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function in interdisciplinary settings between such that for each element of the domain there is
mathematics and science in upper secondary exactly one element of the range. This approach
education. The paradigm for our research is a view amounts to the definition of Dirichlet given in 1837,
of mathematics and science as related disciplines, and it appears to be more easily grasped by the
and we see them as subjects that attempt to describe students than the Bourbaki definition although they
phenomena by models in order to act and deal with are very similar technically. But the dominance of
them in a sensible way. As a consequence we the correspondence approach is by no mean an
propose the development of an innovative integrated indicator for a general agreement upon a conceptual
mathematics and science curriculum as an and pedagogic framework for the concept of
alternative to the traditional subject oriented functions.
curriculum.
2.1 Upper secondary students and functions
Students participating in a one of our research
2. The concept of function in upper project reflect the complexity of the concept of
secondary education function and the associated difficulties students
The function concept has become one of the experience in learning functions. 70 grade 10
fundamental ideas of modern mathematics, students from Danish gymnasium (general upper
permeating virtually all the areas of the discipline. secondary school) wrote an essay about their
Placed in the centre of attention of upper secondary conceptions of function and the utility of the
education the concept of function has a central and concept (Michelsen 2001). The following extracts
organizing role around which many other important from two of the essays illustrate the majority of the
mathematical ideas resolve. The mathematical students’ conception of function:
discussions about the function concept have
produced a gradual evolution in its accepted Function is something about a formula, which
meaning from a correspondence to a formal set describes how the function should look like. You can
definition. Cooney & Wilson (1993) point at that a always draw a function in a coordinate system,
similar pedagogical evolution regarding the which is 2-dimensional. Every point therefore has
importance of the concept to school and how the two values, an x- and a y-value. This means that the
concept should be taught. This evolution has to function is something flat. In a function there is
some extent paralleled the changes in the always a variable. But there must only
mathematical definition of function, but has also correspondent one value to the variable of the
included other issues. In the textbooks of the 19th function else it is no longer a function. The formula
century until the middle of the 20th century a for the function is used for calculations and it can at
function was considered as a change, or as a times be considered as an equation. In nearly
variable depending on other variables. Influenced by everything that we have learned in mathematics the
the rise of abstract algebra, of which Bourbaki was ulterior motive was the utility for the functions.
the most famous proponent, changes occurred from Mathematics teachers are obsessed by functions,
the middle of the 20th century toward a in almost all they do not think about anything else and they
school curricula definition of function by two sets A expect the same from their students. Grade 10
and B with a rule which assigns exactly one member student (Michelsen 2001, p. 80).
of B to each member of A. Yet, despite being a
When we look at formulas with several terms then it
powerful foundation for the final edifice of
is really difficult to see in which situations you can
mathematics organized in a formal Bourbaki style
use them. And you are confirmed be the answers you
many researchers in mathematics education find this
get from the teacher when you ask him. In fact it is
approach is excessively abstract, especially at
something you will be responsible for at the final
secondary education. Literature from the 1990s
examination. And after the examination only a few
stress that a less abstract notion of functions as rules
of us will encounter situations where you can use
allows students to gain a strong conceptual
such formulas. It is quite enervating for students to
background in functional thinking before
learn something, which is useless. In fact it is very
progressing to the more abstract notion of functions
difficult for my teacher to give examples of
as sets of ordered pairs (Eisenberg 1992, NCTM
application of formulas with a quadratic term.
1989, Sfard 1991). As a consequence the concept of
Altogether the missing examples of application are a
functions presently at upper secondary mathematics
problem in mathematics instruction. Grade 10
education is introduced as a correspondence
student (Michelsen 2001, p. 129)
between the elements of two sets of real numbers,
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As a rule the students evidently have difficulties of mathematics and the mainland of real human
ascribing a reasonable meaning to functions. The experience. Kaput (1994) elucidates the gap with the
students ask for examples of the usefulness of difference between mathematical functions that are
functions. But the essays show, that the students are defined by algebraic formulas, and empirical
aware of the important role that the concept plays an functions that describe every-day-life phenomena.
important role serving as models for understanding The problem of transferring formal mathematical
phenomena in science. This is illustrated by the knowledge to a new context is one of the biggest
following extracts: challenges in education. It is well known that it is
difficult for the students to apply concepts, ideas and
I am quite sure that my understanding of the procedures learned in mathematics in a new and
concepts would be improved if the teaching of unanticipated situation, either in or out of school.
mathematics and physics were more coordinated. Learning is inherently associative, and it is not
Then the student would se that there is a method in surprising that students have difficulties applying a
the method. Then you could start with theory and competence that they associate with one setting to
that see how it is used in practice. Very often you something entirely new.
learn something from mathematics, which is
applicable in physics. But often you learn something 3.1 Transfer and domain specifity
in mathematics several months after you have used
it in the physics lessons. That is wrong. Grade 10 According to Niss (1999) a significant example of
student (Michelsen 2001, p. 143). the major findings of research in mathematics
education is the key role of domain specifity. The
I think, that from the moment we all realize that student’s conception of a mathematical concept is
what we have learned is applicable in ”everyday determined by the set of specific domains in which
life” it will be easier for the teacher to involve all that concept has been introduced for the student.
the students. That is not the case today. Actually it is When a concept is introduced in a narrow
in physics and chemistry we find most of the mathematical domain, the student may see it as a
examples of application of the mathematical rules. formal object with arbitrary rules. This results in the
That is by no means wrong, but it implies that the recognised difficulty of application of the concept in
teachers of mathematics, physics, and mathematics new settings. As an alternative we want to point at
must talk and coordinate. Grade 10 student that interdisciplinary activities between mathematics
(Michelsen 2001, p. 145). and science offer a great variety of domain relations
and context settings that can serve as a basis for
The students would like to see slightly more
developing a more practical and coherent structure
coordination between the mathematics and the
of a mathematical concept. By expanding the
science lessons. Only very few students are
domain with contexts from science the problem of
dismissive of a closer instructional coordination
domain specifity is transcended and the curriculum
between mathematics and the subjects of natural
is presented as a cohesive program. Lobato (2003)
sciences:
addresses the central educational issue of transfer
I think that a closer coordination between learning and criticises the traditional models of
mathematics and physics would end up in a terrible transfer for relying too heavily on the determination
mesh. I like the way it is now. Grade 10 student of transfer from an expert’s point of view. She
(Michelsen 2001, p. 145). argues for an actor-oriented framework, where one
assumes that the students are making connections
between situations nearly all the time, guided by the
aspects they find personally salient. As a
3. Expanding the domain as an alternative to consequence the critical issue is to design an
transfer instructional environment that supports the students’
In the current curriculum links between phenomena construction of personal relations of similarities
from science and representations of functions are across situations.
introduced only after the students have been taught
to think of functions as interpretations of algebraic 3.2 The differences in terminology and notational
expressions. And there are very few examples of systems between science and mathematics
textbooks and teaching materials that combine
mathematics and science in real interdisciplinary Even though the mathematical tools underlying
contexts. Such an approach accentuates the island situations in science lessons are often quite
problem – the gap between the island of formal elementary the application of the tools are
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meaning we seek to express (Osborne 2002). skills to the solution of scientific problems. But a
Modelling by mathematization treats specifically the consequence is that mathematics is learned
role of mathematics in science, and of the link with separately from its applications. Contextual
mathematics in various fields of science education. problems should therefore also be exploited as
Pointing at the dramatically change in the nature of meaningful starting points from which conceptual
problem solving activities during the past twenty structures in mathematics and science can emerge.
years and at the difficulties to recruit students
capable of graduate level in interdisciplinary such as 4.3 Contextual and conceptual approaches
mathematical biology and bio-informatics Lesh &
Sriraman (2005) suggest a bottom up solution. That There exist several frameworks, which include both
is, initiate and study the modeling of complex contextual and conceptual approaches. The concept
systems that occur in real life situations from the of emergent model suggested by Gravemeijer
early grades. The current calculus-driven high (1997) has as the departing point situation specific
school curriculum is unlikely to produce a problems, which are subsequently modelled.
quantitatively literate student population. According Context problems first offer the students the
to Steen (2004) it is therefore time to recognize the opportunity to develop situation-specific methods
distinctive quantitative requirements of universal and symbolisations. Then the methods and symbols
education in the computer age in the form of are modelled from a mathematical perspective and
quantitative literacy. The essence of quantitative in this sense the models emerge from the students’
literacy is the use of mathematical and logical activity. The models first come to the fore as a
thinking in context. A cornerstone of quantitative model of the situation, and then the model gradually
literacy is the ability to apply quantitative ideas in becomes an entity on it own right and starts to serve
unfamiliar contexts. as a model for mathematical reasoning. The shift
presented from ’model of’ to ‘model for’ should
concur with a shift in the way students perceive and
4.2 Integration of mathematics and science
think about the models, from models that derive
Issues related to the integration of topics from their meaning from the context situation modelled to
mathematics and science are complex, because they thinking about the mathematical content.
comprise two apparently different components, an
extra-mathematical and a mathematical context. The The transition from a ‘model of’ to a ‘model for’ has
integration must take into account, that didactical certain similarities with Sfard’s (1991) description
problems with the various topics have more of the process-object duality of mathematical
consequences than the respective curricula might concept based on historically and epistemologically
suggest. There exist numerous general models of analysis. With the concept of function as the leading
integration that offers a theoretical grounding for the illustration, Sfard sees a dual nature to mathematical
diverse perspectives associated with integration of conceptions; they have an operational (process) and
mathematics and science. These models most often a structural (object) mode. Students start by
take form of a continuum reaching from the engaging in computational processes, which leads
discipline of mathematics over balanced them to an operational conception. From these,
mathematics and science to the discipline of science. structural conceptions usually develop by going
Generally speaking the models are based on two through three stages: interiorization, condensation,
assumptions: (i) teaching mathematics in relation to and reification. While interiorization and
science supports students’ learning by providing condensation are gradual, reification is a sudden
meaningful contexts in which the students can see qualitative jump from what was initially perceived
the application of abstract mathematical concepts - as a process or procedure to a mental object, which
and as a side effect this helps students instil positive is seen as a single entity that possess certain
attitudes towards mathematics (ii) mathematics properties and that can be operated on by other
offers science education the tools for quantifying, higher level processes, such as transformations or
representing, and analyzing phenomena from compositions. Reification proves difficult and Sfard
science – and as a side effect fosters a sense of deduces two didactic principles of her description:
objectivity in science. This often results in (i) new concepts should not be introduced using
connections between mathematics and science, their structural descriptions, and (ii) structural
which is imbedded within the context of real-world conceptions should not be introduced as long as
applications, and as such the connections tend to be students can do without them.
contextual rather than conceptual (Berlin 2003). It is
of great importance for the students of mathematics
to have opportunities to apply their mathematical
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Analyses ZDM 2006 Vol. 38 (3)
4.4 Functions as an essential means of describing, such activities to bridge the gap between
explaining, and predicting real world mathematics and science. The Berlin-White
phenomena. Integrated Science and Mathematics Model (Berlin
& White 1998) exceptionally focuses on both
Although Sfard does not link the process conception
mathematics and science, and offers a typology to
to aspects of application, one could argue that
describe and understand the complex nature of
problems of applications should be included to
integration of mathematics and science from both a
motivate the students. The historical origin of the
content and a pedagogical position. The model
function concept is rooted in the study of natural
identifies the following six aspects of integration:
phenomena, and mathematical functions play a
ways of learning, ways of knowing, content
significant role in the study of natural sciences,
knowledge, process and thinking skills, attitudes and
social sciences, engineering and technology.
perceptions, and teaching strategies. In our view this
Functions constitute an essential means of
multidimensional view of the interplay between
describing, explaining, and predicting real world
mathematics and science offer a very practicable
phenomena. O’Callaghan (1998) presents a
framework for developing and implementing
conceptual framework for teaching the concept of
integrated mathematics and science programs
function, which firmly rooted in a problem-solving
embedded in a modelling context.
environment consists of four component
competences: modelling, interpreting, translating, As an alternative to overemphasizing algebraic
and reifying. The model accommodates the process- symbolism we suggest an approach to the function
object duality by linking explicitly the components concept aiming at using modelling activities to
of modelling, interpreting, and translating to the bridge the gap between mathematics and science.
process conception and the reifying component to The idea is to look for models that can be
the object conception. generalized and formalized by the students to
develop into entities of their own, which can
become models for reasoning in science and
5. Horizontal linking and vertical structuring mathematic. This draws attention to new ways of
describing a modelling curriculum. In the so-called
A modelling approach has the potential to KOM-report (Competences and Learning in
encompass both contextual and conceptual aspects Mathematics) the notion of competence is
of the function concept. We agree with the introduced as a basis for describing and analyzing
suggestion by Lester & Kehle (2003) to subsume mathematics instruction from kindergarten to
problem solving within the much broader category tertiary level. The KOM-report defines a
of mathematical activity centered on model eliciting mathematical competence as an insightful
tasks. They see a fruitful blurring of task, person, preparedness to act properly in situations that
mathematical activity, learning, applying what have contain a particular kind of mathematical challenge.
been learned, and other features of mathematical Eight mathematically competences are identified
problem solving. This blurring metaphor does not aiming at describing what it means to master
express less precision. On the contrary it reflects a mathematics: (1) mathematical thinking competence
richer view and a more authentic view on activities (2) problem solving competence (3) modelling
in a classroom, where the students must express, competence (4) reasoning competence (5)
test, modify, revise, and refine their own ways of representational competence (6) symbolizing and
thinking during the process of designing powerful formalizing competence (7) communication
conceptual tools that embody constructs that competence and (8) auxiliary tools competence
students are intended to develop. Further the (Niss & Jensen, 2002). The modelling competence
artificial division in a mathematical world and includes structuring an intra- or extra-mathematical
reality is abolished. situation to be modelled, mathematizing the
situation, analysing and tackling the model,
5.1 Interdisciplinary competences interpreting the results, validation of the model,
Many mathematics and science educators are in communicating about the model, monitoring the
favor of a more realistic education, where modelling modelling activity.
activities are used to treat concepts in realistic,
Almost all forms of learning involve some ways of
everyday life contexts (Gilbert & Boulter 1998, de
representing information. Modelling can be
Lange, 1996). But although there is an implicit
considered a form of mathematical challenge that
interdisciplinary aspect in a modelling approach,
supports the emergence of representations of
only little attention has been paid to the potential of
functions. When modelling in an interdisciplinary
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context the students are confronted with information emphasize on mathematization makes the approach
from multiple sources that is presented and a promising theoretical framework to design
communicated in different forms. As the students instructional sequences that strengthens the relation
face more complex problems they must develop an between mathematics and science. This does not
increasingly large repertoire of representations and mean that that all models are or should be
knowledge of how to use them productively. Lesh & mathematical, but mathematization makes it
Doerr (2003) introduce the model and modelling possible to transfer the modelling process from one
perspective based on the assumption that models for place to another.
making sense of complex systems are some of the
most important components of mathematical We propose an extension of the distinction between
knowledge and understanding. This approach gives horizontal and vertical mathematization to a
the students a more accurate portrayal of what didactical model for integrated mathematics and
mathematicians spend most of their time doing – science courses consisting of two phases: horizontal
constructing and investigating structurally linking and vertical structuring. The description of
interesting systems – or using them to make sense of the modelling competence as an interdisciplinary
real-life applications. Especially it is emphasized competence of course entails that situations from
that in the process of mathematizing the students science are embedded in the contexts to be
focus on representations that have the greatest mathematized, and this is a horizontal linking of
power and usefulness and go beyond thinking with mathematics and science. Also the vertical
models and representation systems to also think mathematization must include a vertical structuring,
about the similarities and differences, and strengths that is the conceptual anchoring of the general
and weakness, for a variety of purposes. model in the systematic and framework of
mathematics and science respectively (Michelsen
Our point is that the modelling and representation 2005).
competencies overlap each other, and they are by no
means independent in practice. We therefore call The didactical model emphasizes mathematizing
them interdisciplinary competences. The and modelling as ideas that cut across mathematics
representational competence includes handling of and science, and encompasses both contextual and
representations of a diversity of matters from conceptual aspects. In the horizontal phase thematic
mathematics and science, understanding and integration is used to connect concept and process
application of different form of representations, skills of mathematic science by modelling activities.
knowledge of strength and weakness of a Also in this phase explicit connections is established
representation, and selection among and translation between the process skills of mathematics and
between different forms of representations. science. For example the facility with graphical,
Considering the representational competence as an tabular, algebraic and written representations of
interdisciplinary competence makes it possible to functions is explicitly linked to data analysis. The
transcend the above-mentioned problem of the vertical phase is characterized by a conceptual
differences in terminology and notational systems anchoring of the concepts and process skills from
between science and mathematics the horizontal phase by creating languages and
symbol systems that allow the students to move
5.2 A model for integrated mathematics and about logically and analytically within mathematics
science courses and science, without reference back into the
contextual phase. The shift from the horizontal to
According to Freudenthal’s (1991) mathematizing is the vertical phase thus might concur with a shift
the key process of mathematical activity. There are from integrated instruction to subject oriented
two types of mathematization in an educational instruction. It should be stressed that the didactical
context – horizontal and vertical mathematization. model is iterative. Once the concepts and skills are
In horizontal mathematization, the students come up conceptual anchored in the respective subjects, they
with mathematical tools, which can help to organize can evolve in a new interdisciplinary context, as a
and solve a problem located in a real-life situation. part of a horizontal linking.
Vertical mathematization is the process of
reorganization within the mathematical system
itself, like finding shortcuts and discovering 6. Integrated modelling courses
connections between concepts and strategies, and
the application of these discoveries. This approach If reform of mathematics and science education is
espouses mathematics as an activity without loosing the aim, prototypes of instructional sequences with
sight of mathematics as a product. The strong learning materials that are in harmony with new
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perspectives must be available to the teachers. At same model, structure and behaviour can be found
University of Southern Denmark we are a team of in the study of other parts of the real world.
educational researchers and teachers from upper
secondary school, who try to find out how the idea The overall curricular units are designed to integrate
of a modelling approach to function in three components; the gathering of data from a
interdisciplinary context can be implemented. With physical experiment, development and exploration
interdisciplinary competences as a frame and the of mathematical models (verbal, symbolic, graphical
horizontal linking - vertical structuring model as a and tabular) and a reflective discourse about the
didactical tool we develop, implement, and evaluate mathematical and science content of the models.
courses with integrated tasks for mathematics and The idea is to involve the students in expressive
science. The idea is to look for models that can be modelling, where the students can express the
generalized and formalized by the students to evolving concepts. To make the structure and
develop into entities of their own, which can content of mathematics and science as explicit as
become models for reasoning in science and possible, the course material is organised around a
mathematics. small number of basic models.
The courses are organized as a steady movement
6.1 Trigonometric functions and exponential between horizontal linking and vertical structuring.
growth in context For example in the exponential growth course the
In the traditional approach of to functions there is a students simulate the radioactive decay process, and
preference for linear functions as the students’ first have to make their own representation of a physical
encounter with the function concept. We agree with event, choose variable, and pose relationships
the argument of Yerushalmy & Schwartz (1993) that among them. Then in the vertical structuring phase
this tradition derives from the computational the students’ models are anchored conceptual as
simplicity of evaluating them, and there is no exponential growth models and their mathematical
particular need to concentrate to concentrate on characteristics are investigated. Exponential growth
them in the early stage. According to Dooren et al models can subsequent be applied in a new
(2004) the extensive attention paid to linear modelling context, for example the investigation of
relations in primary and secondary school lead to cooling of a hot liquid.
“illusion of linearity”, the tendency in students to
An important aspect of modelling is that it allows
see and apply the linear model “anywhere”. Already
the students to visualize abstract concepts by
when the students at the first time meet proportional
creating structures through which they can explore
and linear relationships in a more formal way they
and experiment. Concepts can be worked on,
should be confronted with counterexamples of
modified according to the situations where they are
situations where linearity does not work. We think
called upon to be used and this might cause new
that trigonometric functions and exponential growth
concepts to emerge, which can be worked on,
are well suited to give students a feel for smooth
interpreted, modified and generalised. In the
change of the variables in phenomena, and in that
trigonometric functions course the students
way help the students to develop their understanding
experience the emergence of model when the
of variables.
software transforms the video of the movement of
We have developed and implemented two courses, the fixed point on the bicycle wheel to a graph in a
where the concept of function is introduced to grade coordinate system. This model now serves as a basis
10 students in an interdisciplinary context. The first for developing formal mathematical knowledge
course focuses on movement and trigonometric about the function f(x) = a·sin(b·x+c)+d. Using the
functions. The motion of bicycle wheel is used to software the students can investigate the meaning of
introduce the trigonometric functions. The students the parameters a, b, c and d by stating hypothesis
videotape the motion of a fixed point on the wheel. about the meaning and then checking them. Thus the
The motion of the point is explored and modelled by model of the wheel’s movement changes character
students’ with a software program providing from a context-specific model of a situation to an
different forms of representations and possibilities entity of its own and the movement from the
for transforming the constructed models. The other horizontal linking to the vertical structuring is
course is centred on exponential growth and carried out. The following extracts from a student’s
radioactivity. The exponential behaviour of the report gives an expression of how the investigations
accumulation of the variable number of nuclei is a took place:
very common phenomenon in our physical, Hypothesis: The parameter d together with c govern
biological and social environments and therefore the the interception with the y-axis in some complicated
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consistent meaning to the concepts that helps Science and Mathematics Education: Evolution
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the students. Knowledge is not inherently divided Thinking About Functions: Historical and
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