University of the Cordilleras

College of Law
Gov. Pack Road, Baguio City

Indigenous Forest Conservation Management:

Harmonizing Cordilleran Traditions for Watershed Conservation.

Presented to:
Atty. Paula Bianca C. Bayon

Presented by:
First Year- Special Section

1
 CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
A. Cordillera’s Watershed Conservation:
Indigenous communities in the Cordilleras have managed their watersheds through their
traditional knowledge systems and practices. These practices have evolved through centuries of
practice, repeated and developed by each generation while, in turn, sustaining and developing the
next generation. Their deep understanding of the interrelationship of natural forces and how man
can maximize use of natural resources without destroying it has sustained not just a family or a
clan but entire communities for centuries.
Community Watershed Conservation, Forest Management and Agroforestry (CWCFMA)
aims to promote the rehabilitation of watersheds in the target areas to enhance conservation of
major watersheds in CAR considering that the region is the watershed cradle of Northern Luzon;
and to provide the indigenous communities with opportunities to improve their socio-economic
well-being. It also has its sub-components and responsibilities which are: Community Watershed
Conservation and Reforestation, Promotion of Agroforestry, Development of Innovative
Watershed Conservation Mechanisms, Innovative Watershed Conservation Financing
Mechanisms, Documentation of Indigenous Forest Management Systems, and Pilot Community
Forest Management(DA-CHARMP2, 2009).
CWCFMA main purpose is to conserve and improve highland forests and watersheds
based on sustainable practices. With the help of the DENR-RFO-CAR, and the respective
Provincial Environment and Natural Resource Office (PENRO) of each Provincial Local
Government Unit (PLGU), the CWCFMA and the rest would harmoniously cooperate in order to
validate the Watersheds and forestry. National Commission on Indigenous People (NCIP) –
CAR will also collaborate with the CWCFMA in allotting the given land for watersheds as
accordance to the Ancestral Domains and Land Title as accordance to the Republic Act 8371 or
the Indigenous People Rights Act (IPRA law) of 1997 and also cooperate in documenting
indigenous forest management practices. The CWCFMA, the PENRO, and the Municipal Local
Government (MLGU) and Barangay Local Government Unit (BLGU) will also collaborate in
implementing the rehabilitation of watersheds and forestry. It involves planting the
wildlings/seedlings of trees. The CWCFMA will provide the seedlings and payment for such
labour. The MLGUs and BLGUs quoting the people’s organizations BPMETs will also serve as

2
additional guardians in monitoring the seedlings and guarding the forest for such threats like
forest fires, trace animals that would destroy seedlings and illegal logging in order to conserve
the watersheds. The CWCFMA also promotes agroforestry. Agroforestry is a land use
management system in which trees or shrubs are grown around or among crops or pastureland. It
combines shrubs and trees in agricultural and forestry technologies to create more diverse,
productive, profitable, healthy, and sustainable land-use systems(National Agroforestry Center,
2014). The component provides such fruit bearing seedlings just like lemon and coffee. It’s is a
strategy to not just increase number of trees or to sustain the ecosystem but also as an additional
source of income and productivity to our farmers and rural communities. The CWCFMA also
conducts training just like the Forestry Farmers School (FFS) with the partnership of local state
universities and colleges here in CAR which teaches farmers on Forestry and Agroforestry and
on Climate Change.

B. Historical Background of the Cordilleran Provinces

ABRA
Geographical Location:
Abra is a landlocked province of the Philippines in the Cordillera Administrative
Region in Luzon. Its capital is Bangued, and is bordered by Ilocos Norte on the
northwest, Apayao on the northeast, Kalinga on the mid-east, Mountain Province on the
southeast, and Ilocos Sur on the southwest.
Settlers of the Province:
The first settlers of Abra came from the Bontocs and Ifugaos ancestry. Others were from
Tingguians or Itnegs descendants. In the 15th century during the Spanish regime barracks were
built in Bangued to protect the settlers who converted to Christianity from Tingguian attacks. A
few years later, one of the well-known revolutionist, Gabriela Silang and her army came to Abra
from Ilocos and continued their revolt. Then in 1763, Gabriela Silang was captured and hanged
by the Spaniards.
Political Subdivision:
During the 18th century, Ilocos region divided into Ilocos Norte and Ilocos Sur, Abra
became a political-military province 1846 until the arrival of the Americans in1899. In 1908,

3
Abra was again placed under the governance of the Ilocos Sur region. However on March 9,
1917, Abra was re-established as a province. Conrado Balweg, the famous revolutionary priest
othe Cordillera Tribes fought for the rights his tribesmen. Then in 1987, the Philippine
Government created the Cordillera Administrative Region that includes Abra peace pact. Most
are descendants of Ilokano migrants.Many are members of the tribe Tingguian. The growth rate
of the population from 1990 to 2010 is 1.2%. For every household, there is an average of five
people.
APAYAO
Geographical Location:
Apayao is located deep in the Cordillera mountains of Northern Luzon range from a
natural boundary between the Ilocos Region in the west and the Cagayan Valley in the east. The
Apayao River rises from its extensive watershed along its western slope and peaks. The river
courses along the heartlands of the province, meanders beside the town of Kabugao following a
northward route towards the Pacific Ocean through the coastal town of Abulug, Apayao.
The province is classified into upper and lower:
1. Upper Apayao with 3 municipalities occupies 67.2% of the total land area and has
mountainous topography classified by towering peaks, plateaus and intermittent patches
of valleys.
2. Lower Apayao on the other hand with 4 municipalities is 32.8% of the total land area is
generally flat with rolling mountains and plateaus.

Settlers of the Province:

The Apayaos are a river people. Their tribe’s name was derived from the warm waters of
the Apayao River and considered as the most light-hearted among the indigenous tribes in the
Philippines.
The Apayaos are kind, hospitable and generous. They are highly aesthetic in
temperament, self-reliant, and honest. If by some ill fate you drop something, even money, a
member of the tribe will return it to you. They believe that if a man steals, his wife will leave
him; or, if they acquire money unfairly and buy rice with it, the rice will not give them strength.
The Common Law enjoins that man must not steal, tell false stories about others, court
the wife of others, nor make trouble at a feast. It further enjoins that man must respect the rights

4
of individuals, give food to visitors, and parents shall teach the children the old legends and
customs, as well as correct them that they could grow up properly. The Apayaos have a very
complete system of social etiquette.
The Apayaos depend a lot on the rivers and streams, even if they live on sides of a
mountain for safety. Many of their communities are named after the names of the streams nearest
to them. The rivers are their source of food and water to drink.

Political Subdivision:
In 1906, Spanish missionaries first stepped in Apayao where they established their
foothold at the present day municipality of Pudtol and found Mandayas later known as Isnegs
already in their organized communities. Father Geronimo Molina started his missionary work in
the province and later in 18th century, the Spaniards could only claim to have conquered the
lower part of Apayao where they established their politico-militar commandancias. Evidence of
this is the ruins of the Spanish churches at barangays Mataguisi and Emilia.
On June 18, 1966, Republic Act No. 4695 was enacted creating four separate independent
provinces namely: Benguet, Ifugao, Mt. Province and Kalinga-Apayao from the original
Mountain Province. President Corazon C. Aquino on July 15, 1987 signed and issued Executive
Order No. 220, creating the Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR), the provinces of Ifugao
and Kalinga-Apayao of Region 2 and Abra of Region 1 were included in the territorial coverage
of the CAR. However, on February 14, 1995, Republic Act No.7878 was signed into law which
provides for the conversion of the province of Kalinga-Apayao into regular province to be
known as the provinces of Apayao and province of Kalinga, amending Republic Act No. 4695.
Apayao as a new province converted some private house to be their governmental offices.
These offices are temporarily owned houses in the poblacion of Kabugao, the capital town of
Apayao.
BENGUET
Geographical Location:
Generally, Benguet is a mountainous area. Rising thousands of feet above sea level is the
second highest mountain in the Philippines, Mt. Pulag, a few feet lower than Mt. Apo, located in
the municipality of Kabayan. Elevation ranges from 200 meters to 2,792 meters, the highest at
Mt. Pulag. The Halsema Mountain Highway, 95 kilometers of which are in Benguet, traverses

5
the province from south to north. The highest point of the Philippine Highway System, 2,256.10
meters above sea level, is in Mt. Paoay, Atok.1
Of the province's total land area of 2,616.48 square kilometers, forest land comprises
1,747.40 sq. km. (66.78%) while alienable and disposable lands make up 869.08 sq. km.
(33.22%). Classified forest land is distributed as follows: forest/watershed reservation is 657.43
sq. km., timberland is 233.61 sq. km., national parks is 698.67 sq. km., military reservation is
5.54 sq. km. and civil reservation is 152.15 sq. km.2
Political Subdivision:
The capital of Benguet is La Trinidad. The 13 municipalities are: Atok, Bakun, Buguias,
Itogon, Kabayan, Kapangan, Kibungan, La Trinidad, Mankanyan, Sablan, Tuba, Tublay. There
are also 150 barangays within Benguet.3
Settlers of the Province:
With its long history and rich diversity, indigenous knowledge in the Cordillera Region is
manifested in the daily community life of the people, in their local political structures, in their
relationships and in their rituals. It is the basis of their agriculture, food preparation and health
care, education and conserving and protecting the environment (Macandog et al., 2012). 4
The indigenous communities’ worldview of environmental sustainability is reflected in
the richness of their natural resources. It expresses the close relationship they have with nature,
consulting nature spirits and sharing with others, which are an important aspect of tradition
handed down to the next generation (Lamanilao, 2008).5
The varied forest products from timber to wild fruits and wild plants used for food to
medicinal plants of different species have cultural significance (Barcelo, 2014). The abundance
of these fruits and medicinal plants displays the biological diversity of the forests of Benguet. 6
Living in harmony with nature has led ethnic communities to develop more ecologically
friendly and sustainable agroforestry skills (Camatcho et al, 2009). This is observed in the
planting of Gmelina trees along roadsides and fruit and other trees on their lands.7

1
http://www.dilgcar.com/index.php/2015-07-10-07-24-09/province-of-benguet
2
http://www.dilgcar.com/index.php/2015-07-10-07-24-09/province-of-benguet
3
http://www.dilgcar.com/index.php/2015-07-10-07-24-09/province-of-benguet
4
Sustaining and Conserving Biodiversity: Kijowan/Kaiwan of the Ibaloy and Kankanaey in Atok, Benguet
5
Sustaining and Conserving Biodiversity: Kijowan/Kaiwan of the Ibaloy and Kankanaey in Atok, Benguet
6
Sustaining and Conserving Biodiversity: Kijowan/Kaiwan of the Ibaloy and Kankanaey in Atok, Benguet
7
Sustaining and Conserving Biodiversity: Kijowan/Kaiwan of the Ibaloy and Kankanaey in Atok, Benguet

6
 Of high significance is the pine forest watershed, considering water is the priority of all
basic needs and being the source of raw materials and other natural resources. It is the main
source of various renewable resources such as food, timber, forage, wildlife, soil, water for
domestic, agriculture and industrial use and provides recreational sites. 8
IFUGAO
Geographical Location:
Ifugao, a land-locked area located at the foot of the Cordillera Mountain Range, is
bounded on the west by the province of Benguet, Nueva Viscaya on the south, Isabela on the
east, and on the north by Mountain Province, with a total land area of 251,778 hectares. It is 322
kilometers north of Manila.9
Settlers of the Province:
Ifugao is home to a thriving ancient culture and host to the famous rice terraces carved
from the base of the mountainsides to the top, which appear to be massive green stairways
reaching to the sky. The famous terraces had been inscribed in UNESCO’s World Heritage List
in 1995 as “a continuing cultural landscape” and likewise considered by the U.S. Association of
Civil Engineers as an engineering marvel built by unschooled and free men not of slave labor.
10
Ifugao is also home to a thriving ancient culture because of the inherent wisdom of Ifugao
forefathers who built native huts that are still abound across the area, which are considered as
among the first prefabricated homes in the world without the use of even a single nail or metal
products to fasten spare parts.11
The Ifugaos are not culturally monolithic as they are classified into smaller
ethnolinguistic groups. The Tuwali linguistic groups occupy the municipalities of Kiangan,
Lagawe, Hingyon, Hungduan and the central areas of Banaue and parts of Lamut. The Ayangan
speaking groups are dispersed in the province mainly residing in Mayoyao, Aguinaldo, a big part
of Banaue and peripheral barangays of Kiangan, Lagawe, Asipulo, Lamut and Alfonso Lista.
The Keley-i and Yattuka of Asipulo who are mistakenly lumped with the Kalanguya may share a
similar language with the latter but their major ethnography is more related to the Tuwali of

8
Sustaining and Conserving Biodiversity: Kijowan/Kaiwan of the Ibaloy and Kankanaey in Atok, Benguet
9
Department of Toursim ‘It’s more fun in the Philippines’ (2016) <http://www.tourism.gov.ph/.
10
'Ifugao Province', WOW Philippines Travel Agency (2016) <http://www.wowphilippinestravelagency.com/
destinations/ifugao-province/>[1-8].
11
See note 5, supra.

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Kiangan. The Kalanguya are the principal people of Tinoc with minor populations in the
peripheral barangays of Asipulo.

Political Subdivision:
As of 1988, the province is politically sub-divided into 11 municipalities and 178
barangays, with Lagawe serving as the provincial capital town.12
Ifugao is composed of 11 Municipalities,13namely: (1) Aguinaldo, (2)Lista,(3)Asipulo,
(4)Banaue, (5)Hingyon, (6)Hungduan, (7) Kiangan, (8)Lagawe, (9)Lamut, (10) Mayoyao and
(11)Tinoc.
KALINGA
Geographical Location:
The Province of Kalinga, is a landlocked province of the Philippines in the Cordillera
Administrative Region in Luzon. Its capital is Tabuk and borders Mountain Province to the
south, Abra to the west, Isabela to the east, Cagayan to the northeast, and Apayao to the north.
The province's geographic feature is characterized on the western portion by sharp-crested
interlinking peaks of steep slopes, isolated flat lands, plateaus and valleys. The eastern portion is
generally rolling to gradually sloping foothills, with interlocking wide tracks of flat lands and
flood plains along its main drainage system.
Kalinga has a total land area of 3,071 sq. km. having a topography that is generally
rugged and sloping, with mountain peaks ranging from 1,500 meters to 2,500 meters in height.

Settlers of the Province:

The province is a land of natural charm and beauty with its natural attractions of majestic
mountains, caves, rustic villages, and rice terraces. It is a land of mystique and legends and tales
of the legenday God, Kabunian. A land of living waters, it abounds with rivers and waterfalls. Its
rivers snake around villages and its underground rivers murmur beneath its gold encrusted
mountain slopes.

DILG ‘Ifugao Quick Facts' <http://www.dilgcar.com/index.php/2015-07-10-09-25-49/province-of-ifugao.

12

13
See note 3, supra.

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 Some of the places in the area which are most likely to be seen or cited by visitors are the
following: Sleeping Beauty - Tinglayan; Kabunyan Natural Dam and Pasil River - Pasil;
Preserved Tributary Falls and Forest, and Saltan River - Balbalan; Capitol Provincial Park and
Chico River - Tabuk; Biggest Acacia Tree - Pinukpuk. The Pasil, Saltan and Chico Rivers are the
premier whitewater rafting places in the region if not in the nation. For whitewater rafting trips,
these rivers not only offers rapid-fire excitement but also a glimpse of the cultural history of the
Kalinga people.14
Prior to 1995, Kalinga and Apayao used to be a single province named Kalinga-Apayao,
until they were split into two to better service the needs of individual native tribes in the
provinces. There are many sub tribes in the province. The strong sense of tribal membership and
filial loyalty results in frequent tribal unrest and occasional outright war. Due to the mountainous
terrain and warrior-culture of the people, the Kalingas were able to maintain their culture despite
the attempted occupation of the Spaniards, Japanese, and Americans.
The name "Kalingga" is believed to have been derived from the Ibanag word "kalinga"
and the Gaddang word "kalinga", both meaning head hunters. The Spaniards picked up the term
because of their headhunting tradition, and the Americans followed suit. The Kalingas have
numerous songs, such as the salidummay, the dong-dong-ay, the oggayam, the ading, the wasani,
the paliwat, the owawi, and the dandanag. But its enduring and distinct rite is the "Bodong" that
has become an institution for peace up to this day. Kalinga is classified according to bodong-
holding groups or ili, or sub-tribes, namely the Tinglayans, the Lubuagans, the Tanudans, the
Pasils, the Balbalans, the Pinukpuks, and the Tabuks. (Igorot, the Cordillera Schools Group)
Indigenous communities in the Cordilleras have managed their watersheds through their
traditional knowledge systems and practices. These practices have evolved through centuries of
practice, repeated and developed by each generation while, in turn, sustaining and developing the
next generation. Their deep understanding of the interrelationship of natural forces and how man
can maximize use of natural resources without destroying it has sustained not just a family or a
clan but entire communities for centuries.
Political Subdivisions:

14
http://www.dilgcar.com/index.php/2015-07-10-09-29-38/province-of-kalinga

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 The province is composed of eight (8) municipalities: Balbalan, Lubuagan, Pasil,
Pinukpuk, Rizal, Tabuk, Tanudan, and Tinglayan. 15

MOUNTAIN PROVINCE
Geographical Location:
Mountain Province is bounded on the north by the provinces of Kalinga, Apayao and
Abra; on the south by the mountains of benguet and Ifugao; on the east by Isabela and the west
by the province of Ilocos Sur. It extends to an area of 229,231 hectares where 83% is
mountainous while 17% make up hills and valleys .
Principally, the province is composed of high mountain ranges, limited terraces and floodplains.
It is a province of rivers, falls, mountains and caves. Such a terrain nurtures a sturdy and
hardworking people.
Settlers of the Province:
The people of the Mountain Province are known for being proud, fierce, warlike, hostile
and very traditional. They respect ownership and strictly obey the rules of the country and their
land may it be written or oral.
They are known for their famous rice terraces in Barlig, mummified bodies, mummy
caves, hanging coffins in Sagada, breathtaking waterfalls, majestic forests and picturesque view
of the nature. They have several dialects, cultural groups/tribes, religions, superstitions like the
"bagbato" for good harvest and rituals like the "ulog" for the unmarried women to receive male
visitors and suitors.
Because of their richness in land resources, their agricultural products are strong in the
market. They have different products that is highly in demand such as rice, crops (camote,
potatoes and legumes), vegetables (carrots, Baguio beans, peas, cabbage and sayote),
strawberries and coffee.
They also celebrate the “lang-ay festival” every April 7 during their foundation day to
showcase the diversified culture and traditions of the people of Mountain Province.
Currently Mountain Province is continuously preserving the culture and traditions of the
land. Several projects are being held to protect the nature and conserve its natural resources.

15
http://www.tourism.gov.ph/sitepages/InteractiveSitesPage.aspx?siteID=78

10
They are also expanding and excelling in its trade and industry and progressively building its
name as one of the sought after eco-tourism center in the Philippines.
Political Subdivision:
Mountain Province is a landlocked province of the Philippines with Bontoc as its capital.
In between 1566 to 1665, the Spanish exploration attempted to conquer the Mt. Province. On
September 3, 1899, Filipinos ended the occupation of the Spaniards in Bontoc and in 1898 some
of the famous Igorots helped the lowland brothers in the fight against the Americans. In
1908, the old Mountain Province was created with seven (7) sub-provinces which later was
merged into five (5) provinces: Benguet, Ifugao, Bontoc, Apayao, Kalinga (BIBAK). In 1967,
the division of these five provinces gave birth to four (4) new provinces namely: Benguet,
Ifugao, Kalinga-Apayao and Mountain Province. The sub-province of Bontoc retained its name
Mountain Province and maintained Bontoc as its capital town. On March 25, 1967, Mt. Province
became an independent province. Then President Ferdinand E. Marcos, appointed and inducted
into office the first provincial officials. This new province came into operation on April 7, 1967,
hence, this day is celebrated as Mountain Province Day. On June 15, 1987, Mountain Province
became part of the Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR). Currently Mountain Province have
two districts, 10 municipalities and 144 barangays.

11
 Chapter II
Discussion
A. Kijaowan of Benguet and Inyan of Mt. Province
In the province of Benguet, the main indigenous forest management system is the
Kijowan which regulates the cutting of trees and controls the gathering of forest resources.16 On
the other hand, in the Mountain Province the “inayan” system sets moral guidelines on cutting
trees and burning forests as well as the collective care of the bilig (watershed). The main
difference is that in the Inayan system the violation of guidelines would be penalized by the
spirits protecting the forest. While in Kijowan the system is implemented by the community of
elders and a violation of which would be dealt with by the said council of elders.17

B. Lapat of Apayao and Abra

The inhabitants of the Cordillera region of Northern Luzon with its vast forests and
untamed natural wonders, have developed various systems to preserve its natural resources. Each
systems, although distinct to each Cordilleran tribe, is similar in concept. They even have their
unique monikers, but all of them are geared towards preservation and conservation.
In order to better understand the Cordilleran devotion to nature conservation amidst
modernization and unrelenting urbanization that leave the majority of the Filipino people
indifferent to the massive destruction of the country’s natural resources, is we need to somehow
understand their continuous adherence to traditional practices, and belief to anitos.
Anitosis a collective name for the pre-Hispanic belief system in the Philippines. It is also
used to refer to spirits, including the household deities, deceased ancestors, nature-spirits nymphs
and diwatas.18 In pre-colonial Philippines, before Christianisation, the inhabitants of the islands
believe that anitos dwell in forests, rivers and other places. Preservation and giving respect to

16
Id. at 18.
17
Id. at 23.
18
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anito

12
these places is a way of pleasing the anitos.19 Via these beliefs, a system is born that regulates the
cutting of trees and controls the gathering of forest resources20.
In the province of Benguet, the main indigenous forest management system is the
Kijowan which regulates the cutting of trees and controls the gathering of forest resources. 21 On
the other hand, in the Mountain Province the “inayan” system sets moral guidelines on cutting
trees and burning forests as well as the collective care of the bilig (watershed). The main
difference is that in the Inayan system the violation of guidelines would be penalized by the
spirits protecting the forest. While in Kijowan the system is implemented by the community of
elders and a violation of which would be dealt with by the said council of elders.22
The province of Abra and Apayaohave the same kind of forestry management which is
called Lapat System. However, these provinces have their own ways to implement the system. In
Abra the Lapat bans the harvest of specified forest resources for a certain period of time from
January to May and ensures their regeneration for regulated harvesting by the members of the
community23 while in Apayao the lapat system prohibits the use of natural resources as part of a
practice of respecting a deceased family member and decided on by the elders. It consequently
preserves and conserves the biodiversity of the environment to sustain life and culture.24
The conservation systems of Ifugao, Kalinga, and the other Mt. Province system of
“tayan” are similar in many ways. In Ifugao, it is called “pinucho”, and in Kalinga, it is called
“sipat”. Basically, a portion of land is separated for communal or clan use for the purpose of a)
pasturing of livestock, b) for sacred religious activities such as the “umili” and “inayan” of Mt.
Province, and c) for kaingin or swidden farming. The use of the “tayan”, “pinucho”, or “sipat” is
strictly limited to members of the clan or the community.
A council of elders decide matters regarding the use, management, and conflict of the
land. The transfer of ownership, especially to an outsider is only indire cases of sickness,
accidents and disagreements. The passing of ownership from one generation to another is
governed by strict customary laws.

19
The Way to Environmental Sustainability and Development.The Lapat/Senned of the Isnegs of Conner,
Apayao.,p. 30.
20
Conserving and Sustaining Biodiversity.KIjowan/Kaiwan of the Ibaloy and Kankaney in Atok, Benguet., p. 17
21
Id. at 18.
22
Id. at 23.
23
The Way to Environmental Sustainability and Development,Lapat System of VanawTinggians in Malibcong,
Abra, p. 9.
24
See note 2, supra.

13
 With the strong belief of every Cordilleran province, it is only natural that violations of
these customary laws are met with supernatural consequences. The believe that it is the anitos
that impose a penalty to the offenders.
C. Tayan of Mt. Province, Pinuchu of Ifugao, and Sipat of Kalinga
The conservation systems of Ifugao, Kalinga, and the other Mt. Province system of
“tayan” are similar in many ways. In Ifugao, it is called “pinucho”, and in Kalinga, it is called
“sipat”. Basically, a portion of land is separated for communal or clan use for the purpose of a)
pasturing of livestock, b) for sacred religious activities such as the “umili” and “inayan” of Mt.
Province, and c) for kaingin or swidden farming. The use of the “tayan”, “pinucho”, or “sipat” is
strictly limited to members of the clan or the community.

A council of elders decide matters regarding the use, management, and conflict of the
land. The transfer of ownership, especially to an outsider is only indire cases of sickness,
accidents and disagreements. The passing of ownership from one generation to another is
governed by strict customary laws.

With the strong belief of every Cordilleran province, it is only natural that violations of
these customary laws are met with supernatural consequences. They believe that it is the anitos
that impose a penalty to the offenders.

D. Muyung of Benguet, Pinuchu and Muyung of Ifugao, and Umili of Mt. Province
In Benguet, the Watershed Conservation if called “muyong”, which is a tree farming
system under the care of a clan or a family. They plant and maintain certain tree species in the
muyong.25 The family or clan that manages the muyong understands that the muyong is not for
their benefit alone, but rather it is part of a larger environment and thus contributes to the total
well-being of the community and ecology in general.26 The muyong provides a continued supply
to the river system in the domain, as well as to ultimately provide domestic water. 27 On the other
hand, the Watershed Conservation in Ifugao is called “Muyong” and “Pinuchu”. The pinuch is
owned by most families own inherited by husbands and wives and passed on to their children
starting from the oldest. The inhabitants of Ifugao, in the Philippines, have developed a unique

25
The Indigenous People of Mankayan, Benguet: Gary A. Pekas (July 2006)
26
The Indigenous People of Mankayan, Benguet: Gary A. Pekas (July 2006)
27
The Indigenous People of Mankayan, Benguet: Gary A. Pekas (July 2006)

14
way of life, reflected in the way they grow and tend forests. This unique system of tending
forests has been referred to in the literature as the “muyong system,” coined from the local
dialect meaning forest or woodlot. The muyong system has been recognized internationally as an
ideal forest management strategy that is deeply ingrained in the culture of the Ifugao people.28 In
the Mountain Province, the Watershed Conservation is called “Tayan”, “Umili”, and “Inayan”.
The corporate land or tayan is described as a common land owned by a descent group which may
be a swidden land or reforested by an individual. The umili exercises rituals such as the ‘apoy’
and the ‘ub-ub’ to offer to the spirits to keep their waters flowing. ‘Inayan’ sets moral guidelines
on cutting trees and burning forests as well as the collective care of the bilig (watershed).
Similarities of the Three Provinces in the Watershed Conservation:
The watershed conservation system of Benguet, Ifugao and Mt. Province can be viewed
from different perspectives, either as a forest conservation strategy, a watershed rehabilitation
technique, a farming system or an assisted natural regeneration (ANR) strategy. While the
system can be viewed from different perspectives, the role of culture in the development and
continued maintenance of the system are anchored from their traditional beliefs. Although not
readily apparent to the casual observer, an intricate web of relationships exists between the
human and non-human resources of the system, which move to a higher sphere in the spirit
world (Ngidlo, 1998). The culture and laws revolve around their physical environment,
expressed in customs and taboos prescribing the treatment and use of environment and natural
resources. “Pinuchu” of Ifugao as a watershed conservation is similar with Benguet’s “Muyong”
as well as with the “Tayan” of Mt. Province, because both are family owned and consent from
the owners are necessary before the use of the natural resources. These ownerships do not
possess title of deeds, but due to the respect to the elders and the ancestors, people of Ifugao and
Benguet respects the owners. Ownership is simply defined by inheritance and this made of
ownership transfer is highly recognized by everybody within the cultural vein. These provinces
perform rituals to appease with the spirits, and for the preservation of the watershed. In Mt.
Province, they use “Umili” and “Inayan” as their particular watershed conservation, of which
they perform rituals.29
Differences of the Three Provinces in the Watershed Conservation:

28
M.Butic& R. Ngidlo'Muyong forest of Ifugao: Assisted natural regeneration in traditional forest management' <
http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/AD466E/ad466e06.htm>.
29
See note 8, supra.

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 In Benguet, they don’t have a community-owned watershed, unlike the other provinces.
Ifugao’s “Muyong” and the Mt. Province’s “Umili” are community-owned watershed.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The forests of Northern Luzon have long been one of the home and paradise for natural
resources. The forest management systems practiced by various indigenous cultural communities
provide for a tradition equally applicable in today’s time. The protection of forests is considered
as one of the main concerns that bind the Cordilleran community.

Indigenous forest management systems could be very good tools in promoting forest
development and watershed management, not to mention agriculture. Perhaps it is time for
government officials to listen to the “people in them thar hills”, like the Cordillerans who
obviously possess time-tested solutions to some problems. As an eminent participant in a recent
steering committee meeting of the JICA-assisted CBFM project in the Cagayan and Upper
Magat river basins stated in describing the Muyong system, “Why tinker with something that has
worked for so many generations?”30
The customs and traditions of the ancient Cordilleran tribe reflect their deep respect to the
laws of the environment and have benefited from it immensely, and they are surprised to find
lowlanders at a loss for explanation to the floods and storm surges that cause death and
destruction every year. Paquito Moreno, Regional Director of the Department of Environment
and Natural Resources, said, “It’s the Muyong System, a forest watershed management practice
that consider the hills and mountains sacred.”
The government must provide legislation to promote the Muyong system, which has been
recognized worldwide as an ideal forest management strategy. The system has provided
irrigation to the rice terraces carved on the mountainside for hundreds of years.
Irrigation is vital to rice production and in the case of the rice terraces the rain forests
provide an unending flow of water around mountain to the terrace ponds that are carved with
strong ridges to prevent run-offs and erosion.
The Cordillerans are lucky their ancestors have developed a proven watershed
conservation system that allowed them to maintain a green environment. Commercial logging is

30
M.Butic& R. Ngidlo'Muyong forest of Ifugao: Assisted natural regeneration in traditional forest management' <
http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/AD466E/ad466e06.htm>.

16
prohibited in the area and, under the Muyong system, tribe members should immediately replace
a tree that was cut for household purposes.
In addition to the rice terraces, the Cordilleran watersheds also provide abundant water
supply. The beauty and grandeur of the terraces and farms of the Cordilleras are dependent on
the abundant water coming down from the watersheds, which the Cordillerans consider as sacred
because it is a source of life. This study suggests should be replicated in other parts of the
country as a solution to water shortage, floods, landslides that kill thousands of people every
year. The watershed system serves to guard it from intruders and replant fallen trees. The
watershed system is not expensive, practical and doable.31

31
Habwel

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