A Glimpse at the Fountains of the Middle Ages

Author(s): William D. Wixom

Source: Cleveland Studies in the History of Art, Vol. 8 (2003), pp. 6-23
Published by: Cleveland Museum of Art
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20079727
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 A Glimpse at the Fountains of
the Middle Ages

WILLIAM D. WIXOM
Observant travelers visiting the remnants of the older urban centers in
Europe, as well as students of early panel paintings, illuminated manu
scripts, prints, drawings, and sculptures, may be aware of the numerous
actual, destroyed, and fictive fountains dating from the early Christian,
Byzantine, and medieval periods. Visitors to the Cleveland Museum of
Art and readers of its publications may remember the dramatic, even
astonishing, early Christian third-century marble Good Shepherd and
Jonah series as possible ornaments for a fountain complex in a private
house.1 The spectacular gilt-silver work traditionally called a "table foun
tain" (fig. 1) of about 1320?40 is also a prime Cleveland object.2 A third
object in the collection is the fine engraving by the Master W with a Key
(Netherlandish, active 1470?80) of about 1470 (fig. 2).3 While usually
described as a design for a table fountain to be made of silver or gold by a
goldsmith, it could have been intended instead as a scheme for an elabo
rate and larger fountain, fashioned in brass, for a garden, courtyard, or
town center. Comparably thin vertical supports, arches, and pinnacles
appear in the town square in the background of a tournament scene in an
engraving of about 1500 by the South German Master MZ.4 The attenu
ated openness of this fountain suggests a work in brass. A drawing in the
Fogg Art Museum in Cambridge, Massachusetts, derived from the
Master W with a Key's invention, supports the same conclusion.5
While existing fountain structures, as opposed to holy water stoops,
appear in at least two major cathedrals in Germany?one in Regensburg,
possibly by Wolfgang Roritzer, of around 1500 and another in Freiburg
im Breisgau of about the same date?fountains in monastic settings
are far more numerous. Important examples, mostly in stone, may still
be seen at, for example, Monreale, Sicily (twelfth century), Alcoba?a,
Portugal (thirteenth century), Saint-Denis, France (about 1200),
Fossanova in Priverno, Italy (thirteenth century), Maulbronn in
W?rttemberg, Germany (thirteenth century), Heiligenkreuz near Baden,
Austria (end of the thirteenth century), Chartreuse de Champmol near
Dijon, France (1395?1406), and St. Wolfgang in Salzkammergut, Austria
(early sixteenth century).6

Fig. i. Table Fountain. France, Paris,
c. 1320?40, gilt silver and translucent
enamel (with restorations), 31.1 x 24.1
cm. The Cleveland Museum of Art,
J. H. Wade Fund 1924.859.
Fig. 2. Master W with a Key. Design for
a Gothic Fountain, c. 1470, engraving,
23.3 x 7.1?7.3 cm. The Cleveland
Museum of Art, Dudley P. Allen Fund

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 The earliest and among the most famous fountains, symbols of Para
dise, are the bronze "pinecone" fountains of the second century AD set up
in the atrium before the basilica of Old St. Peters in Rome and in the
atrium before the Palatine Chapel in Aachen, Germany.7 Writing about
the fountain in the atrium of Old St. Peters, Richard Krautheimer de
scribed the fourth-century canopy as having "six porphyry columns, all
second-, third-, and early fourth-century spoils,.. . [carrying] four bronze
arches curtained with grills and surmounted by bronze peacocks."8
Stone was apparently the preferred material for civic fountains, most
of which featured large polygonal basins with a central stem of varying
configuration and complexity that held the waterspouts. They presuppose
the existence of piping, working aqueducts, and other aspects of engineer
ing not the purviews of this study.9 Urban fountains dating before the
first half of the sixteenth century are still extant in Viterbo, Italy (three
examples dating 1206,1279, and c. 1367), Goslar, Germany (in bronze,
thirteenth century), Perugia, Italy {Fontana Maggiore, 1276?78),
Cittaducale, Italy (fourteenth century), Narni, Italy (fourteenth century),
Fabriano, Italy (fourteenth century), Bevagna, Italy (fourteenth century),
Mende, France (with a bronze crown, fourteenth century), Najac near
Aveyron, France (1345), Aachen (1334), Verona, Italy (1368), Nuremberg,
Germany (Sch?ner Brunnen, 1385?96), Basel, Switzerland (1390),
Braunschweig, Germany (Marktbrunnen, 1408), Salerno, Italy (fifteenth
century), Venice, Italy (numerous well heads, capital type, mostly fif
teenth century), Basel (Fischmarktbrunnen, 1467), Forcalquier in Basse
Alpes, France (1481), Ulm, Germany (Fischkasten, by J?rg Syrlin the
Elder, dated 1482), Lucerne, Switzerland (Weinmarktbrunnen, 1494),
Urach, Germany (Marktbrunnen, around 1500), Hildesheim, Germany
(Marktbrunnen, 1540), and Reutlingen, Germany (Lindenbrunnen,
1544).10 In addition to these central plan fountains, there are several wall
fountains of various kinds in Aquila, Italy (1272), Is?rnia, Italy (four
teenth century), Nuremberg (a brass relief of the head of an open
mouthed youth, about 1400), Siena, Italy (Fonte Gaia, by Jacopo della
Quercia, 1412?19), Finist?re, France (Daoulis, around 1500), and
Schw?bisch-Hall, Germany (Fischbrunnen, 1509).11 The courtyard of the
Heilig-Geist-Spital in Nuremberg was graced by a three-dimensional
seated and cross-legged figure of a young man cast in brass (h. 121 cm)
playing an oboe-like instrument called a shawm, the original simple
spout for water. Replaced by a copy, the original of 1380 now resides in
the Germanisches Nationalmuseum in Nuremberg.12 A variety of town
fountains are known to have existed in Limoges, France (thirteenth cen
tury), Cortona, Italy (1278), Aachen (1334), Dijon (1445), and Rouen,
France (1485).13
Fountains must also have been a frequent feature in private gardens
and courtyards. A tradition of small-scale fountain carving in Asia Minor
established an important context for the Cleveland early Christian
marble sculptures.14 Another context is affirmed in a scene of the Annun
ciation to Anna in the eleventh-century Byzantine Homilies of the Monk
James (fig. 3).15 The fountain represented there is set over a rectangular
basin and entails a twisted stem, a small round basin, a double animal
head gushing torrents of water, and a pinecone or pomegranate finial
spraying multiple thin streams of water. Judging from the many illustra
tions in European illuminated manuscripts appearing throughout the
fifteenth century, fountains must have been fairly common in the gar

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 Fig. 3. Fol. 16 of the Homilies of the
Monk James. Byzantium, 11th century.
Biblioteca Vaticana, Vat. Gr. 1162. The
Annunciation to Anna is illustrated at
the lower right.

dens of the upper levels of medieval society. Prominent examples in a

religious context appear in such paintings as the Ghent Altarpiece (St.
Bavo, Ghent), dated 1432, by Hubert (c. 1370?1426) and Jan van Eyck (c.
1390?1441) as well as Jan van Eyck's Virgin and Child at the Fountain
(Koninklijk Museum voor Schone K?nsten, Antwerp) of 1439.l6 Other
examples are features of late fifteenth-century drawings and engravings,
especially in scenes of the Garden of Love.
Several South Netherlandish tapestry hangings made for well-to-do or
aristocratic clients around 1500 illustrate garden fountains in their com
positions as well. One of the most familiar is the hanging in the Unicorn
series at the Cloisters (fig. 4) which shows the unicorn dipping his horn
into to the stream of water emitted from a lion mask at the side of the

basin of a large stone fountain. The tall column at the center, with spaced
moldings and a capital, is further embellished with a water-spouting
pomegranate at the top, carved leaves, and additional lion-head spouts.17
Palace complexes are also known to have had fountains, as in the
imperial palace in Constantinople,'8 Cuba, Sicily (1180), the loggia of the

Fig. 4. "The Unicorn Is Found," part of

the Hunt of the Unicorn series. Southern
Netherlands, 1495-1505, wool warp;
wool, silk, silver, and gilt wefts, 3.68 x
3.79 m. The Metropolitan Museum of
Art, The Cloisters, Gift of John D.
Rockefeller, Jr., 37.80.2.

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 papal palace in Viterbo (1266/67)/9 Park of Hesdin in France (1295?
1302), and the royal palace (begun in the first half of the fourteenth
century) near the Danube at Visegr?d in Hungary (fig. 5).20 The last,
centralized in plan, is closely allied in its architectural format?its central
column and surrounding arcade?with the contemporary table fountain
in Cleveland. Undoubtedly some of the fountains appearing in late
Gothic manuscripts suggest that they were fixtures in a palace garden or
courtyard. An intriguing example is in the background of a miniature of
St. Catherine in Cleveland's Hours of Queen Isabella the Catholic (fig. 6).21
This fountain has a large hexagonal basin with projecting pipes from
which streams of water splatter into the surrounding pool. A central stem,
apparently with clustered colonnettes and additional spouts, supports an
architectural superstructure that recalls Gothic monstrances.22
Miniature fountains or automata, the exquisite products of goldsmiths
working in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, were intended, as were
Fig. 5. Fountain. Hungary, c. 1340?50,
their larger counterparts, for aristocratic amusement and pleasure. Along
stone. Royal Palace, Visegr?d, Hungary.
with the frequent inventory citations, the Cleveland fountain authenti
Fig. 6. Master of the Older Prayer Book
cates this type, which was recently and fully discussed by Stephen
of Maximilian I (Alexander Bening).
Fliegel.25
"Saint Catherine," detail, fol. i8gv of
The iconographie content of many of the fountains, regardless of loca
the Hours of Isabella the Catholic, Queen
tion and size, is often complex and subtle, in either a Christian or a secu
of Spain, c. 1497?1500, tempera and gold
on parchment, 22.6 x 15.2 cm. The lar sense. Foremost in the study of Christian symbolism is the pioneering
Cleveland Museum of Art, Leonard C.
and detailed analysis published by Paul Underwood in 1950.24 He began
Hanna, Jr. Fund 1963.256.
with an investigation of the concepts and architectural form of the baptis
tery in the basilica of St. John Lateran in Rome, examining their impact
on images of the Fountain of Life (fons vitae) in manuscripts of the
Carolingian period. One example, from the early ninth-century Gospels
of Saint M?dard of Soissons, court atelier of Charlemagne (fig. 7), depicts
a basin framed by eight columns topped off with a dome, reminiscent of
the Lateran baptistery. Biblical sources (Romans 6:3?4 and John 3:5) and
the presence of four harts (stags) are part of the baptism context. The
meaning of the Lateran baptismal font is greatly developed through its
inscription, attributed to the future Pope Leo but actually installed by
Sixtus III: "This is the Fountain of Life, which purges the whole world,
taking its course from the wound of Christ."25 The inscription led
Underwood to observe that more than just a baptismal font was repre
sented, as evident in his statement: "There can be no doubt... that in
Lateran circles, after about 435, the Lateran font.. . was regarded as the
Fountain of Life."26 Interestingly, the Lateran inscription also includes a
reference to the water of baptism receiving "the old, but bring forth
new."27
One wonders whether this concept led to the popularity of the foun
tains of youth in the later Middle Ages. In any case, Underwood traced
these ideas and others in portions of the early sacramentarles?the rite
that begins "benedictio fontis," which precedes baptism and continues to
this day in the Missale Romanum: "May it become a living fountain, a
regenerating water, a purifying stream ... who may thee flow out of his
side, together with his blood"28 and "Here may human nature ... be
cleansed from the filth of the old man that all... may be born again new
children."29 Through a text from one of Leo's sermons, Underwood
proposed that the manuscript illustration of the baptismal font in the
Gospels of St M?dard of Soissons was also a symbol of the womb of both
the Virgin and the Mother Church.50

10

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Fig. 7. Fountain of Life, Paradise or
Eden. Fol. 6v in the Gospels of Saint
M?dard of Soissons, court atelier of
Charlemagne, early 9th century, tem
pera on parchment, 239 fols., 36.2 x
26.7 cm. Biblioth?que Nationale de
France, Paris, Ms. Lat. 8850.
Fig. 8. Claus Sluter and Claus de Werve. supplying the needs of the monks, as a kind of conduit center or house at
The Moses Fountain, France, Burgundy,
1396?1405, stone with polychromy, basin,
diam. 7.15?7.2 m; hexagonal pier, h. 5.2
m. Chartreuse de Champmol, near Dijon.
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The Fountain of Life with its allied meanings (Paradise, Eden, bap
tism, and salvation) continued in vogue in varying ways as the Middle
Ages unfolded in Europe. A few important instances, representative of
different locations and contexts, are singled out here and arranged
roughly in chronological order.
The first of two examples appearing within a monastic setting is the
enormous stone fountain of around 1200 that once stood in the south
wing of the cloister of the royal abbey church at Saint-Denis.5' The sur
viving upper basin, with carved heads running around the outer edge
below the lip, measures 3.81 meters in diameter. Relatively shallow, this
basin rested on sixteen columns set in a larger basin, all of which have
been lost. (The original arrangement is known from a sixteenth-century
drawing.) The sculpted heads on the extant basin, which project from
saucer-shaped medallions, alternate with foliated quatrefoils fitted with
waterspouts, now replaced. Willibald Sauerl?nder provided a vivid de
scription of the motley assemblage represented, including "cosmological
and moralizing motifs, cheek by jowl with gods, heroes, and mythical
figures from classical antiquity" in an ensemble?a rare, monumental
witness "to the survival of classical deities in the Middle Ages, which is
otherwise reflected solely in illustrated encyclopedias."52
Yet the concept of the Fountain of Life must have been understood
when the fountain at Saint-Denis was created. It must have been espe
cially significant within the monastic context of a royal abbey for a mon
archy that went back to Charlemagne. After all, in 781 Charlemagne had
one of his sons, Pipin, baptized in the Lateran font.55 The sculptural style
of the carvings on the font at Saint-Denis suggests a date around 1200, as
does the lost inscription attributing the project to the instigation of an
Abbot Hugo, who is identifiable with one of two abbots, Hugh Foucauld
(1186?97) or Hugh of Milan (d. 1204).54
The Moses Fountain (fig. 8), a very different monumental stone
sculpture popularly called the "Well of Moses," at the center of the large
cloister at the Chartreuse de Champmol was the 1395 commission of the
Burgundian duke Philip the Bold.55 The construction and carving of the
sculptures was completed by 1405 by Claus Sluter (c. 1342?1406) and his
nephew Claus de Werve (c. 1380?c. 1439). The original work, fully
polychromed, was a high pedestal (h. 5.2 m) supporting a Calvary group
at the top (now lost except for the head and torso of the dead Christ).
Grouped around the middle portion of the pedestal are the powerful
standing figures of six Old Testament prophets, each holding a long iden
tifying scroll: Moses, David, Jeremiah, Zachariah, Daniel, and Isaiah.
The thin colonnettes between the imposing figures support six statuettes
of mourning angels whose wings spread out beneath the deep moldings
of the entablature.
The plain ashlar masonry of the hexagonal base below stands in the
center of an open basin whose interior measures 7.15?7.2 meters. This
was designed to handle the abundant flow of water notable at the site,
and the superstructure was obviously not intended for a utilitarian pur
pose because it lacked the spouts for jets of water. The water in the deep
basin, while "clear and circulatory,"56 could have served as a reservoir for
the crossroads for an underground system of pipes leading to the monks'
cells similar to the arrangement recorded for the London Charterhouse.57
11
 The meaning of this remarkable work is partially based on the rela
tionship of the Calvary, prophesied by the figures below, with the well or
fountain of living water, the Fountain of Life, and the concepts of death
and resurrection, everlasting life, and salvation. Located in the center of
the vast rectangular cloister surrounded by the cells of the Carthusian
monks, this monument was undoubtedly the focus of the monks' medita
tion on the Passion of Christ. Papal indulgences granted visiting pilgrims
the privilege of access to the cloister on feast days.58
The first of two civic fountains for consideration here is the Fontana
Maggiore, the large marble fountain in the Piazza Maggiore in Perugia
(fig. 9), completed in 1278 and with sculptures by Nicola Pisano (active
1258?1278), his son, Giovanni Pisano (c. 1250?after 1314), and their
workshop. It consists of three basins, of which the lower two are large and
polygonal. The lowest one has twenty-five sides, each with two vertical
rectangular reliefs depicting the Labors of the Months, the Liberal Arts,
fables (Romulus and Remus), heraldic beasts, and scenes from the Old
Testament. Twenty-four columns surrounding an additional thirty-four
columns support the smaller twelve-sided basin above. This level displays
twenty-four figures depicting various personifications and representa
tions of cities, localities, Old Testament personages, saints, and contempo
rary persons. Above this basin, a single bronze column supports a smaller
round basin and a vertical spout held up by three bronze female figures,
or caryatids. The iconographie program combines both religious and civic

Fig. 9. Nicola Pisano and Giovanni

Pisano. Fontana Maggiore, Italy,
Perugia, completed 1278, marble. Piazza
Maggiore, Perugia, Italy.

12

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 elements, which is in keeping with the fountain's location between the
Duomo and the Palazzo Comunale.59 Described as "the religious and
political summa, the Speculum of sacred and profane" and as a kind of
medieval encyclopedia, this great fountain has also been seen for its
reference to Paradise, as an image of a heavenly city, a location of the
Fountain of Life.40
The most complex and intricate of all the urban fountains in Northern
Europe and the most imposing monument to the civic pride of the impe
rial free city of Nuremberg was the polychromed stone Sch?ner Brunnen
(Beautiful Fountain), as it has been called since the early fifteenth cen
tury (fig. 10).41 A complex work, it was developed in the years 1385?96
under the direction of Heinrich Parlier, the master named in the docu
ments. Scholars believe that this may have been Heinrich Beheim the
Elder, known to have been active in Nuremberg from 1363 to 1406. The
complex has suffered: the original remnants were removed to museums
in Berlin and Nuremberg. The fountain seen in its place in the market
square today is a facsimile dating from 1897?1902.
On the original fountain, an octagonal basin sitting on a stepped ped
estal formed the base for the three levels of Gothic openwork arches and
pinnacles that rose to great height. At the very top was a cruciform finial.
The sixteen large statues at the lowest level depicted the seven electors of
the Holy Roman Empire and the Nine Heroes, standing in pairs. Eight
smaller figures above represented Moses and seven Old Testament

Fig. 10. Heinrich Parlier (Heinrich

Beheim the Elder?) and workshop.
Sch?ner Brunnen, 1385?96, gray lime
stone for the original (a replica of 1897?
1902 is illustrated here). Hauptmarkt,
Nuremberg.

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 prophets. Eight Christian authors?the Four Evangelists and four Latin
church fathers (Jerome, Augustine, Ambrose, and Gregory)?formerly
appeared on double pillars standing within the basin. Nearby, a still
lower level, could be seen references to Philosophy and her daughters:
Grammar, Dialectic, Rhetoric, Arithmetic, Geometry, Music, and As
tronomy. They could have been represented by prominent practitioners
in antiquity, Aristotle and others, though this is not certain.
Rainer Kashnitz observed that the emphasis on the number eight in
this complicated work "derives from the tradition of the Christian
baptismal font."42 As noted previously, octagonal fonts, going back to the
Lateran baptismal font, postulated the Early Christian concept of the
Fountain of Life and salvation. Other elements of the Nuremberg
fountain's program stressed ideas of civil order within the Holy Roman
Empire, knightly and princely virtues, the teachings of the Church, heav
enly justice, and justice on Earth.
At least two works related to the life and taste of Jean, duke of Berry
and prince of France, clearly refer to the Fountain of Life. The first refer
ence is in the famous miniature of the Garden of Eden or Paradise with
the Fall of Man and the Expulsion in the Tr?s Riches Heures painted by
the Limbourg brothers (active 1402?1416) around 1411?16 (fig. 11).45 In
the center of a walled garden stands a tall, centralized architectural
structure in the form of an openwork Gothic tower or lantern supported
on eight columns bearing pointed arches. Above are tall, crocketed pin
nacles, flying buttresses, and a trefoil finial at the apex. Within the
spacious arcade of the lower portion is a central support of clustered

Fig. il. Pol, Herman, and Jean de

Limbourg (active France 1402?16). The
Garden of Paradise or Eden, fol. 25 V of
the Tr?s Riches Heures de Jean Duc de
Berry, France, ca. 1411?16, tempera and
gold on parchment, 29 x 21 cm. Mus?e
Cond?, Chantilly, Ms 65.

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Fig. 12. Reverse of a medal with an
equestrian portrait of Emperor
Constantine showing an allegory of Sal
vation. France, Paris, 1402?13 (model),
16th century (cast), bronze, 9.5 cm. The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of
Mr. and Mrs. Alain Moatti, 1988,
1988.133.
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colonnettes, capitals, and lion-mask spouts that arises out of a hexagonal
water-filled basin whose sides are enhanced by paired, blind Gothic ar
cades. The lantern portion is closely related both to the upper segment of
the Sedilia of about 1405 from the duke's Ste.-Chapelle at Bourges, and to
the architectural monument of Montjoie in the scene illustrating the
Meeting of the Magi on another page in the Tr?s Riches Heures (fol.
51V).44 During the Crusades, such monuments are said to have marked
the hills from which the distant Jerusalem could be seen, though in this
miniature key Parisian buildings can be identified at the horizon. More
important, in our context, the fountain in the Garden of Eden can be un
derstood as a monastic fountain or conduit house, as at the Chartreuse of
Champmol (fig. 8) and in the Chartreuse in London.45 The scheme de
vised by the Limbourgs partially recalls that of the Carolingian painter in
the Soissons Gospels symbolizing the Fountain of Life (fig. 7). In its con
figuration of Gothic architectural elements, the Limbourgs' fountain also
recalls such fourteenth-century examples as the restored fountain in the
royal palace at Visegr?d (fig. 5) and the Cleveland table fountain (fig. 1).
Jean de Berry, renowned as a collector, acquired several medals in 1402
representing various Roman emperors. The designs of some of these
medals have been variously attributed to contemporary artists, the
Limbourg brothers themselves, or to Michelet Saulmon (active 1401?
1415), a painter in the duke's employ. The original medals, which have
disappeared, are known today from several later bronze copies. One
medal, with an equestrian portrait of the emperor Constantine on the
obverse, depicts on the reverse an allegory of salvation (fig. 12).46 The
central image on the reverse shows two spouts at the top of a cross spray
ing streams of water down on a strangely petaled flowering plant and a
round basin. The water can be seen flowing on through an open niche
below. The inventory prepared for the duke in 1413 by Robert d'Etampes
describes this image as "une fontainne ou il a un arbre, et dedens ledit
arbre une croix."47 As Millard Meiss observed, both the lignum vitae (tree
of life) and the fans vitae are represented. Moreover, the flowering plant/
tree vaguely resembles the pinecone fountain in Rome48 and a second one
in Aachen; both can be identified with the early Christian Fountain of
Life. The central image on the reverse may be related as well to the cen
tral portion of the apse mosaic in the basilica in the Lateran. That image
shows the dove of the Holy Ghost emitting jets of water onto the cross
standing in a water-filled basin that empties into the four rivers of
Paradise.49
While there are many other references to the Fountain of Life, only
one more, a major example, is cited here to further illustrate the theme.
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Fig. 13. Hubert and Jan van Eyck.
Ghent Altarpiece, detail of the panel
with "Adoration of the Lamb," 1432, oil
on panel, 134.3 x 237.5 cm. St. Bavo,
Ghent.
Fig. 14. The Fountain of Youth, detail of
the front plaque of a casket with scenes
from romances. France, Paris, 1330?50,
elephant ivory, 11.5 x 24.6 x 12.4 cm for
the entire casket. The Walters Art
Museum (formerly the Walters Art
Gallery), Baltimore, 71.264.
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This is the lower central panel of the giant polytych the Ghent Altarpiece
(fig. 13).50 Here a multitude of various personages from the Old and New
Testaments, church fathers, saints, and others gather on either side of the
verdant garden of Paradise to adore the Lamb of God, who stands on an
altar at the center. The Fountain of Life, which appears in the central
foreground, comprises a thin brass column topped by a diminutive
winged figure of an angel presiding over two registers of waterspouts in
the form of fantastic beasts, the lower series being winged. The streams
of water fall into a stone octagonal basin with colored panels inset along
its sides. An animal-head mask at the lower edge of the basin serves as a
spout from which a stream of water flows into a channel leading to the
lower edge of the painting itself, seemingly to "assure the celebrant that
he too will be cleansed by the waters of life"51 as he performs the Mass at
the actual altar set beneath the painting. Variations of this theme of the
Fountain of Life in the large panels in the Prado in Madrid and in the
Allen Memorial Art Museum at Oberlin College may reflect either the
Ghent Altarpiece or another composition by Jan van Eyck now lost.52 The
Prado panel by a Spanish follower of the van Eycks is generally dated to
the 1450s, whereas the Oberlin example has been considered early six
teenth century or later.
Two additional allegorical fountains, the Fountain of Youth and the
Fountain of Love, were popular subjects in aristocratic circles in the later
Middle Ages. Both types are allied with the concept of the enclosed gar
den of Paradise, and both adapt forms from some examples of the Foun
tain of Life.55 The Fountain of Youth has a distant basis in the sacrament
of baptism as referred to in a portion of the fifth-century inscription on
the Lateran font and the subsequent texts of the early sacramentarles.
Yet both the Fountain of Youth and the Fountain of Love are primarily
profane in their natures and subjects, which derive from episodes in ro
mance literature.
The basis for the Fountain of Youth may be found for example in the
Roman dAlexander written by Alexander de Paris around 1180 and in the
satirical Roman de Fauvel by Gervais Du Bus.54 The illustration of the
latter shows a large and deep round basin, a central rectangular column
with Gothic tracery arches, and an upper basin with five animal-head
i6
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 i
Fig. 15. Front plaque of a dis
mantled casket with scenes from
romances. France or Germany,
Lorraine or Lower Rhine?, second
quarter of the 14th century, elephant
ivory, 9.7 x 25.9 x 0.8 cm for the
entire plaque. The Cleveland Mu
seum of Art, John L. Severance
Fund 1978.39a. The Fountain of
Youth is depicted at the extreme
left.
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spouts, above which are two wyvern spouts in profile. The elderly with
canes or crutches approach from the right. Those individuals beneath the
water flowing from the animal-head spouts are made youthful; rejuve
nated, they exit to the left while dressing themselves.
Several fourteenth-century ivory caskets with romance subjects in
clude versions of this story, as seen in the examples in the Walters Art
Museum (fig. 14) and the Cleveland museum (fig. 15).55 The front of the
Walters casket confines the scene to the two sections at the right. A
walled garden is indicated by the garden gate, and the single rejuvenated
figure emerges in the upper left section; the foliage in the lower fore
ground at the right suggests the interior of the garden. The font has two
basins, one above the other. The upper one is remarkable for its giant lion
masks spewing water onto the tight group of youthful nude couples
below. The scene in the Cleveland casket front?while disfigured by the
broken edges and the postmedieval recarving of the scene divider?is
limited to only one section of the four on this plaque, resulting in a fur
ther contraction of the sequences of the story. The heads of the elderly
appear above and beyond the wall of the garden, before which is placed a
curiously amusing bladder-like fountain head with two animal heads
spouting water onto the two youthful couples standing in the water be
low. The garden setting is emphasized by the plants and the bird perched
on top of the fountain head. Many of the figures in this story as it appears
on these ivory caskets are caricatures, underscoring their ridiculous quest.
The fountains depicted always have two animal-head spouts on the upper
vessel and a large basin below for the cluster of young bathers. Similar
fountains appear in the illustrations of other subjects on the ivory ro
mance caskets of the fourteenth century: Tristan and Isolde spied upon
by King Mark,56 and the death of Pyramus and Thisbe at the fountain.57
The Fountain of Love is the occasion for even more frequent portray
als of such watery fixtures. Representations appear in various late medi
eval paintings, manuscript illustrations, graphics, and tapestries. Italian
examples may be seen on painted marriage salvers?such as one in the
Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart of about 1420 by Mariotto di Nasdo (1394?1424)
entitled Teseido (after Giovanni Boccacio, 1313?1375) but occasionally
called the Love Garden5*?and on marriage chests.59 There are many
!7
Fig. 16. Narcissus. Tapestry hanging, BM^HP^^^H
France or South Netherlands, c. 1500, IHHV^JI^PBI
wool and silk, 2.82 x 3.11 m. Museum of 5BtHwL\SB^E
Fine Arts, Boston, Charles Potter Kling ?SJ^B?iBB
Fund, 1968, 68.114. ^fi|m

permutations of these freestanding fountains, which arise from the stories

found in different literary sources.60 The Roman de la Rose, written by
Guillaume de Lorris around 1230 and completed by Jean de Meung be
fore 1270, served as the principal inspiration.6'
In a tapestry referring to the Roman de la Rose, the sad story of
Narcissus not only exposes Narcissus's dandyish appearance but also dis
plays a magnificent fountain with a large decorated hexagonal basin,
faceted central column, superimposed foliate capitals, and lion-head
spouts issuing long streams of water into the pool in the basin (fig. 16).62
The Hausbuch (Housebook) manuscript created in the Middle Rhine
region around 1480 contains among its many fine colored and pen draw
ings two scenes with amorous couples, each with a distinctive fountain.63
The first, which appears in the courtyard outside a bathhouse (fols. i8v?
igr) (fig. 17), seems to refer to a work cut in stone: a massive polygonal
base supports a stout twisted column that in turn holds a round basin of
water and a young shield-bearer, who blows on his upraised horn ejecting
a vertical stream of water. The figures and couples seated or strolling
about the courtyard seem to suggest the leisurely and subtle communica
tion between the sexes, which cautiously continues within the bathhouse.
The second fountain in the Hausbuch appears in the scene depicting
the Garden of Love (fols. 24V?25r) (fig. 18). This fountain seems to be of
cast metal, presumably brass, yet of a different design from the one fash
ioned by the Master W with a Key (see fig. 2). In the Hausbuch page, a
round base of multiple sections supports a tall segmented column and a
broad molded basin into which two lion spouts spew streams of water
from halfway up the column. Slighter versions of such metal stems for
fountains may be seen in the paintings by the van Eycks. Three nude
pipers blow streams of water upward in the Hausbuch page.
A glimpse of the full panorama of fountains appearing throughout the
Middle Ages and into the early sixteenth century has allowed an initial
segregation by location: monastic cloister, town square, private gardens,

i8

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Fig. 17. Courtyard for a Bathhouse. Fol.
i8v in Hausbuch, Germany, Middle
Rhine, c. 1480, pen and ink, wash color,
gold, and silver on vellum, 30 x 19.2 cm.
Collection of the Princes zu Waldburg
Wolfegg at Schloss Wolfegg (near
Ravensburg), Germany.

1 n'wfi

???.JP?f.. : ??-?^v: . ?:.,-.- - -. * m

as well as palace gardens and courtyards and aristocratic or princely in

riors (for automata in gold and silver). The underlying iconographies
many fountains are subtle and sometimes complex. The Christian co
cept of the Fountain of Life from the Soissons Gospels, fountains with
encyclopedic characteristics (Saint-Denis, Perugia, Nuremberg), foun
tains with expressions of imperial order and civic pride (Nuremberg),
fountains profane in nature and reflecting romance literature (founta

Fig. 18. The Garden of Love, detail. Fol. '"?* ^ ^ * '** ' ** **- '?
24V in Hausbuch, Germany, Middle ' ''' "'" ^ 'w-i ?
Rhine, c. 1480, pen and ink, wash color, V?W .
gold, and silver on vellum, 30 x 19.2 cm. fT" * Vf
Collection of the Princes zu Waldburg- ^^. jfe t? V1 /
Wolfegg at Schloss Wolfegg (near Hfif dfc^A 1 ??f
Ravensburg), Germany. bB^Ll, jQ ^wJ^S^aJLJir

fW^^zrWr' "**^ * , - ^

!9

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 of youth and of love) all found a vital place as the Middle Ages
progressed.
The traditional yet evolving range of forms and conventions, espe
cially in the late Gothic period, realized certain preferences, including a
large octagonal, hexagonal, polygonal, quatrefoil, round, or rectangular
basin at the base.64 Centered in this basin, a column might support a sec
ond smaller basin or vessel. Animal-head waterspouts could occur at
different levels. Pipers blowing water through their upturned musical
instruments or seated lions spewing water sometimes served as finials. At
times the upper part of a fountain resembled a Gothic monstrance.65 In
other examples, the architectural surrounds of a fountain became visually
dominant.66 The materials were stone or brass.67
Observant and thoughtful travelers, while delighting in the form and
splashing water of a particular fountain, might well seek deeper mean
ings. Jean de Meun in the second part of the Roman de la Rose provides
his sense of this wider significance:

When God whose glory is above

All measurement, in bounteous love
Created nature, he did make
Of her a fountain, whence should break
Unceasingly a thousand rills
Of beauty, which the whole world fills,
This fount wells ever and cannot
By time be wasted as I wot,
More high than heaven, and than the sea,
More deep; 'tis called immensity.68

20

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 NOTES

(Austin, 1991), 91-120, 330-49, pis. 27

This study is offered in honor of Henry
H. Hawley, a former colleague, whose 87, 89, pis. I, IL
distinguished scholarship and fine taste
7. Richard Krautheimer, Early Chris
have set a wonderful example for those
who follow. tian and Byzantine Architecture (Balti
more, 1965), 36, pi. 7; Ulrich Schulze,
Brunnen im Mittelalter, Politische
The citations within the notes belowIkonographie
are der Kommunen in Italien,
vol. 209 of Europ?ische Hochschul
listed in chronological order.
schriften, series 28, "Kunstgeschichte"
i. William D. Wixom, "Early Christian(Frankfurt-am-Main/Bern/New York,
Sculptures at Cleveland," Bulletin of L994X figs. 17-18, 39
The Cleveland Museum of Art [hereafter
8. Krautheimer, Early Christian and
CMA Bulletin] 54 (1967), 66-88K,
Byzantine Architecture, 36.
cover and figs. 23-32, 34, 38, 43, 58.

2. William M. Milliken, "A Table 9. Maurice Daumas, A History of Tech

nology and Invention: Progress Through
Fountain of the 14th Century," CMA
the Ages, transi. Eileen B. Hennessy
Bulletin 12 (1925), cover, 36?39;
(London, 1980), 2: 120?23, 520?21;
Wixom, Treasures from Medieval
Catherine Gou?do-Thomas, "Les
France, exh. cat., Cleveland Museum of
fontaines medievales, images et
Art (1967), 250-51, 376, no. VI18;
Stephen N. Fliegel, "The Clevelandr?alit?," M?langes de V?colefran?aise
Table Fountain and Gothic Automata," de Rome. Moyen Age 104 (1992), 511?13.

10. 7Enlart, Manuel dArch?ologie, 284?

Cleveland Studies in the History of Art
(2002), 6-49, figs. 1, 2, 5-10, 29. 86, 288?300, figs. 155?57; Werner
Lindner, Sch?ne Brunnen in Deutsch
3. Henry Sayles Francis, "A Gothic
land (Berlin, 1920), 32, 92, 110?11, 228?
Table Fountain and an Engraved De
29, 289; Colasanti, Le Fontane dltalia,
sign for One by the Master W with a
28-29, 31, 33-35, 37; John Pope
Key," Print Collector's Quarterly 26
Hennessy, Italian Gothic Sculpture
(April 1939), 224?37; Marilyn Stokstad,
(New York/London, 1955), 7, 177?78,
Gardens of the Middle Ages, exh. cat.,
pl. 11, figs. 51?53; Walter Kiewert, Der
Spencer Museum of Art, University of
Sch?ne Brunnen (Dresden, 1956), 6, 8?
Kansas (1983), 156-57, no. 31.
10, 12; Naomi Miller, French Renais
4. Max Lehrs, Geschichte und Kritischer
sance Fountains (New York/London,
Katalog des deutschen, niederl?ndischen
1977), 6, fig. 1; Rainer Kashnitz, in
Gothic and Renaissance Art in Nurem
und franz?sischen Kupferstichs im XV.
Jahrhundert (Vienna, 1932), 8: 369?71, berg 1300?1550, exh. cat., Metropolitan
pl. 250, no. 596. Museum of Art, New York/German
5. Horst W. Janson, "A Late Medieval isches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg
Fountain Design," Bulletin of the Fogg York/Nuremberg/Munich,
(New
Museum of Art 8 (November 1938), 1986), 11? 132?35, no. 14; Erhard Metz and
l7 Gerd Spies, Der Braunschweiger
Brunnen auf dem Altstadtmarkt, vol. 9
6. Camille Enlart, Manuel d Arch?ologie
of Braunschweiger Werkst?cke (Braun
(Paris, 1904), 286?88, figs. 17, 154; schweig, 1988); Johann Christian
Werner Lindner, Sch?ne Brunnen in Klamt, "Fonteien in Middeleeuwse
Deutschland (Berlin, 1920), fig. 138;Tuinen," Tuinen in de Middeleeuwen
Arduino Colasanti, Le Fontane d'Italia (Utrechte Bijdragen Tot de Medi?vistiek
(Milan/Rome, 1926), 20; Phillip Maria
11) (x992)> iy?r%*? figs- 9a-b; Schulze,
Halm, Altbayern und Schwaben, vol.Brunnen
1 of im Mittelalter, 231, 280?81,
Studien zur s?ddeutschen Plastik
figs. 48?49, 70; Christine B. Verzar,
"The Semiotics of the Public Monu
(Augsburg, 1927), 96-117, figs. 94-96,
101,106, 111?12; Wolf gang Braunfels,
ment in 13th- and 14th-century City
Monasteries of Western Europe (Lon
Squares: Civic Values and Political
don, 1972) 103; Kathleen Morand, Authority:
Claus Vox Civitas," in Arte
d'Occidente: terni e metodh Studi in onore
Sluter, Artist at the Court of Burgundy

21

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 diAngiolo Maria Romanini (Rome,
1999X 26o, 262, 363, figs. 3, 4, 7, 8.
11. Colasanti, Le Fontana dltalia, 30, 36;
Pope-Hennessy, Italian Gothic Sculpture,
214, figs. 89?91; Kievert, Der Sch?ne
Brunnen, 10, 13, 15; N. Miller, French
Renaissance Fountains, 7; Wixom, in
Gothic and Renaissance Art in Nurem
berg, 136?37, no. 17; Verzar, "The
Semiotics of the Public Monument,"
262?63.
12. Wixom, in Gothic and Renaissance
Art in Nuremberg, 136?37, no. 16, the so
called Hansel.
13. Daumas, A History of Technology, 2:
123; N. Miller, French Renaissance Foun
tains, 9, fig. 7; Schulze, Brunnen im
Mittelalter, 191, 272, figs. 38, 66.
14. Wixom, "Early Christian Sculptures
at Cleveland," 88g-h.
15. Millard Meiss, French Painting in the
Time of Jean de Berry, The Late Four
teenth Century and the Patronage of the
Duke (London/New York, 1967), 1: 55?
56, 2: fig. 470.
16. Erwin Panofsky, Early Netherlandish
Painting (Cambridge, Mass., 1953), 186?
87, 209, 216, pis. 126, 146; Otto Pacht,
Van Eyck and the Founders of Early
Netherlandish Painting (London, 1994),
84, fig. 74, pis. 15, 24; Fliegel, "Cleve
land Table Fountain," 28?29, fig. 26.
17. Lola Sleptzoff, "Fontaines mystiques
et fontaines profanes dans l'art du ^?me
si?cle," Scripta Hierosolymitana 24
(1972), 46; Margaret B. Freeman, The
Unicorn Tapestries (New York, 1976),
68?84, pis. 2, 81, 96, 100, 106, 108;
Adolfo Salvatore Cavallo, Medieval Tap
estries in The Metropolitan Museum of
Art (New York, 1993), 297?327, no. 20b,
detail on 301.
18. Schulze, Brunnen im Mittelalter, fig.
27.
19. Millard Miller, "Paradise Regained:
Medieval Garden Fountains," Medieval
Gardens: Dumbarton Oaks Colloquium
on the History of Landscape Architecture
9 (Washington, 1986), 142?44; Schulze,
Brunnen im Mittelalter, figs. 41?42.
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20. Mikl?s Hejj, The Royal Palace at
Visegr?d (Budapest, 1977), 33, pis. 16?
18. This large, central-plan fountain,
made of stone and nearly freestanding,
bears Anjou emblems and has been
attributed to the time of Louis I (the
Great) (reigned 1342?82).
21. See Patrick M. De Winter, "A Book
of Hours of Isabel la Cat?lica," CMA
Bulletin 67 (1981), 342?427; Marilyn
Stokestad, "The Garden as Art," in
Medieval Gardens (Washington, 1986),
180, fig. 5.
22. This feature is similar to the upper
portion of the Madonna and Child in
the Rose Garden, an early fifteenth
century fountain by Stefano da Zevio
(c. 1375?1451) in the Museo di Castel
vecchio in Verona. Jacques Dupont and
Cesare Gnudi, Gothic Painting
(Lausanne, 1954), 187 (color pi.);
Sleptzoff, "Fontaines mystiques et
fontaines profanes dans l'art du ^?rne
si?cle," 45; M. Miller, "Paradise Re
gained," 151; Klamt, "Fonteien in
middeleeuwse tuinen," 187?88, fig. 5
(detail of the fountain).
23. See note 2 above.
24. Paul Atkins Underwood, "Fountain
of Life in Manuscripts," Dumbarton
Oaks Papers 5 (1950), 41?138; M.
Miller, "Paradise Regained," 138?40.
25. Underwood, "Fountain of Life in
Manuscripts," 55.
26. Ibid., 54.
27. Ibid., 55-56
28. Ibid., 60.
29. Ibid., 59.
30. Ibid., 71.
31. Willibald Sauerl?nder, "Art antique
et sculpture autour de 1200: Saint
Denis, Lisieux, Chartres," Art de France
(1961), 47?56; Sauerl?nder, Gothic
Sculpture in France ii^o?^o (New
York, 1972), 20, 41, 420, pl. 65; N.
Miller, French Renaissance Fountains,
8-9 n. 7.
32. Sauerl?nder, Gothic Sculpture in
France 1140?1270, 420.
33. Underwood, "Fountain of Life in
Manuscripts," 64?65.
22
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
34- Sauerl?nder, Gothic Sculpture in
France, 420.
35. For other illustrations, see Morand,
Claus Sluter, 91?120, 330?49, pis. 27?
87, 89, pis. I, IL
36. Ibid., 97.
37. W. H. St. John Hope, The History of
the London Charterhouse (London,
1925), 127?28; W. H. Grimes, Charter
house (London/New York/Toronto,
1955X 7> 33_36> % Morand, Claus
Sluter, 94, fig. 25.
38. Morand, Claus Sluter, 93.
39. Colasanti, Le Fontane dltalia, pis.
22?27, Pope-Hennessey, Italian Gothic
Sculpture, 7, 177?78, pi. 11, figs. 51?53.
40. The quotation is from M. Miller,
"Paradise Regained," 148, fig. 9; see
also Schulze, Brunnen im Mittelalter,
280?81, fig. 70; Verzar, "The Semiotics
of the Public Monument," 262?63, figs.
3.7
41. Kashnitz, in Gothic and Renaissance
Art in Nuremberg, 132; Verzar, "The
Semiotics of the Public Monument,"
263.
42. Kashnitz, in Gothic and Renaissance
Art in Nuremberg, 133.
43. Jean Longnon et al., The Tr?s
Riches Heures of Jean, Duke of Berry
(New York, 1969), no. 20 (color pi.);
Millard Meiss, French Painting in the
Time of Jean de Berry, The Limbourgs
and Their Contemporaries (New York,
1974), 1: 230, 2: fig. 558; M. Miller,
"Paradise Regained," 137, fig. 1.
44. Millard Meiss, "French and Italian
Variations on an Early Fifteen-Century
Theme: St. Jerome in His Study," Ga
zette des Beaux-Arts 62 (1963), 162, 167,
fig. 22; Longnon, Tr?s Riches Heures,
no. 48 (color pi.); Klamt, "Fonteien in
Mideleeuwse tuinen," 180?81, fig. 1.
45. See note 37 above.
46. Meiss, French Painting, Late Four
teenth Century, 1: 55?56, 2: fig. 463;
Meiss, French Painting, The Limbourgs,
1: 64-65, 130-31, 156, 2: fig. 268;
William D. Wixom, ed., Mirror of the
Medieval World, exh. cat., Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York (1999), 168,
no. 204.
47- Meiss, French Painting, The Late
Fourteenth Century, 55.
48. Ibid., 56.
49. Schulze, Brunnen im Mittelalter, fig.
15
50. See note 16 above. See also Evelyn
Underhill, "Fountain of Life: An Icono
graphical Study," Burlington Magazine
17 (May 1910), 103; Sleptzoff,
"Fontaines mystiques et fontaines pro
fanes," 43, no. 5, 53.
51. James Snyder, Northern Renaissance
Art, Painting, Sculpture, Graphic Arts
from i? jo to 1575 (New York, 1985), 92.
52. Wolfgang Stechnow, Catalogue of
European and American Painting and
Sculpture in the Allen Memorial Art
Museum, Oberlin College (Oberlin,
Ohio, 1967), 140?42, illus. on 42; Lotte
Brand Philip, The Ghent Altarpiece and
the Art of Jan van Eyck (Princeton,
1971), 11?12, figs. 19?20; Pacht, Van
Eyck (1994), 133-34. fig- 79
53. Sleptzoff, "Fontaines mystiques et
fontaines profanes," 42?57; N. Miller,
French Renaissance Fountains, 21?24;
M. Miller, "Paradise Regained," 137?
53; Gou?do-Thomas, "Les fontaines
medievales," 507?17.
54. David J. A. Ross, "Allegory and
Romance on a Medieval French Mar
riage Casket," Journal of the Warburg
and Courtauld Institutes 11 (1948), 125?
28, pis. 26b, 27b; Les manuscrits ?
peintures en France du XHIe au XVIe
si?cle (Paris, 1955), no. 46; Anna Rapp,
Der Jungbrunnen in Literature und
bildende Kunst des Mittelalters (Z?rich,
1976), 29, 121, fig. 1; Fran?ois Avril,
Manuscript Painting at the Court of
France, The Fourteenth Century (1310?
1)80) (New York, 1978), 11?12, fig. 1;
Fliegel, "Cleveland Table Fountain,"
32, fig. 28.
55. Rapp, Der Jungbrunnen in Litera
ture, 51-53,122?23, fig- 5 (Cleveland
panels); Richard H. Randal Jr., Master
pieces of Ivory from the Walters Art
Gallery (New York, 1985), 224?25, no.
324; William D. Wixom, "Eleven
Additions to the Medieval Collection,"
CMA Bulletin 66 (1979), 116,119, figs.
56. 63, 66.
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56. Richard H. Randal Jr., The Golden 66. For example, see figs. 4, 6, 7, 9, 10,
Age of Ivory, Gothic Carvings in North 13, and 16. For a less imposing example,
American Collections (New York, 1993), see Jean Fouquet's miniature of the
127, no. 192; James A. Rushing, "Adven "Fountain of the Apostles" in the Hours
ture in the Service of Love: Yvain on a of Etienne Chevalier, c. 1452?60, at the
Fourteenth-Century Ivory Panel," Mus?e de Chantilly; N. Miller, French
Zeitschrift f?r Kunstgeschichte 61 (1998), Renaissance Fountains, 19, fig. 16, and
55-57. fig- 1. Jean Fouque? peintre at enlumineur du
XVe si?cle, exh. cat., Biblioth?que Na
57. Charles T. Little, in Wixom, Mirror
tional, Paris (2003), 204 (color pi.), no.
of the Medieval World, no. 156.
24.17.
58. Paul F. Watson, The Garden of Love
67. Examples in brass include two
in Tuscan Art of the Early Renaissance
works in Nuremberg, notes 11 and 12
(Philadelphia/London, 1979), 73, pi. 60;
above; the representations in paintings
M. Miller, "Paradise Regained," 151;
by the van Eycks, note 16 above and fig.
Klamt, "Fonteien in Middeleeuwse
13; and possibly the scheme proposed by
Tuinen," 184?85, fig. 3; see also the
the Master W with a Key, note 3 above
marriage salver painting at the Metro
and fig. 2.
politan Museum of Art, inv. 26.287.2,
Workshop of Lorenzo di Niccol?; 68. The Romance of the Rose, trans. F. S.
Federico Zeri and Elizabeth E. Gardner, Ellis (London, 1900), 3: 55, cited and
Italian Paintings, A Catalogue of the quoted from Freeman, Unicorn Tapes
Collection of The Metropolitan Museum tries, 120.
of Art, Florentine School (New York,
W1), 54~56 PHOTOGRAPHY CREDITS
59. Charles Seymour Jr., Early Italian
Figs. 1, 2, 6, 15: photographs copyright
Paintings in the Yale University Art
The Cleveland Museum of Art; fig. 3:
Gallery (New Haven/London, 1970),
copyright Biblioteca Vaticana; figs. 4,
no. 101, "Florentine School (follower of
12: photographs copyright The Metro
Paolo Schiavo?), first half of the fif
politan Museum of Art, New York; fig.
teenth century."
5: the author; fig. 7: from Ingo F.
60. Sleptzoff, "Fontaines mystiques et Walther and Norbert Wolf, Codices
fontaines profanes," 51. Illustres (Cologne/New York, 2001); fig.
8: from Kathleen Morand, Claus Sluter,
61. M. Miller, "Paradise Regained," 147,
Artist at the Court of Burgundy (Austin,
fig. 8; Gou?do-Thomas, "Les fontaines
1991); fig. 9: copyright Alinari/Art
medievales," 507.
Resource, New York; fig. 10: copyright
62. M. Miller, "Paradise Regained," Stadtarchiv N?rnberg; fig. 11: from Les
146; Michael Camille, The Medieval Art Tr?s Riches Heures du Duc de Berry
of Love: Objects and Subjects of Desire (New York, 1969); fig. 13: from
(New York, 1998), 45-46, fig. 34. Elisabeth Dhanens, Van Eyck: The
Ghent Altarpiece (London, 1973); fig. 14:
63. Christoph Graf zu Waldburg
The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore;
Wolf egg, Venus and Mars: The World of
the Medieval Housebook, exh. cat., Na fig. 16: photograph copyright Museum
of Fine Arts, Boston; figs. 17,18: cour
tional Gallery of Art and tour (Munich/
tesy Timothy Husband, The Cloisters,
New York, 1998), 44, 68, figs. 25, 38; New York.
Timothy B. Husband, The Medieval
Housebook and the Art of Illustration,
exh. cat., Frick Collection, New York
O999)? 27> 43> figs- 9. *5
64. For these variations and those that
follow, as well as other details, see
Gou?do-Thomas, "Les fontaines
medievales," 508?11.
65. See note 22 above.
23
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