
knowledge of what pupils already know about the topic should be considered and next
learning step should be based on the previous knowledge. Therefore topics to be treated and
strategies to be used are to be critically selected so that they are appropriate to the experience
of children.
 Children discover, explore and observe and find out things by themselves. That is how they
learn about the world around them. E.g. they will learn to identify the animals at home, by
observing them. Parents and teacher should learn to identify the animals at home, by

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 observing them. Parents and teachers should therefore provide materials and a learning
situation that encourages children to explore and find out by themselves.
 Apply the knowledge of the child’s psychology and the child’s development to the content
and methods of learning and instructions. The instructional knowledge in child psychology
and development should be applied in the selection of appropriate methods and strategies,
learning, instructional materials and the content to use, so that they are not above or below
the age and capabilities of the child.
John Dewey the profounder of Child-Centered Education maintains that, the progress of the
schools should be concerned with preparing the child for the realities of today rather than a rage
future time. Thus out of a daily life should come the activities in which children learn about life
and the classroom. Children learn about life and the skills necessary for living. Therefore in the
classroom children should be involved in physical activities, utilization of things, intellectual
pursuits and social interaction.
Professionals should therefore plan the child’s learning strategies by taking into consideration the
following:
 Physical activities: Running, jumping and being actively involved with materials. In this
phase, the child begins the process of education and develops other interested areas that form
the basis for doing and learning. The growing child learns to use tools and materials to
construct things. It is felt that an ideal expression for this interest was daily living activities
or occupations such as cooking and carpentry, dressmaking etc.
 Intellectual pursuits: in child’s solving problems discovering new things and figuring out
how things work. Children are given the opportunity for enquiring and discovery.
 Social interest: This refers to interactions with people in a democratically run classrooms.
An individual’s make up comprised the reflections and thoughts of many men. It is believed
that if learning is well planned and well thought according to the needs, interests and
aspirations of the child, human relationship would be improved through education of the
child in right from the basic foundation.

4.4.2 Importance of Child–Centered Approach

 In all schools where child-centered is used, there should be a lot of play/learning materials
from which children can make their choice. This promotes cognitive skills and children are

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 never get bored, because there are different and interesting activities to perform. They are
also encouraged to think for themselves and express themselves in various ways.
 Child-centered learning creates the opportunity for pupils to interact. As they interact, they
learn how to get on with one another, or social skills acquisition and how to control their
emotions, how to act as leaders and make decisions.
 Child-centered also implies that the atmosphere is relaxed and friendly. There are always
new materials or interesting interactions that stimulate the natural curiosity of children. This
situation compels children to enjoy learning and be punctual to school.
 The approach also respects the learner’s individuality and encourages children to develop
their potentials. On the part of the children, they develop a sense of satisfaction because they
feel that what they are doing is important and worthwhile.

4.4.3 Which Method of Teaching is Classified as Child-Centered?

All activity-oriented methods which give the child the maximum chance to practice hands-on
activity of learning can be categorized as child-centered. They include discovery approach, project
role-play, problem group discussion and all co-operative forms of learning like Story-telling, play,
dramatization, games and enquiry-based learning.
- It should be noted that Dewey’s progressivism emphasizes children and their interest rather
than the subject matter. Therefore in sum, when you as a professional of Early Childhood
plan for the child.
- Centered instruction:
 Plan learning activities with the child’s needs in mind.
 There should be friendly teacher-pupil, pupil-teacher relationship.
 Open relaxed classroom atmosphere.
 Teacher assessing the needs of the learner by looking at the written work of learners to
identify their weakness and strengths.
The learner-centered classroom has all sorts of learning materials which is almost like a
resource centre.

Activity 4.4.3
List down any 8

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 Child-centered Methods of Instruction you have Knowledge about.
1. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
7. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. ………………………………………………………………………………………………

4.4.4 Thematic Teaching

Thematic teaching is the approach of two or more subjects in a given lesson with varied activities
to meet specific objectives within the Kindergarten curriculum.
A theme is an organized framework within which the professional structures learning activities for
a period of time such as one or two weeks. Professionals choose a topic, plan the activities and
prepare the various learning centres and other activities to correspond with the topic. For instance
on a theme such as Mr. Animal, the professional would delve into types of animals, domestic
animals, feathered animals, animals with hair, jungle animals, creeping, flying animals, etc.
It should be noted that, a thematic unit is useful or meaningful when it is relevant to the curriculum
and children’s lives, consistent with while language principles and authentic in the inter-
relationship of learning process. On a theme of the Kindergarten curriculum of Ghana, it is “All
about me” links language and literacy, number activities, music/dance/movement, psychosocial
skills, Environmental Studies and creating activities.

Topics of these integrating subjects include:

Knowing One-self: Myself, my body, care of the body etc.
Auditory discrimination: Storytelling, listening, reciting, picture reading etc.
Classification: Drawing shapes, counting parts of the body etc.
Drawing and colouring: Printmaking, pattern making, modeling etc.
Physical Exercise with music: Exploring various sounds in the environment.

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 Knowing and living with One-self: Admiring oneself, self-awareness coping with emotions
etc.
Activities developed in each content area would not teach only specific objectives in a theme, but
would also expand the knowledge presented to children through the selected areas of
literacy/language, math, environmental studies, art and music. These underlying facts of a theme
are to assist children in co-operating with one another and to make them aware of multi-sensory
approach to concepts and relationships.

 Activity 4.5
Put into the appropriate heading of these themes.
Example; Number work – counting objects
Music/Dance/Movement Pattern, critical thinking, print making,
musical instrument, appreciation, living with
Language and Literacy others, my needs, sorting, ordering, keeping
water clean, safety in the home, xylophone,
Environment Studies flute, pre-reading, pre-making, visual
discrimination lower and upper cases.

4.4.5 Using Technology

Technology has to do with practical application of scientific knowledge in industry and everyday
life. Talabi (2008) defines technology as the complex of human activity which is concerned with
the using of findings of art and science to solve human problems.

The Nature of Technology

The nature of technology is the designed means and the application of the theory of technology. A
typical application of human and non-human resource to bring about effective instruction are;
These include radio, tape recorder, computer, television, overhead projector, motion pictures,
screen, film strips and slides, magnetic board and video tapes.
All these electronic media of instruction include devices that are operated by means of electrical
circuits and aid to facilitate the teaching and learning processes of the child.

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4.4.6 General Guideline for the use of Technology at the Kindergarten
- The selected technology must be appropriate for the stated objects and the children. They
should be selected only if the teacher is convinced that they will contribute significantly to
the achievement of the instructional objectives of the lesson.
- Safety of children and technology is guaranteed: Inspect all cables to be connected to the
device or gadget and mains to ensure that they are properly insulated to prevent accidental
contact with exposed live cable. In addition, do not use the device when the supply of power
is found to be unstable, because it can cause damage to the device.
- They should be used at the appropriate time: It should be used at the time that it will have
the greatest impact on children’s assimilation and internalization of the concepts and contents
being taught. An audio visual technology for example can be introduced timely enough to
blend children’s sensations, perceptions, transfer and practice of concepts taught.
- They should be accurate: Television and radios may be outdated or full of errors. Events that
took place some time back is presented as if it is happening live. The teacher should ascertain
the accuracy and validity of ideas and picture presented.
- Use variety of devices: The use of only one device limits children’s experience and
knowledge. A combination of two or more devices on the same topic or theme increases
knowledge and enhances learning.
-
- Inform children about the purpose of the film or pictures: Before showing it, discuss what
should be the focused on, including key concepts main characters, the moral aspect,
controversies and the attitudes and values it seeks to inculcate. Explain any new words,
phrases or concepts used in the film which may pose difficulty to children’s understanding.
- Review film/video with children and correct mistakes conclusions and perceptions and
expose points which appear controversial to children.
- Consider the age of children and ensure that the programme will be suitable for their age and
experience.
- Watch or listen to the programme before exposing it to children.
- Teach children how to interpret the programmes or pictures.
- Let children do assignments, like drawing, role play, simulation, games or any important
aspect of the programme.

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Activity 4.7
Answer the following questions.
1. In your own words define technology
……………………….…………………..………………………………………………….
2. Write down any five types of technology that can be used in your setting.
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. How do technology facilitate teaching and learning in your class?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. What any two cautions would you take to ensure safety by using technology in your class?
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………….

4.4.7 Games
A game is any activity with fun, rules, competition, winner and loser. The players learn while
playing the game and may use their knowledge in some way to win the game. However, games
can be adapted to reduce competition and encourage co-operation by rotating team or changing
the game’s objectives.
Children play a lot of games. They depend on one great potential, they have the ability to play
games, to provide a lot of fun, and games can be invested and played on the spot. Group of games:

- Outdoor.
- Competition and co-operation games.
- Individual and group games.
- Counting games and teaching games.

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 - Board and non-board games.

Purpose of Games
- To re-enforce and practice ideas or a skill taught e.g. ludo.
- For investigation – 3 on a line game, unit of area.
- To inculcate attitude in pupils (reward and punishment game i.e. snakes and ladders).
- To fill time/occupy pupils whiles teacher is busy with something else.
- For fun.

Activity 4.3: List down any five local games that can be used in your class

S Summary
We have come to the end of Child-Centered Instructional Methods. We discussed co-
operative strategies, play, learning centres, project etc. we created imageries and used technology.
We have also used themes. Now our classrooms would be full of actions by our children. Thank
for your co-operation

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 UNIT 5: LESSON PLANNING FOR THE NURSERY/KINDERGARTEN

Session 1: The structure and component of the Nursery/Kindergarten lesson.

Session 2: Instructional Objectives.
Session 3: Instructional Materials
Session 4: Designing Lesson Plans for the Nursery/Kindergarten
 The structure and components of the KG lesson:

LESSON NOTES
All good reading depends on sound planning. In spite of how experienced a teacher may be there
is the need for him to plan his lessons. This would ensure systematic and for the smooth realization
of his objectives. The curriculum for any subject is broken down into an outlined programme called
sylla

SYLLABUS-COURSE OF STUDY
This is a brief outline of the areas to be covered in a course of lessons, lecture, etc. outline or
description of the main contents of the subject matter, which is to be taught in a course. A summary
of a course of study or programme of the main topics for a subject to be taught in school.

SCHEME OF WORK/WEEKLY FORECAST

It is a plan, which is made in advance to show the topics, which students/pupils will be learning
for a specified period in a term.
It is a breakdown of the topic into sub-topics and activities to be covered during a specified period.
Example; month, term etc.
It is a forecast of topics or parts of the syllabus, which will be covered during each lesson or period.
Usually one term in the year.
Hence, a typical scheme of work shows the order of teaching selected topics and for teaching these
topics, materials to be used in teaching the topics and remarks on each topic.

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It is a breakdown of the learning topics/themes into sub-topics and activities to be covered during
a specified period. This may be monthly, 3 months or a term. These details are necessary in order
to make planning easy.

IMPORTANCE
- It helps the teacher to allocate appropriate time for teaching topics in the syllabus. This helps
the teacher to cover all or a greater part of the syllabus
- Ensures continuity and consistency in the teaching and learning process. This means that the
immediate past scheme of work gives the new teacher a clue about the past experience or
knowledge of the pupils.
- Serves as part of the school records, which can be used for future reference.
- It helps the teacher to plan his/her daily lessons in advance and get enough time to prepare
for the lessons.
- Helps teachers to select teaching materials, tools, equipment that will help him/her to teach
the selected topic effectively.
- Ensures that the teachers base their teaching on the approved curriculum or teaching syllabus
but not on any other syllabus.
- In the absence of the regular teacher, any other teacher can use the scheme of work to plan
lessons and continue with the teaching of the subject as planned by the first teacher.
- It serves as a useful guide for the newly trained and or inexperienced teachers as it guides
them to the topics to be taught in a week.
-
CONTENTS OF SCHEME OF WORK
These are:
1. Week number 5. Reference
2. Week ending 6. Teaching/learning materials
3. Topics/Activity 7. Advance Preparation
4. Sub-topic 8. Remarks

1. WEEK NUMBER
This is the serial number of the weeks in a term. Thus, it shows in number of weeks in a term.

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2. WEEK ENDING
It is the last date for the day in each week. (E.g. Friday)

3. TOPIC ACTIVITY
This consist of the general topic or activity as shown in the syllabus e.g. size (mathematics) and
the specific topic or sub-topic.

4. SUB-TOPIC
The specific or sub-topic is an aspect or one of the many topics which can be derived from the
general topics. So for size, we can have big, little, larger than, smaller than, and shorter than.

5. REFERENCE
These are the books, magazines, newspapers and any other literature which the teacher used to
prepare and teach a lesson. These references are stated, by writing author’s name, titles and pages
where information were derived from. E.g. Wall Hager, My First Book about Numbers Page 7.

6. TEACHING AND LEARNING MATERIALS

These are all the teaching and learning materials, equipment, etc. that are to be used in the lesson.
They include water, bowl, pieces of papers, seeds, corks, counters etc.

7. ADVANCE PREPARATION
Here the teacher gives a description of all the important preparations which will make in advance
in order to enhance his teaching.

8. REMARKS
This shows the teacher’s observations or remarks about a lesson’s progress, success or otherwise.
Such remarks may be lesson taught (as planned, or rained off; holiday etc; to be taught on 26th
May, 2004.)

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE PREPARATION OF A SCHEME OF WORK

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  Age of the pupils.
 Number of pupils.
 Needs of the child: it should include both felt and unfelt needs.
 Social, physical, intellectual, emotional and moral development of the child. That is,
children’s abilities.
 Time available: that is time allocated to the subject.
 Number of periods expected to be lost in a term. Example holidays.

HOW TO PREPAPRE A SCHEME OF WORK

 Study the syllabus to select the topics to be taught. Make a list of these topics.
 Check the timetable to find out how many periods per week are available for the subject.
 Select the reference books and study them together with the available textbooks and teacher’s
guide.
 Select teaching materials that will be needed for effective learning by the pupils.
 Write the scheme of work using a calendar and the class timetable. Calendar will help you
to find out the days for the weeks.

FORMAT OF SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK WEEK TOPIC SUB- REFERENCE TEACHING ADVANCE REMARKS
ENDING ACTIVITY TOPIC LEARNING PREPARATION
MATERIALS

INSTRUCTIONAL/LESSON PLAN
It is a programme of the activities that a teacher will follow in teaching a class/pupils.
It helps the teacher to know much and by what method a lesson should be taught.
It is a guide to the teacher and it shows the content methods and techniques for learning the lesson
clearly.

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It shows what the teacher intends to treat in a day or week’s lessons. In short, it can be said to be
a summarized written account of the preparations made by the teacher to teach the lesson.
Lesson plan is based on the contents of the scheme of work and can be said to be the final product
derived from the syllabus through the scheme of work.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE PREPARATION OF LESSON PLAN

 Duration of the lesson.
 Age and ability of the pupils.
 Number of pupils in the class.
 Subject matter of the lesson.
 Previous knowledge of the pupils about the subject matter.
 Objectives of the lesson.
 Activities to be carried out for the success of the lesson.
 Teaching/learning materials to be used.
It is impossible for a teacher to perform effectively in the classroom unless some thought
has gone into the lesson before hand.
Lesson Plan demands that the teacher asks himself/herself questions about the pupils the
subject matter and the methods to be used. At pre-school level the learning should be based on
short acts where children would be physically and mentally involved.

ADVANTAGES OF LESSON PLAN

 It helps the teacher to select the right types of teaching materials and right type of method.
 It directs the teacher’s attention to the methods and techniques of teaching.
 It boosts the self-confidence of the teacher.
 It enables the teacher to know what to teach and how to teach in advance.
 Serves as a record of work done by teachers and students.
 It helps the teacher to guide students to learn in s systematic manner and avoiding irrelevant
parts/materials.
 It helps the teachers to prepare adequately for a lesson.

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  It helps the teacher to anticipate problems or difficulties that may be encountered in the
course of the lesson and thus prepare for it.
 It helps supervisors, teacher and heads of schools to determine how far a teach has achieved
the objectives of a lesson.

THE MAIN PARTS OF A LESSON PLAN

It has the following components:
1. Week ending 6. Relevant Previous Knowledge (RPK)
2. Subject 7. Teaching/Learning materials (TLM)
3. Day and Duration 8. Teacher/Learner Activities
4. Topic/SUB-topic 9. Core Points
5. Objective 10. Evaluation/Exercise
11. Remarks

1. WEEEK ENDING
It is the last date of the working week for which the notes are meant. The week ending
could be written once as a heading to cover the entire subject for the week. E.g. Lesson notes for
3rd week ending (Then you underline it).

2. SUBJECT
It is the particular subject for which lesson notes is prepared. E.g. English Language, Mathematics,
Creativity etc.

3. DAYAND DURATION
This shows the particular day of the week for which a particular lesson is meant. Duration specifies
the length of time allocated to the lesson e.g. 30 minutes, 45 minutes, or 60 minutes.

4. TOPIC/SUB-TOPIC
The topic. The small area of learning or subject matter, which is to be covered in a particular lesson
e.g. Moral Education-Kindness. Sub-topic is the small area under the topic, which is to be covered

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within a particular period e.g. for the topic kindness; a sub-topic could be kindness to people (The
kind stranger).

5. INSTRUCTIONAL/BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVES
It gives a brief summary of the knowledge, skills or ideas that the children should acquire by the
time they have worked through a topic. It is a statement of the target set for attainment or
achievement at the end of the lesson.
It is the statement of what the teacher wants to achieve in a lesson. The objectives should be stated
in such a way that it can be observed or measured, thus is must be stated in a behavioural term. A
behavioural objective is a statement concerning the observable and measureable behaviour, which
the learner is expected to show during or after the lesson. This behaviour is also known as ‘terminal
behaviour’. In addition it must be achievable.
A typical behavioural objective should have four parts:
 The performer of the objective-normally the learner (child or pupil)
 The observable and measurable terminal behaviour, which is denoted by a verb in
the statement.
 The acceptable or expected standard of performance of the pupils.
 The condition under which learning will occur.

EXAMPLE OF INSTRUCTIONAL/BEHAVIOURAL OBJECTIVE

By the end of the lesson, the Children should be able to find the sum of numbers ranging
from 1 – 9, using counters.
In above example;
The child is the performer of the terminal behaviour is (part 1).
The observer and measurable terminal behaviour is ‘find sums of number’ (part 2).

The condition under which learning is to occur is ‘using counter’.

The expected standard of performance is numbers ranging from 1 – 9.
Another example; BY the end of the lesson, the child should be able to tell the number of
bottles of water, that will be equal to one gallon given water and a bottle.

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 Examples of words that can be used to state or describe terminal behaviour are; write,
recite, identify, make, cut, name, draw, sow, add, pair, remove, sort, read, measure, mention etc.
The following verbs and phrases are not used to describe terminal behaviour, as they are
open to a lot of meaning. Understandings, enjoy, believe, know, appreciate, be happy with, etc.
There is nothing wrong with teaching pupils to understand, enjoy or know something. However,
clear communication of facts, ideas and information requires that objectives are stated in terms of
what the pupils will be doing so as to show they know’ ‘understand’ or ‘enjoy’ something.

6. RELEVANT PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE (RPK)

This is the knowledge, skill or ideas that the child already understands before she starts work on
the topic.
It can also be described as the knowledge, skills, or ideas that the pupils have which relate to the
new things that they are going to learn.
It could be the previous lesson the children had learnt, a recent past event of common feature in
the environment. This is the knowledge that the teacher can use as a starting point and build upon
to teach the new lesson.
Normally, the RPK is to introduce the lesson.

7. INSTRUCTIONAL TEACHING/LEARNING MATERIALS (TLM)

These are concrete objects/materials that are provided for both the teacher and children to interact
within the course of teaching. Such materials could be charts, pictures, counters, empty tins, etc.

8. TEACHER/LEARNER ACTIVITIES
It is the way the teacher carries his message to the pupils. It shows the methods used in his
teachings.
The teacher must decide on the best method for the lesson – class, group and individual. She/he
must also think of any special arrangements like moving seats outside, going out to observe a
flower, birds etc.
The actual procedure is best planned in steps or stages and the teacher must have a clear picture in
his/her mind what she/he wants do in each step.

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I should include the main interactions or activities that the teacher and pupils will be doing in the
lesson.
It should contain the following main part; Introduction, Development, Evaluation and Conclusion.

INTRODUCTION
It is the stage where pupils’ minds are prepared for the new lesson. It is based on 3 criteria:
motivation, overview, and linkage. Motivation aims at arousing and sustaining the interest of the
pupils for the lesson.
Overview aims at taking the children’s mind off from whatever they may be doing and focusing
on the new lesson. Also, whatever introduction the teacher uses should be linked to what the
children already know about the new lesson. Hence there is a link between the previous knowledge
pups down in the lesson notes and the introduction.
In summary, the introduction should contain something for special interest that will catch the
children’s attention, arouse and sustain their curiosity and should be like to something the children
already know about the new lesson.

DEVELOPMENT/ACTIVITIES
This is where the teacher carries his/her message to the children. (Thus, teaching of new
knowledge, skill or idea). This is done in a step-by-step manner that gives a clear picture of what
will occur during the given lesson. That is the activities should reflect the interactions between the
teacher and pupils/children and among the pupils themselves. Lesson plan, Learning opportunities,
learning activities, Learning outcomes, Learning environment, Assessment of pupils, Stimulating
activities.

EVALUATION
At this stage, the teacher finds out how the children have understood and learnt during the lesson.
It could be done through activity and practice.
It is this stage that the teacher finds out if his/her instructional objectives have been achieved. It
tells the teacher how successful the lesson has been.

CONCLUSION

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It is the stage at which the teacher ends his/her lesson. It can take the form of going over what has
been done under the evaluation through questioning. It can also be the form of pupils appreciating
their drawings or modeling etc.

9. CORE POINTS/KEY VOCABULARY

This refers to what is to be learnt by the pupils. It is the main knowledge, skill, or attitude that the
children will learn or develop at every point or stage of the lesson. E.g. fluency, prediction.

10. EVALUATION/EXERCISE
Here the teacher writes samples or all the questions or activities the children will do. (Oral or
written questions).
The exercises are given according to the number of periods the timetable. Hence if they have
periods on Monday, Thursday and Friday, the teacher should specify what the children would be
doing (in terms of evaluation) for those days.
The purpose of evaluation is to find out if the objectives as set for the lesson have been achieved.

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SUBJECT : MATHEMATICS SCHEME OF WORK
CLASS KG 1
WEEEK WEEK TOPIC/ SUB-TOPIC REFERENCE T/L MATERIALS ADVANCE REMARKS
NO. ENDING ACTIVITY BOOKS PREP.
1 “Full” “empty” Mathematics for Bottles, boxes, plates Teacher
nursery schools etc.
2 30-03-01 “““““ Comparing the capacity of “ Set of jugs, set of mugs, Looks
containers which have the set of mild tins, set of
same shape but different saucepans, etc.
sizes.
3 6-04-01 Weight Heavy, light “ Objects with different For material
sizes example a heavy
chair light chair, heavy
box, light box, etc.
4 3-04-01 Position On top of under “ Books; pencil tables,
boxes, etc.

FORMAT FOR LESSON NOTES WRITING

WEEKENDING: CLASS AVERAGE AGE
SUBJECT: NUMBER ON ROLL: REF. BOOK:

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DAY/DATE TOPIC OBJECTIVE (S) /RPK TEACHING/LEARNING MATERIALS CORE EVALAUTION
DURATION SUB-TOPIC TEACHER/LEARNER ACTIVITIES POINTS/KEY EXERCISE/REMARKS
WORDS

CLASS KG 2 WEEKLY SCHEME/FORECAST

WEEEK WEEK TOPIC/ SUB- REFERENCE T/L MATERIALS ADVANCED REMARKS
NO. ENDING ACTIVITY TOPIC BOOKS PREP.
1 20/10/16 Domestic animals Cat My first book Live cat, picture of a cat. Prepare materials

2 27/10/16 “ Goat About Real goat, picture of a goat. Arrange for live
domestic animals to be
animals brought to school.
3 3/11/16 “ Dog “ “
4 10/11/16 “ Cow Said, A Picture of cows, teacher’s “
own drawing.

5 17/11/16 “ Duck Wallhager B Picture of duck, live duck. “

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 AN EXAMPLE OF NURSERY/KINDERGARTEN TIME TABLE
Days 7:00- 8:00- 8:30– 9:00– 9:30- 9:45- 10:15–10:45 10:45- 11:15- 11:45- 12:15- 1:00-
8:00 8:30 9:00 9:30 9:45 10:15 11:15 11:45 12:15 1:00 1:30

Mond News time Creativity Mathematics Music & Language Rhyme

ay Dance

Tues Mathematics Rhymes Environmental Writing Story Drama

day Activities Telling

Wedn Environmental Mathematics Language Music & Creativity Story

esday Studies Activities Dance Telling
Religious
And Moral
Education
Thurs Mathematics Story Creativity Language Drama Writing
day Telling Activity

Frida News time Creativity Environmental Mathematics Environmental Out

y Activities Activities door
play

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 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

Definition of Instructional Materials

Teaching or Instructional materials are everything that is used during the teaching/instructional-
learning process to enhance learners understanding, arouse their interest and direct their attention.

? Do you agree with it?

If you don’t agree, ask yourself why many teachers do not use any materials at all to teach. If you
constantly use materials during the instructional process, you will notice that teaching learning
materials aid learning in the following ways:
 Help to overcome the limitations of using oral communications alone.
 Form a focal point which attracts attention.
 Arouse interest of children.
 Involve co-operation among children.
 Supplement description and helps to explains words,
 Give accurate impression of concepts.
 Promote retention and memory of what has been taught.
 Consolidate what has been learnt.
 Save teaching time.
 Relieve boredom and fatigue.

 Activity:
Discuss any five benefits of instructional materials.
Categories of Indoor and Outdoor Materials
Chalkboard, wall charts, templates, flannel Balls, tyres, hoops, skipping ropes, slides,
graph (felt board), film strip, television, radio, swings, see-saw, wooden horses, etc.
computer, textbooks, maps, atlas, globe,
counters, dolls, etc.

Activity:

Write down any ten more indoor and outdoor materials.

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 Types of Instructional Materials (Categories)
Types of instructional materials are the grouping of the instructional materials. These are;
Primary – These include the actual objects as plants, animals, and other man-made objects in its
natural place or dwelling. E.g. fish in a pond, river, crops on a farm, flowers in a pot, etc.
Secondary – These are mainly models of real objects built in solid forms. E.g. prepared models
such as cubs and cuboids in number work, model of houses, aero planes cars, sounds of birds
recorded, animals, cars, etc. (all toys and models)
Tertiary – These include all man-made materials and equipment that are used to support
instructions. E.g. films, photographs, maps, chart prepared drawing, chalkboard drawing,
radio/television, teaching etc.
The major groups are visual aids and audio-visual aids. These are in category one e.g. category two
if Instructional Aids are those that pupils can see, touch, smell or even taste. E.g. cooking pots,
flowers, insects, leaves, models such as shapes etc. Others are printed materials including text
books, magazines, dailies etc.
Chalkboards are the commonest and most readily available visual material. A wide range of
information can be presented on the chalkboard e.g. sketches, diagrams coloured illustrations e.g.
Flannel are flat boards made up of plywood or hardwood cover with funnel of felt which is stretched
tightly and pins are used to hold the flannel unto the board. Pictures can be cut and pasted. Even
children’s own work can be pasted on such boards which give the children a boost.
Bulletin boards are also used where letters/words can be pasted for children to read.
Pictures are one group of very important visual material. They can be cut out of old magazines, old
calendars, newspapers, Mobiles that are hung etc.

Care/ Guideline of Instructional/Teaching Materials

 Prepare the materials: If there are a number of materials to be used such as flash cards, you
have to arrange them in the order in which you would use them.
 Prepare the Environment: For children to benefit from the use of the materials, teacher needs
to check the environment of the classroom to determine where to place the materials.
 Prepare Pupils: For the children to benefit fully from the instructional materials, they should
have sufficient background information to be able to understand the information presented to
the aid.
 Use the material: All instructional materials should be properly introduced to pupils. They
should be aware of what important issues children need to note about it. There should be
necessary explanations and illustrations.
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  Presentation of materials: Present the materials at the appropriate time in the instruction to
make it have the best effect. It should also be used with interest so that the enthusiasm about
the aid would be likely to be moved by its use.
 Plan for children participation: In-discussion based on the aid, explain what is on it and put it
away. Frame questions and issues either before or after the presentation with the aid.
 Face children: Face children when using the material as much as possible. Observe their
reactions and attitudes towards it. Provoke some thinking and interest on the topic. Also the
teacher would ascertain whether the aid suits the topic in descent, acceptable or suitable.
 Never use an aid which is likely to offend or frighten children. E.g. aids that express
derogative perspective of a religion, culture, ethnic group.
 After teaching, have the materials on view for an appropriate length of time. Storage should
be properly done and there should be guidelines in the use of the aids.

S Summary
All too soon, we have come to the end of our studies on Methods of Teaching Early
Childhood Education. The last Unit, Unit 5 saw us going through Lesson Planning for the
Nursery/Kindergarten, Instructional Material, Types and Core Guidelines for their usage. It’s the
hope of the writer that good knowledge would be acquired throughout this book and teaching in the
Nursery/Kindergarten would be easy and a reality.

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 Reading List

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Brunner, J.S. (1966). Towards a theory of instruction. Norton: New York.
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Farrant, J. S. (1964). Principles and practice of education. London: Longmans, Greenland 10.
Fontana, D. (Ed) (1984). The education of the young child: a handbook for nursery and infant
teachers (2nded). Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd.
Gage, N. L. &Belinder, D. C. (1984). Educational Psychology (3rded). Houghton Mifflin Co.
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GES, TED, (2007). Principles and methods of Early Childhood Education: Diploma in Basic
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Morrison, G.S. (1997). Fundamentals of early childhood education, Upper Saddle River NJ:
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Nduanya, M. D. (1989) (Ed) Elementary School Methodology, Ibandan: Heinemann
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Norton, D.E. (1997). The Effective Teaching of Language Arts. New York: Prentice Hall.

PARROT, E. (1989) Effective Teaching: A Practical Guide to Improving teaching. London:

Longman.
Romizowski, A. J. (1981). Designing instructional systems.Kogan Page: London.
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Wamsley, B.B., A.M and Wamsley, S.A. (1992) Teaching Kindergarten. Developmentally
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