Laminar flow

Using a free-body diagram to formulate equations of motions of a fluid element, the velocity distribution
and the shearing stresses can be determined with Newton’s Law of Viscosity, and the result is described
as:
𝑟02 −𝑟 2 𝑑𝑝
u= 4𝜇 𝑑𝑥
(1)

where:
u – velocity at a distance r from the centerline

r0 – radius of the pipe

μ – dynamic viscosity

dp/dx – rate of pressure drop

The given equation above describes a parabolic velocity distribution for horizontal pipes. If the maximum
velocity is needed, just consider r0 = 0, and input it into the equation above.

Turbulent Flow
Circular pipes are usually used in experiments involving closed conduit flow. Varying pipe sizes,
fluids, and discharge will cause the change of the Reynold’s number; and to change the roughness
coefficient, pipe material must be varied. As mentioned, different fluids can be used to change the
Reynolds number; and the commonly used fluids are oil, air, and water. Usually, self-contained
recirculating units with pumps are used for an experimental set-up.
The group used an air-pipe assembly for this experiment. This setup can be used in determining
velocity distribution and head loss in smooth and rough pipes under turbulent conditions. The
assembly consists of a 500 mm diameter brass pipe, a 125 mm and 500 mm diameter G.I. pipe,
which all are about 8.94 m long. Throughout the length of the pipes, piezometer taps are connected
to a manometer bank to determine head losses. To calculate for the discharge, three venturi meters
are provided.
In uniform flow, the velocity distribution depends if the flow is laminar or turbulent. Another
factor that adds to this is the relative roughness of the pipe. To determine the head loss in uniform
flow, the flow must be determined first by using the Reynolds number:
ρVD VD
Re = = (1)
μ v

where:
V – mean fluid velocity
D – diameter of the cylindrical pipe
v – kinematic viscosity
Where the flow is characterized such that: Re < 2000 for laminar flow, 2000 < Re < 4000 for
critical flow, and Re > 4000 for turbulent flow. Assuming that the fluid is incompressible, Darcy-
Weisbach, and Hagen-Poiseuille equations can be applied. Using the Darcy-Weisbach equation to
relate the head loss to the average velocity of an incompressible fluid, the equation is given by:
𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝐿 = f (2)
𝐷 2𝑔

where:
hL – head loss
f – friction factor
L – length of the pipe
D – diameter of the pipe
V – average velocity of the fluid
Since the group used the air pipe assembly, the fluid flow is assumed to be turbulent. In this
analysis, the friction factor f is a function of the Reynolds number Re (which assists in identifying
if the flow is turbulent or laminar) for smooth pipes, or of the roughness coefficient ε/D for rough
pipes. For smooth pipes, determination for the friction factor is given as:
1
= 𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑅𝑒√𝑓 + 𝐵 (3)
√f

where A and B are constants.

For rough pipes, the equation is as shown:
1 𝜀
= 𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝐷) + 𝐵 (4)
√f

where A and B are constants.

From the given experimental setup and assuming incompressible fluid, the continuity, energy, and
momentum equations are valid and therefore are used to determine head loss in pipe fittings. The
resulting equation is as shown below:
(𝑉1 −𝑉2 )2 𝐴1 2 𝑉12
ℎ𝐿 = = (1 − ) (5)
2𝑔 𝐴2 2𝑔

where:
subscript 1 represents upstream;
subscript 2 represents downstream
hL – head loss
Vn – velocity of fluid
 An – cross-sectional area
g – acceleration due to gravity
However, such analysis is considered simple because various boundary conditions are possible.
Thus, the head loss is considered to be proportional to the velocity head as given by the equation
below, which is similar in form as Eqn. (2).
𝑉2
ℎ𝐿 = k (2)
2𝑔

where:
hL – head loss
k – head loss coefficient
V – average velocity of the fluid

To solve for the friction factor f, the Moody diagram can be used, or alternatively, the Swamee-Jain
equation can be used for direct solving given by:
0.25
f= 2 (3)
𝜀
5.74
log(( 𝐷 )+ )
3.7 𝑅𝑒0.9

However, this equation can only be used when the value for the Reynolds number Re is between 4x103
and 108 (turbulent flow), and roughness coefficient ε/D between 10-5 and 2x10-2. For experimental
application, Eqn. (2) is rearranged, isolating the friction factor f, transforming into:
𝐷 2𝑔
f = hL 𝐿 𝑉2
(2)

Then, applying the energy equation given by:

P1 𝑉12 P2 𝑉22
+ 𝑧1 + = + 𝑧2 + + ∑ ℎ𝐿 (3)
γ 2𝑔 γ 2𝑔

where:

P – pressure at given point

γ – unit weight of fluid

z – height of point from datum

V – velocity at given point

g – acceleration due to gravity

hL – head losses
Since the experimental setup uses horizontal pipes with constant diameters and discharges, the values
for z and the velocity head in both sides of the equation can be cancelled out. Therefore, Eqn. (3) becomes:
𝑃1 −𝑃2
= ∑ ℎ𝐿
𝛾

Substituting head loss from Eqn. (2):

∆P 𝐿 𝑉2
γ
=f 𝐷 2𝑔
(4)