PLASMA

 Same number of protons & electrons than atom is neutral (stable)

 More number of electrons than protons then atom is negatively charged (ion)
 More number of protons than electrons then atom is positively charged (ion)
 A plasma is a hot ionized gas consisting of equal amount of positively charged nucleus (cations) and
negatively charged electrons. Plasma is neutral. plasma can easily conduct electricity & has
electromagnetic characteristics
 Plasma is generated when fast moving atoms collide with each other OR electrons directly gains energy,
when electron gains energy it jumps from lower orbit to higher orbit with fast speed then it collide with
another atom and transfer its energy into another electron thus in this way electron loss its energy and
return back to its lower orbit by emitting light with specific frequency.
 Ionization energy is the minimum amount of energy required to remove el- from a gaseous atom, it
depends directly upon strength of nuclear charge (no. of proton) and inversely proportional to atomic
size (no. of shell).
 Electron-affinity is the energy change that occur when el- is gained by an atom in the gaseous state
(it occurs when el- losses its energy). Electron-affinity for addition of first el- is –ve (energy is released)
but for further addition of el- electron-affinity is +ve (energy is absorbed) because energy has to be
added to overcome the repulsion between negative ion and el-. It depends directly upon the strength of
nuclear charge (no. of proton) and inversely proportional to atomic size (no. of shell).
 Electro-negativity is the relative tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract shared pair of electrons
to itself. It depends directly upon the strength of nuclear charge (no. of proton) and inversely
proportional upon the atomic size (no. of shell).
 Generally, elements with higher ionization energy has large electron-affinity and electron-negatively.
 ionized gas are the highly heated gas with loosely bound el-
 An electric discharge is the released and transmission of electricity in an applied electric field
through a medium such as a gas.
Down the group of periodic table, the atomic size (no. of shell) increases & nucleus attraction decreases.
Left to right of periodic table, the strength of nuclear charge (no. of proton) increases.

Galvanized wire, a wire of iron OR steel with a coat of protective layer of zinc for prevention against corrosion.
Permittivity is the measure of resistance that is encountered when forming an electric field in a particular
medium.
Permeability is the measure of the ability of a material to support the formation of a magnetic field within
itself.
By nature maximum no. of charges exist on the surface of any object because same charges repels each other
and hence naturally system (conductor/body) wants to become equilibrium (stable). and potential energy
decreases by increasing separation between charges therefore charges goes far away from each other and
distributed over the surface of conductors.
Coaxial cable, or coax, is a type of electrical cable that has an inner main conductor surrounded by a
insulating layer, surrounded by a supporting conducting shield.

SKIN EFFECT

 1 Coulomb of charge repels (pushes) the identical charge in vacuums with force of 9x109Nm2/C2
 Within electric field, 1Volt is 1joule of work done in moving 1Coulomb charge from one point to another.
 Current density, the amount of electric current flowing per unit cross-sectional area of a material.
 De-efficiency and efficiency of electrons is also referred as potential difference.
 The total number of electric lines of forces passing through a surface is flux. It is a scalar quantity.
(ɸ=EΔA)
 If the current is variable at 1Amp per sec then back EMF is produced, which equal to proportional
inductance L. (-ve sign is because of lenz’s law)

 Inductance is the property of an electrical conductor by which a change in current through it induces an
electromotive force (EMF) in the conductor itself.
 According to gauss’s law, the total amount of flux caused by a closed surface depends upon the amount
of charges enclosed directly & inversely upon the permittivity of the medium and is independent of size,
shape & radius of the surface and distribution of charges enclosed. (ɸ=Q/є̻ )
 The permittivity of medium defines how much electric field (flux) is generated
per unit charge in that medium, it depends to the material’s ability that
transmit an electric field. It varies of different shapes.
 Electric field will decreases as distance away from surface increases thus
1
(Eα 2 ).
𝑟
 Where “r” is distance from center of charged spherical conductor to external
point.
 At surface of conductor electric field is maximum.

 Hence most of charges exist on surface thus electric field will increase then surface
charged density increases, thus inductance will ultimately decreases at surface.
 Flux linkage (λ=N ɸ) OR (λ = BANcoswt) and ( L= flux linkage/ I)
 The effective resistance, being inversely proportional to the square of the radius
1
from the center. (Reff α 2).
𝑟
 Electric field increases, Inductance decreases, Flux
decreases, reluctance increases, reactance decreases
(means resistance decreases) and current increases.
 Skin effect is non-uniform distribution of current
In current carrying conductor.
 The skin effect is due to opposing eddy currents
induced by the changing magnetic field resulting
from the alternating current
 The distribution of current over the entire cross
section of the conductor is almost uniform in case of
a DC system. But in an AC system, where the current
tends to flow with higher density through the surface
of the conductors (i.e skin of the conductor), leaving
the core deprived of necessary number of electrons.
  Skin depth is portion of conductor that conduct electricity
 Skin effect can be reduced by using stranded conductors, lower system frequency, lower conductivity,
lower permeability and small dia.
 Skin effect increases with increase in frequency, increases in diameter & increases in inductance.
 Skin effect causes the effective resistance of the conductor to increase at higher frequencies due to
this skin depth becomes smaller, thus reducing the effective cross-section area of the conductor
therefore current carrying capacity of conductor is reduced.

The drift velocity is the average velocity of a particle, and is directly proportional to voltage gradient &
particle mobility.
The mobility also depends upon mean free paths available in the medium for random movement of the
particles.

FERRANTI EFFECT
 The Ferranti effect is an increase in magnitude of voltage at the receiving end of a long transmission
line, above the magnitude of voltage at the sending end. This occurs when the line is energized, but
there is a very light load or the load is disconnected.
 There are naturally 2 type of capacitance exist in overhead transmission line and underground cable,
which are line to line and line to ground capacitance.
 The line to ground capacitance is 2 times more of line to line capacitance.
 Line to line capacitance causes no leakage charging current but we consider L-G capacitance effect in
order to find charging current and capacitive KVAR.
 The capacitive line charging current produces a voltage drop across the line inductance per phase which
is in-phase of line sending voltage, assuming negligible line resistance, this voltage drop increase as
move toward receiving end.
 The Ferranti Effect will be more pronounced the longer the line and the higher the voltage applied. The
relative voltage rise is proportional to the square of the line length.
 The Ferranti effect is much more pronounced in underground cables, even in short lengths, because of
their high capacitance.
 Ferranti Effect occurs when current drawn by the distributed capacitance of the line itself is greater
than the current associated with the load at the receiving end of the line (during light or no load).
 In general for a 300 Km line operating at a frequency of 50 Hz, the no load receiving end voltage has
been found to be 5% higher than the sending end voltage.
 The effect of Line inductance is greater than Line capacitance per Km.
 OVER-VOLTAGE

 The overvoltage occur on the healthy phases of a system during phase-to-earth faults. Apart from
being caused by dielectric faults or flashover. The switching overvoltage appear in the power
𝑑i
systems due to switching of load and fault currents OR uninterruptable current. (V=L ). Where
𝑑𝑡
(di/dt) rate of change of current with respect to time during opening of the contacts.
 Arc is the highly ionized heated path of air. During arcing switching voltage is so low.
 The electrons are accelerated along the direction of the electric field due to high potential gradient.
 A potential gradient is the rate of change of electric potential with respect to the distance. It is an
electric field intensity at a point. In voltage gradient inner surface of conductor is at higher di-electric &
voltage stress rather than outer surface.
 Sudden interruption of current causes high switching over voltage which can damage insulation
 Transient voltage OR voltage surge is the momentary change in voltage to high value in very short
interval of time.
 Voltage surge is type of over-voltage but surge are caused by switching surge, insulation failure, arcing
ground and resonance. Voltage surge are low in magnitude as compare to over-voltage. The overvoltage
are also caused by sudden interruption of heavy load, lightening impulses, switching impulses etc.
 The voltage surge are normally twice of the normal voltage level.
 Resonance in power system is due to 5th or higher order harmonics.
 Over voltage surges appear in the system due to lightning impulses are very high in amplitude and
highly destructive.
 A travelling wave on a transmission line is a transient disturbance are caused by other equipment and
feeders and that moves along the line at a constant speed yet maintains its shape. Examples are
lightning surges, switching transients, faults, etc.
 High voltage travelling wave are voltage surges.
 Transient over-voltages are short duration, high magnitude voltages peaks with fast rising edges,
commonly referred to as surges. Often described as a “spike”, transient voltages can reach up to
6000Volts on a low-voltage consumer network, with no more than millisecond duration.

LOAD FLOW
 Load flow study is the steady state analysis OR static network analysis of power system network to
make sure system V & f are maintained. Steady state is the state of no change with the respect to time.
 Load flow study determines the operating state of the system for a given loading.
 Load flow solves a set of simultaneous nonlinear algebraic power equations for the two unknown
variables (|V| and ∠δ) at each node in a system.
 The output of the load flow analysis is the voltage and phase angle, real and reactive power (both sides
in each line), line losses and slack bus power.
 POWER & FREQUENCY
 Lower frequency is used in transmission and distribution at 50 or 60
Hz, not power frequency.
 Higher frequency also reduces the amount of iron required in
transformers and dynamos, hence weight of machines reduced.
 Higher frequencies range can produce irritating noises and increase
resonance effects in long-distance power transmission
 Power frequency is 400Hz or up to it, the increased frequency
increases series impedance due to the inductance of transmission
lines, making power transmission difficult.
 Higher the frequency, higher the line inductance, higher impedance,
higher voltage drop, lower the current thus lower will be power.

power system stability is also referred to as synchronous stability and is defined as the ability of the
system to return to synchronism or back to its steady state condition after having undergone some disturbance
due to switching on and off of load OR due to line transience OR fault.

STANDARDS
 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and the National Electrical Code® (NEC®) or NFPA 70,
are the standards for the safe installation of electrical wiring and equipment in the United and is the
benchmark for safe electrical design, installation, and inspection in USA.
 The National Electric Power Regulatory Authority (NEPRA) is responsible for regulating and
prizing of the electricity supply in Pakistan.
 OSHAs is occupational safety and health administration and its objectives are to assure safe and
healthful working conditions for working men and women by setting and enforcing standards and by
providing training, outreach, education and assistance.
 SGS is the world’s leading inspection, verification, testing and certification company, recognized as the
global benchmark for quality and integrity.
 ABB is a pioneering technology leader that works closely with utility, industry, transport and
infrastructure customers in roughly 100 countries. Work with digital technologies, digitally connected
and enabled industrial equipment and systems with an installed base of more than 70,000 control
systems connecting 70 million devices, and drive efficiency, safety and productivity in utilities, industry,
transport and infrastructure globally.
 American national standards institute (ANSI)
 International electrotechnical standards (IEC)
 American society for testing and materials (ASTM)
 NEMA standards of the National Electrical Manufacturers Association defines a product, process, or
procedure with reference to one or more of the following: Nomenclature; Composition; Construction;
Dimensions; Tolerances; Safety; Operating characteristics; Performance; Ratings; Testing

PERMEATE GAS
 permeate water is the water free of bacteria, heavy metal complexes, viruses and other organic
molecules with a molecular weight higher than 300 dalton.
 The unified atomic mass unit (symbol: u) or dalton (symbol: Da) is the standard unit that is used for
indicating mass on an atomic or molecular scale (atomic mass). One unified atomic mass unit is
approximately the mass of one nucleon (either a single proton or neutron) and is numerically
equivalent to
1 g/mol.
  Permeate gas contains several impurities and is the by-product of the gas purification process. The
higher heating value of the permeate gas is approximately 575 btu/scf depending on the performance of
the purification process. It usually contain of methane (60%), carbon dioxide (31%), nitrogen (8%),
hydrogen sulfide (320ppm) and hydrocarbons of (1%).

HSD high speed diesel engine.

The net capacity factor OR gross capacity factor of a power plant is the ratio of its actual output over a
period of time to its max potential output, if it were possible for it to operate at full
nameplate capacity continuously over the same period of time.

EARTH ATMOSPHERE

 The earth's atmosphere can be considered as a thin sheets of air extending from the earth's surface to
about an altitude of 60 miles. It is the earth's gravity that holds the atmosphere.
 Speed of sound (which has a direct relation with temperature) decreases with altitude, as because of at
high altitude pressure of air becomes less thus all air molecules are spread with greater intermolecular
distance this causes delay in transferring the energy of sound waves produced by any source.
 Decrease in pressure of air means ratio of air molecules will remain same and no mass effected
(decrease) of air but at high altitude separation becomes greater between molecules in other words
volume of air increase as pressure decrease hence density of air also decreases.
 Latitude are horizontal imaginary lines connected from east to west
 Thermal stratification is the phenomena of hot molecules are settle above the cold molecules
because of kinematic molecular theory of gas.
 lightning is generated in electrically charged storm systems
 At every thousand meter altitude above the ground temperature drops down by 2 degree centigrade.
Single point of failure (SPOF) is a potential risk danger point causes by a flaw in the
design, implementation or configuration of a circuit or system in which one fault or
malfunction causes an entire system to stop operating.
A pothead is a type of insulated electrical terminal used for transitioning between overhead
line and underground high voltage cable or for connecting overhead wiring to equipment like
transformers.

PER-UNIT VALUE

 Base is reference OR arbitrary OR selected value OR rated value

 Impedance of transmission line are expressed by their ohmic value OR actual value because it is not
effected by KV or MVA.
 Per unit value are best way to define the large value and small values by normalizing with respect to
common base value, it eases and simplifies calculation, because value of electrical equipment varies
with the respect to KV or MVA and transformer primary and secondary impedance become same.

LOAD FLOW DATA

 Data required to perform load flow analysis by constructing single line diagram:
 Total number of buses, total number of nodes in the system, no. of lines & no. of direct current
lines.
 No. of load tap changing transformer including HV power transformers, LV power transformers
and auxiliary transformers.
 Total no. of generator units, motors, capacitor banks OR synchronous condenser, phase shifter
 No. of circuits of all interconnecting utilities including their voltage levels & power ratting.
  % resistance & reactance of each equipment and line as well.
 Branch/station data, Bus bar data, generator data, two terminal DC line data, impedance
correction data, multi-terminal DC line data & multi-section line grouping data.

High voltage dc is also called as direct current lines.

The equipment used to compensate reactive power. There are mainly two equipment used for this purpose.
Synchronous condensers & Static capacitors or Capacitor Bank or synchronous condensers, can
produce reactive power and the production of reactive power can be regulated.

TRANSFER SWITCH

 Disconnect switch is an isolator.

 Load center is panel board.
 Bus coupler is a device which is used to couple one bus to the other without any interruption in
power supply and without creating hazardous arcs. Bus coupler is a breaker used to couple two bus
bars in order to perform maintenance on other circuit breakers associated with that bus bar.

 A transfer switch is an electrical switch that switches a load between two sources. Some transfer
switches are manual, while others are automatic and trigger when they sense one of the sources has lost
or gained power.
 An Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS) is often installed where a backup generator/source is located,
so that the generator may provide temporary electrical power if the utility source fails.
 A static transfer switch uses power semiconductors such as Silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) to
transfer a load between two sources. Because there are no mechanical moving parts, the transfer can be
completed rapidly and it is necessary to protect the load from power frequency cycles within a few
interruption time, or from any surges or sags in the prime power source.
 BACK-UP POWER
 Auxiliary power unit (APU) is electric power source that is an alternate source and that serves as
backup. It is used to meet the higher power demand for the short period of time & normal operation,
start-ups, shut-down during fault condition.
 The auxiliary unit may be of diesel generators etc.
 Thermal power plant consumes 10% of its total power for auxiliary power.

 Lead acid batteries are used as back-up in generation & distribution power plant when main power
plant is off-line. These batteries are used for safe and optimal operation of the large water cooling
system and feed pumps, high pressure boilers, large steam turbines driving sophisticated generators,
high voltage transformers and switchgear, and many auxiliary services. Batteries are used to keep these
control systems powered up and operational at all times, and for long enough for the system to be shut
down safely, if required.

No-load & ON-load tap changing transformer (LTC)

CCP is combined cycle plant.
Gas-insulated high-voltage switchgear (GIS) is a compact metal encapsulated switchgear consisting of
high-voltage components such as circuit-breakers and disconnectors (isolator), which can be safely operated in
confined spaces.
In a power plant, we mostly provide delta connection on the generator side is to decrease-down the earth fault
in the generator as generator is having no neutral point. Thus no earth fault will affect the generator due to
circulation of fault current. Secondly in star connection of the generator the line voltage is high as compared to
delta connection.

BATTERY INFO.

 Primary batteries are non-rechargeable.

 Secondary batteries are rechargeable.
 Alkaline batteries, lithium cells, zinc air cells, mercury batteries, Silver-oxide batteries & zinc carbon
(heavy duty) batteries are non-rechargeable batteries.
 Rechargeable alkaline batteries, nickel cadmium batteries, nickel metal hydride batteries, lithium ion,
Lead acid batteries & lithium batteries are rechargeable batteries.
 VRLA stands for valve-regulated lead-acid and is also known as sealed lead-acid (SLA), gel cell, or
maintenance free battery, is a type of lead-acid rechargeable battery. They do not require regular
addition of water to the cells. VRLA batteries are widely used in large portable electrical devices & off-
grid power systems.
 Each 8°C (15°F) rise in temperature cuts the life of a sealed lead acid battery in half.
 This means that a VRLA battery are for stationary applications specified to last for 10 years at 25°C
(77°F), Once if the battery is damaged by heat, the capacity cannot be restored.
 Batteries are the voltage sources, they deliver current as much as load needs.
 1 Amp means 6.24x1018 electrons flowing through a certain point per second.
 Amp-hour is described that how much energy a battery can store in it, it’s a battery capacity OR size.
 If 2Amp-hr, means it can supply 2 amps for 1 hour until battery runs out of energy it has.
 capacity (in Ah)/ load (in A) = battery life (in hr)
 Volt (in V) x Amp-hr (in Ah) = Watt-hr (in Wh)
 More current draws from battery, lower will be output voltage and because of internal resistance of
battery thus life of battery reduces due to heat dissipation.
 Fully charged voltage of battery is slightly greater than nominal voltage, & discharged voltage of battery
is lower than nominal voltage.
 Lithium ion batteries are dry batteries used in cell-phones.

 As DOD increases, no. of cycle of charging & discharging decrease & life of battery decreases.
 DOD (depth of discharge) is described that how deeply the battery is discharged.
 SOC (state of charge) is described that how full the battery is charged.
 The more you discharge the battery the more its internal resistance increases as battery draws lot of
current, this is called as loading effect.
 Internal resistance of battery is because of chemical reaction inside it.
 Loading effect cause the source to draw out less power to load, just like
overloading on source, maximum power can be drawn out to load at
RL=Ri , but as load increases, RL decreases and current form source
increases and at the same time VRL decreases as well, when RL becomes
smaller than Ri then current crosses limit thus internal drop VRi increase
causes to heat up the battery/source, loading effect can be restricted
when Ri is kept greater than RL but at loading effect Ri approximately
becomes infinity thus battery/source will drop due to high current
And heat.
I increases, Z decreases, V decreases
 Battery is voltage source, which has to maintain its voltage at any current drawn from it. For this
purpose battery internal resistance should be 0 OR small.
 Internal resistance is to maintain the constant battery voltage. Ideally Ri should be 0 but practical is
kept small with the respect to power ratting of source.
 Current drawn by battery/source depends on load nature.
 1 Ampere = 6.24x1018 electrons flowing through a certain point per second.
 Watt-hour=Amp-hour x Voltage of battery
 C ratting is informal way to describes that how much current can a battery deliver safely continuously:
 Amp-hour x C ratting = Amp

Difference between electric and magnetic field

 (E) Electric field produced by voltage, due to potential difference and a static (non-moving) charged
particle only produces the electric field, its unit is (V/m).
 (B) Magnetic field produced by flow of electric charge (current) & by permanent magnet, it is due to the
motion of charges, its unit is (Gauss OR tesla).
 Electric & Magnetic field are perpendicular to each other.
 A moving charged particle produces both electric field & magnetic field.
 A neutral particle contain no electric & no magnetic field whether it is moving or not.
 Electric dipole & single charge (monopole) itself generates electric field around it.
 When several electric dipole are aligned in one direction then their collective field becomes magnetic
field (permanent magnet) because of magnetic dipole moment.
 Magnetic dipole moment is the torque that material experiences when comes in-contact with magnetic
field forces.
 The matter that shows magnetic behavior has the property called magnetic dipole moment.
 Magnetic material > Domains > Dipoles > Atoms > Electrons
 Only ferromagnetic material has a property to aligned-up their domains like iron, copper, nickel etc.

EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY, ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD ON HUMAN BODY

 The natural geomagnetic field varies over the earth’s surface between about 0.035-0.7 milli Tesla.
 Average level of magnetic field in homes is 0.15 micro Tesla.
 International guideline for public exposure to magnetic fields set limits of 40millitesla (around 1000
times stronger than earth’s magnetic field).
 1 Tesla = 1 Weber/m2 (unit of magnetic field B) (B is actually magnetic flux density).
 Electromagnetic field can cause induced current inside body, electric charges on body surface & Body
voltage increment.
 Low frequency electric field built electric charges on body surface that cause the current to flow through
the body to ground.
 Low frequency magnetic field induces circulating current inside the body.
 Human body is like a capacitor, thus in case of DC, impedance of human body reaches to higher as
compare to AC because impedance depends frequency of system.
 Electrocution is death caused by electric shock.
 More milliamps are required of DC current than AC current at the same voltage to kill human.
 Power of DC is 4 or 2 times less than AC.
 DC current makes a single continuous contraction (the process in which a muscle becomes shorter and
tighter) of the muscles compared to AC current, which makes a series of contractions depending on the
frequency it is supplied at.
 If current is so0 high that person is stuck, that value of current is known as let go current. It is 22 mA
in AC and 88 mA in DC.
 High voltage can damage skin cells thus decreasing body resistance.
 The table is shown a/c to ANSI standards.

 A 50 or 60 Hz AC current is much more dangerous than DC or higher Frequency AC current, this is

because of avg. heart beat rate of human is around 60 to 100 Hz.
 The electric signal is sent to heart muscle through nervous system at rate of 60 to 100 Hz.
 Lower frequency AC current (60 Hz) is very dangerous because it can cause heart fibrillation (A very
rapid irregular contractions of the muscle fibers of the heart resulting in a lack of synchronism between
heartbeat and pulse then weakly beating heart can’t pump blood through your body properly. The blood
won’t get to the lungs for oxygen, and the heart will quickly run out of oxygen and stop. This is known
as cardiac arrest, or a heart attack.)
 Greater frequency, lower body capacitance then lower body impedance (resistance).
 DC and very high frequency AC electricity are also very dangerous, but because they apply current
continuously (or the current pulses are so fast that your body thinks it’s applying current continuously),
therefore it takes more current to damage your body’s natural electrical signals. Kind of like how your
eyes can only see the world at 60 frames per second, and you just don’t recognize faster speeds.
 The longer the current passes through human body, higher will be strength of current, high heating
effect and high electric shock burns.
 The human body has its own natural way to prevent current from entering is skin resistance. The
resistance of dry human skin can be as high as 100,000 ohms. This resistance gets dramatically reduced
if the skin is wet.
 The breakdown voltage of human skin is 500 volts (AC & DC). This means that, at 500V and higher, the
outer layer of the skin is destroyed by the high electrical energies. This results in drastically lower skin
resistance.
 Mostly voltage less than around 20 to 50 Volts gives normal human skin resistance.

Short circuit analysis

 The prospective short circuit current (PSCC) or available fault current or short circuit
making current is the highest electric current which can exist in a particular electrical system
under short circuit conditions.
 A bolted fault is a short circuit fault with no fault resistance. Bolted faults deliver the highest
possible fault current for a given location.
 In short circuit analysis, a short circuit is a connection between two nodes that forces nodes to be at the
same voltage. In an ideal short circuit, this means there is no resistance and no voltage drop across the
shorted terminals.
 short circuit current can be thousand times larger than normal current and for few milli-seconds ( 60 to
100 m-sec), the Damage from short circuits can be reduced or prevented by employing fuses, circuit
breakers, or other overload protection, which disconnect the power from source to reduce excessive
current.
 Spark has discrete nature while arc has continuous nature.
 Excessive current causes the arc tracking, which reduces the conductive property.
 Arc tracking is a progressive electrical failure mechanism which leads to creation of a carbonized path
along the surface of a non-conducting OR electrical insulator. Arc tracking is significantly enhanced by
high voltage. Once a carbonized path is created, current flow generates arcing.
 short circuit in power system are caused because of insulation failure and insulation are failed because
of following reason:
 Over-voltage caused by lightning OR switching surges, since lightning strikes and creates
travelling wave of high voltages which puncture the insulation material ( reduces its di-electric
strength) , create power arc by flash-over voltage and these high voltage surges can also bridge
the air insulation between 2 hot (conducting) wires.
 Insulation contamination ( reducing strength by exposure), this includes salt spray near sea
areas and pollution
 Mechanical causes, which is due to overheating, by overloading for the longer time causes the
heating effect which reduces insulation strength of the system by vibrations (higher order
harmonic) because of core losses, skin effect & corona effect etc. & by contraction & expansion
cycles due to continuously heating and cooling for a very short interval time in AC supply.
o Salt spray is created near the sea areas by wind blowing which creates a film of conducting
material on machines.
o Harmonics are voltage depended due to harmonics di-electric losses, voltage gradient &
voltage stress increases.
 Chances of fault by short circuit by IEC 60909:
 Underground cables (10-15%), it is because of mechanical damage & overloading
 Circuit breaker (10-12%)
 Generators, motors & transformers etc (10-15%), it is because of overloading and transient.
o Overloading for the extended period of time causes the deterioration (break-down) of
insulation.
 short circuit current causes the thermal damage due to I2R losses
 Power system are balanced but becomes un-balanced due to fault.
 Types of short circuit and their chances of occurrence by IEC 60909: [L=line G=ground]
 Symmetrical fault: LLL, LLLG (8-10%)
 Asymmetrical fault: LG (75-80%), LL (5-7%), LLG (10-12%)

Short circuit & circuit breaker terms

 Breaking capacity or interrupting rating is the current that a fuse, circuit breaker, or other
electrical apparatus is able to interrupt without being destroyed or causing an electric arc with
unacceptable duration.
 DC offsets in an AC power system, as the systems aren't designed to handle them. For example, since
DC doesn't pass through transformers, protective equipment and any induction device that uses current
transformers won't be able to detect a DC current offset.
 A periodic waveform has a DC offset if the average value of the waveform over one period is not zero.
 The DC voltage or current component decays over the time, when this component is added to the AC
symmetrical current it gives DC current offset that convert into Asymmetrical fault current.
 The momentary current is the maximum current a closed protective equipment can withstand and
latch for no. of cycles and remain closed without damage. Momentary currents are expressed in
Asymmetrical amperes. 61kA & 80kA are HVL ratings.
 Equipment duty verification allows us to determine if the equipment wired to your electrical system can
actually contain an arc blast in the event of a short circuit.
 An arc flash (also called a flashover), is the light and heat produced as part of an arc fault, a type of
electrical explosion or discharge or ionization that results from a low-impedance connection through air
to ground.
 TCC time characteristics curve.
 Bus bar bracing ratting is actually to withstand the mechanical forces that will be created by the
extreme magnetic field repulsion on the bus bars under fault current conditions.
 An electric grid is a network of synchronized power providers and consumers that are connected by
transmission and distribution lines and operated by one or more control centers.
 The power grid is transmission system for electricity.
 Feeders are the conductors which are of large current carrying capacity. The feeders connect the
substation to the area where power is to be finally distributed to the consumers. No tapings are taken
from the feeders. The feeder current always remain constant.
 Windage losses are composed of forces created on an object by friction when there is relative
movement between air and the object. There are two causes of windage: The object is moving and
being slowed by resistance from the air. A wind is blowing producing a force on the object and tries to
stop moving object.
 Steady state stability curve is the capability curve.
 Voltage droop (dip) is the intentional (calculated) loss in output voltage from a device as it drives a
load.
 Droop mode allows synchronous generators to run in parallel with others generators, so that loads
are shared among generators in proportion to their power rating.
 The sub-transient reactance is an impedance value that entirely neglects the resistance component.
The term “subtransient reactance” is denoted by the symbol X’’d and is used to calculate available short-
circuit generator fault currents.
 Damper winding in alternator are the copper bars slotted in pole shoe. In alternator they are present
in stator and provides smooth starting and compensating the steady state effect or unbalanced
condition.
 The current produced due to sub-transient reactance is relevant to choosing a circuit breaker’s
instantaneous trip setting (breaking capacity). Thus in sub-transient condition there are few
cycles/spikes of high amplitude therefore, whose fault current is determined by the generator’s sub-
transient direct reactance (X’’d). And in transient condition there are several cycles/spikes of high
amplitude but relatively less than sub-transient therefore, whose fault current is determined by the
generator’s transient direct reactance (X’d). At the end in steady state region condition, whose fault
current is determined by the generator’s synchronous reactance (X) or direct axis reactance.

 Quadrature axis reactance is produced due to armature reaction that is Estat=-jXIA here –ve is due
clock-wise current, j shows perpendicular between Bs (stator magnetic field) and IA, and IA is
stator/armature current.
 The direct axis is at the direction along the rotor that the field winding current causes main magnetic
flux to flow. The quadrature axis is defined as the axis located π/2 electrical radians behind the direct
axis of the rotor.
  Derating (de-rating) is the operation of a device at less than its rated maximum capability. Typical
examples include operation below the maximum power rating, current rating, or voltage rating.
 MVA(sc)=MVAb x 100/%Zfault
Fault current = Fault MVA / (sqrt(3)xVoltage)
%Zfault=I x Zfault x 100/ V
 Fault current is called as fault level.
 Breaking capacity or interrupting rating or
is the current that circuit breaker, or other
electrical apparatus is able to interrupt without
being destroyed or causing an electric arc with
unacceptable duration.
 High rupturing capacity of fuse, the fuse wire
or element can carry short circuit heavy current for
a known time period. During this time if the fault
is removed, then it does not blow off otherwise it
blows off or melts.
 Making current=2.55xBreaking current

Generator at loaded & unloaded condition

No-Load Alternator
A spinning generator’s rotor is generating terminal voltage, but with no load there is no output current and
since output power is zero. The generator has several kind of loads not including the electrical output (which is
assumed zero). The power required to spin the piston’s cylinders and crankshaft weight, the friction of the
same crankshaft, and of course the waste heat out the exhaust pipe. A generator running with no load is zero
percent efficient because there is no output power created on the consumption of the gasoline thermal energy.
at no load there will be Ia (equal to charging current between terminals) at 90 leading Vp and Vp is equal to Ea.

Low-Load Alternator
Short periods of running diesel engine at low speed or low loads can result in carbon buildup. Running engine
under low loads results in soot formation (a deep black powdery mass of impure carbon particles resulting
from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons.) which is due to poor combustion and low combustion
pressures and temperatures. Also the unburnt fuel residues out of poor combustion, clogs the piston rings. This
will further result in drop in efficiency and the whole cycle repeats and the engine may become irreversibly
damaged.
It is recommended to run generator at least 4 hours at full load to burn off any unburnt fuel.
Glazing is certain to occur at loads less than 10%. Ideally a Generator should be operated at least 75%to 90% of
rated load for best efficiency and longevity.
There is a problem with running a generator at low and no load conditions. At low loads cylinder pressures are
then at the lowest and as a consequence the rings don't seal against the cylinder and scrape oil (left used up)
the from the cylinder walls as effectively can lead to carbon build up , stuck rings and glazing of the cylinder
walls. In addition carbon particles again more are abrasive (polished) and these particles wear down the
cylinder walls further reducing the sealing ability of the rings and further lowering cylinder pressures, this can
result in loss of compression and power. (Hard starting and the inability to reach full power).
Open Circuit Fault
The most common causes of these faults include joint failures of cables and overhead lines, and failure of one
or more phase’s circuit breaker and also due to melting of a fuse or conductor in one or more phases. Open
circuit faults are also called as series faults. These are unsymmetrical or unbalanced type of faults except three
phase open fault.
Consider that a transmission line is working with a balanced load before the occurrence of open circuit fault. If
one of the phase gets melted and open circuit fault occurred, the actual loading of the alternator is reduced and
this cause to raise the acceleration of the alternator, thereby it runs at a speed slightly greater than
synchronous speed. This over speed causes over voltages in other transmission lines. Thus, single and two
phase open conditions can produce the unbalance power system voltages and currents that causes great
damage. Exceeding the voltages beyond normal values in certain parts of the network, which further leads to
insulation failures and developing of short circuit faults.

Mostly open circuit faults converts into short circuit fault.

The availability factor of a power plant is the amount of time that plant is able to produce electricity over a
certain period, divided by the amount of the time in that period.
Load factor is defined as the ratio of the actual or average load over a given period of time to the maximum
demand (peak load) occurring in that period of time.

MODE OF GENERATOR

[In modes known quantities are constant, and unknown quantities are variable]
[These are the modes of operation for generator]
Slack/reference/making up/swing bus/mode: mag. of voltage and its angle are known, real and reactive power
are unknown.
Generator/regulated/PV/voltage control bus/mode: mag. of voltage and real power are known, voltage angle
and reactive power are unknown.
Load/PQ/Mvar control bus/mode: real and reactive power are known, mag. of voltage and its angle are
unknown.
Power factor control bus/mode: real power and pf are known.
There are 2 speed control modes for generator: isochronous speed control and droop speed control. These
modes are for controlling the speed, frequency, pf and real power of generator. On other hand AVR used to
control voltage level and reactive power of generator.
If a slack bus is not specified, then a generator bus with maximum real power |P| acts as the slack bus. Any
system can have more than one swing bus.
PV bus works on droop mode and swing bus works on isochronous mode.
Swing bus is infinite bus.
In stand-alone mode: there is only one generator (in swing mode) connected to the load.
In island mode: there are multiple generators are connected to the load, generators could be of same ratting or
not, at least generator should be in swing mode of greater active power, no. of swing bus depends upon total
load and generator capacities, Other generators can be PV, PQ, pf modes.
In parallel with utility grid: for infinite bus, multiple generators can be the part of grid (all in swing mode) OR
use single swing mode grid. Other generators can be PV, PQ, pf modes. (This is grid mode)
In speed mode operation speed (rpm) is set constant, governor operate in isochronous mode with tackling real
power load.
CASES AT NO-LOAD SYSTEM, therefore almost all generated power is consumed by swing bus (infinite bus)
CASE # 1: In grid mode, if we have more than one grids, and we want to make infinite bus and if we make one
grid on swing mode, then all power will sink in that swing grid and other grids will not provide any power, and
only our generators will be feeding that swing mode grid, this is because the voltage level and voltage angle of
swing which is fixed therefore real and reactive flows into that only grid.
Since except that swing grid every other source is on voltage control mode, thus its voltage angle and mag. of
voltage is variable (slightly greater than swing grid’s voltage angle and voltage mag.) and thus real power and
reactive flows into swing mode (how much real and reactive power flows into swing bus & how much mag. of
voltage and its angle will increased of voltage control grids and generator is depending upon the rating of swing
grid and generators). [This method is wrong]
CASE # 2: If we make one of our generator at swing mode whose real power is high and make rest of grid and
generators at voltage control mode, then due to variable voltage mag. and voltage angle except that swing
generator (slightly greater than swing generator’s voltage angle and voltage mag.) and thus real power and
reactive flows into swing generator (how much real and reactive power flows into swing gen. & how much mag.
of voltage and its angle will increased of voltage control grids and generator is depending upon the rating of
swing grid and generators).. [This method is wrong]
CASE # 3: If we make all our generators at swing mode and rest of our grid at voltage control mode, then our
generators will be consuming all power generated by grids by maintaining voltage & frequency. [This method is
wrong]
CASE # 4: If we connect another power grid and consider it on swing mode and all other rest of sources are at
voltage control mode, then case will become similar to case # 1. But in reality there are few or only one swing
generator in power system generation of country and act as infinite bus. But if you have certain grids then
consider all of them as on swing mode to implement infinite bus otherwise connect only one swing mode grid
just like real live.
CASE # 5: We cannot even connect any load until we have correct grid and load data.
CASE # 6: Single generator will operate in speed (swing) mode without grid and any other generator. Set point
of speed (rpm) is given. Swing operate in isochronous mode.
CASE # 7: There could be more than one generator operate in swing mode but their power rating should nearly
same for stable parallel operation otherwise small rating generator…….
CASE # 8:

Power angle and voltage angle are same, they are controlled by governor.
Voltage mag. is controlled by excitation system.
AVR and automatic speed governor are always ready to tackle load at certain defined limits.
There is always at least one swing bus present which only has to maintained the system voltage and frequency,
by providing the transmission line losses OR absorbing extra power.
If all generators of system are in swing mode then terminal voltage and frequency will be maintained at all
instants and power supplying & consuming is equal but cannot tackle the increased load.
PV bus has variable reactive power at certain limits by varying the voltage and providing constant real power
and having AVR control for maintaining voltage at certain limits.
PQ bus has variable mag. of voltage and voltage angle and providing constant real and reactive power and
having no AVR.

EARTHING

 A hole is an electric charge carrier with a positive charge, equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity to
the charge on the electron
 Any atom has same number of proton (+) and electron (-) in it, thus it is said to be neutral by nature.
 The Earth surface is negatively charged.
 The Earth carries a negative electric charge of roughly 500 thousand Coulombs.
 Earth has negative potential about -719MV. Thus being negatively charged (negative potential/lower
potential) it should only accept positive charges or holes but earth accept charges when grounded,
because of surface charge density of earth which is -1.0e-9 C/m2 which is roughly balanced by a net
positive charge in the lower 10 km of the earth's atmosphere AND distribution of earth –ve charges is
far distance AND volume of earth which allows –ve charges to let into earth without repulsion.
 Difference in charge density (charge per unit area) between the charged body and charged earth. The
charge density is always more in the body than in the earth and hence charges always flow from the
body to the earth.
 The low charge density of earth is because of very high area compared to the area of the body being
earthed.
 Charge density is a measure of electric charge per unit volume/area/length of space, in one, two or
three dimensions. More specifically: the linear, surface, or volume charge density is the amount of
electric charge per unit length, surface area, or volume. a charge density could be positive or negative in
nature if it is a positive charge density then it does not mean that there is no negatively charged
particles (e.g., electrons) are present, it simply means that there is more positive charge then there
is negative.
 Note the units for surface charge density will be charge/area (e.g. C/m2).

 Normally current doesn’t flow through ground wire.

 In 3phase case, at balance condition one phase provide in-going path and rest of two phase provide out-
going path for current from load. In other word one wire act as phase and other two wires act as neutral.
At unbalance condition, unbalancing current flows through neutral to ground and all three wire serve as
phase wires OR if no neutral at unbalancing condition then no neutral current to ground but it will
present in system.
 To make electrical equipment and human body neutral, and to absorb external unbalanced electrical
effects and fault current, we use ground wire.
 Earth fault is occurred if line wire get connected with earth wire, that’s actually single or double line to
ground fault.
 Isolated neutral is ungrounded neutral.
 In a parallel (tank) LC circuit, this means infinite impedance at resonance. In a series LC circuit, it
means zero impedance at resonance.
 In series RLC, when R is low then max current will flow through L and max voltage will appear across C.
 Z1, Z2, Z0 sequence impedances are mostly inductive nature. Therefore fault current is lagging behind
the phase to neutral voltage of the faulted phase.
 Generator-Motor

When load increases on generator either inductive, or resistive, current start increases at output, and this
current causes the voltage drop in the internal winding of generator thus terminal voltage drops as well, until
AVR is used, which increases the field current then flux increases then induced voltage increases then terminal
voltage increases.
Vɸ = Ea -IaRa -jIaXs (for generator)
At same time, when load increases on generator either inductive, or resistive, current start increases at output
but if input power is constant of generator, then applied torque increases and speed of rotation decreases [then
frequency decreases] as well to keep input power constant, until fuel supply increases to increases combustion
rate and speed and input power.
Pin = Torque applied x shaft speed of rotation (for generator)

When generator is coupled with motor of any type at input, and then load increases on generator but also on
motor as well, now in order to compensate the output terminal voltage, AVR is used, but to compensate speed
of rotation motor has to do some work.
Since as load on motor increases then motor load torque increases and current increases (motor draws high
current) but speed of rotor decreases and voltage drop for a bit because the source provide enough power at
same voltage level, thus voltage level is maintained so quickly…. after all this motor easily compensate or
increases the input power of generator.
Vɸ = Ea +IaRa +jIaXs (for motor)

Sequential protection coordination

Relay near to source always have low TSM (operating time).

Relay near to load always have high TSM (operating time).
Pick up setting of current doesn’t play very important role in sequence of operation.
We don’t considered sub transient and transient, because the current produced due to sub-transient and
transient reactance is relevant to choosing a circuit breaker’s instantaneous trip setting.
Mostly TSM is set at 0.1 sec (100msec) but the sub transient time is ½ cycle (10msec) and transient time is 1.5
to 4 cycle (30 to 80msec).
 CONTROLLING SYSTEM

Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) is a central control software system that uses
computers, networked data communications and graphical user interfaces, in other words it is kind of software
for high-level process controlling and monitoring, but uses other peripheral devices such as programmable
logic controllers, remote terminal unit RTU and discrete PID controllers to interact to the all processes plant or
machinery.
RTU is Remote Terminal Units. They are also referred to as Remote Telemetry Units. An RTU is an
electronic device which is controlled by a microprocessor. The main function of an RTU is to interface the
SCADA to the objects present physically such as sensors, relays etc. The interface between these objects and
SCADA takes place by RTU with wireless network communication (internet protocols). it monitors and control
the real time signals

PLC is programmable logic controller. PLCs are digital computers. They are used mainly for automating
the electromechanical processes. They are best for local area control, it uses physical wires for controlling.

HMI is human machine interface software allows machine operator to interact with and manage the system.
The interaction is through GUI graphical user interface. HMI only simple function is observing processes but it
allows operator to edit some basic machine parameters and it also offer control functions for industrial
automation applications

RTD is resistance temperature device.

Energy Meter

Torque α flux, Torque α MMF & Torque α (NI) 2 [when no. of turns and current both variable].
In induction type energy meter the disc rotates by inter-reaction of two fluxes produced by pressure coil
(represent voltage) and current coil (represent current). The flux produced by pressure coil is constant because
terminal voltage is maintained by utility thus its torque induce also constant (represent retaining torque).
The flux produced by current coil is variable depends on consumption by user thus its torque induce also varies
(represent operating torque).
When operating torque is greater than retaining torque then disc start to rotates…..The problem with induction
type energy meter is when load is less then less current draws by user thus less flux is generated by current coil
in this way the torque generated by current coil is less than retaining torque and disc doesn’t rotates and meter
doesn’t note down the reading at low load consumption.

We are always given Line values in question, electrical diagrams, electrical block diagram etc.
SLD can only be made for balanced system, (means load distribution on each phase is same). The unbalanced
system can be resolved into three single line diagrams for each sequence (+ve, -ve and 0), and interconnected
to show how the unbalanced components add in each part of the system.
SLD is per phase model of system. Phase Voltage is used and decided by connection (Y or Δ) in SLD

Transformer

 It is for transferring the power from one side to another side with different voltage level.
 Power transformer are rated above 200MVA, work above 33KV and at 100% efficiency.
 In power Transformer the flux density is higher than the distribution transformer.
  Power transformer contain mostly ON-load tap changer.
 Distributed transformer are rated below 200MVA, work below 33KV and at around 50 70% efficiency.
 Distributed transformer mostly contain OFF-load tap changer.
 Normal transformer is slightly different from instrument transformer. In normal transformer primary
current is depended on secondary current and secondary current is depended on load.

Synchronous Machine

Alternator (synchronous generator)

 Armature winding is on stator.

 Field winding is on rotor OR permanent magnets are also used on rotor.
 Field winding can be excited by external separate DC source by using slip rings & carbon brushes thus
acts as electromagnets.
 Field winding can also be excited without carbon brushes by self-method such as brushless exciter,
brushless exciter with pilot exciter etc.
 Separate rectifier can also be used for converting the small part of output AC into DC to feed to rotor
winding.
 In self-method for rotor excitation no carbon brushes & slip rings are used.
 Without carbon brushes there is no arcing (no heat dissipation losses).
 Field magnets is on rotor.
 Damper winding is on stator of synchronous generator (for reducing the fluctuation/harmonics at
changing of load and at steady state fault. it provide high reluctance path in order to decrease de-
magnetization effect. when speed of alternator varies due to change in load then because of load OR
short circuit fault then EMF induces in damper winding).
 Poles present on stator.
 Greater the no. of poles on stator, greater will be electromagnetics on rotor.
 Output is extracted from stator which is AC power.
 Output could be 1phase or 3phase.
 Carbon brushes are used for continuous current flow between rotating part and stationary part. (it is
used for continuous current from stationary DC source to rotating field winding on rotor)
 Slip ring are used at rotor for maintain the polarity for DC excitation.
 Main types:
 Salient pole type: slow speed, large no. of poles (8, 12, 16 etc.) on armature, large size, and has
damper windings. Example. Hydro turbine generator.
 Smooth Cylindrical type (non- salient type/ round type): fast speed, less no. of poles (2 or 4) on
armature, small size, and has solid field poles. Example. Gas & Steam (thermal) turbine
generator etc.
 Wound type rotor is mostly used in Alternator, because variable resistance can be applied for varying
the excitation current.
 Carbon bushes, slip ring are in alternator because of wound type rotor.
 The slip is 0, because of same speed (synchronism) between speed of rotation of rotor shaft and the
speed of rotation of rotor magnetic field.
 Initially low pf. Load increases then pf decreases.
 Provide P & Q by controlling Vt and f with AVR and Governor.
 Application for 1phase are stand by generator, small wind turbine etc.
 Application for 3phase are hydro, steam, gas turbines etc.
 The source of alternator is prime mover, which may be a diesel engine, a steam turbine, wind turbine,
water turbine or gas turbine.
 Speed Governor controls fuel supply valves so that to vary speed of prime mover.
 Two working state of governor: isochronous speed control & droop speed control

Synchronous motor

 Armature winding is on stator.

 Stator of synchronous motor and induction motor is same.
 Input could be 1phase or 3phase AC supply.
 Field winding is on rotor.
 Rotor is excited by DC source OR permanent magnet.
 Poles is on stator.
 Slip is 0. (Rotor magneting field always run behind stator rotating field with synchronous speed) and
rotor speed is same as stator rotating magnetic field.
 Due to change in direction of input A.C current at every angle, the flux produced also rotates (changes)
thus rotating magnetic field is generated.
 Speed is always constant at any load but under the rated capable power otherwise pole will slips and
synchronization will be lost.
 Synchronous motor is not self-starting, for synchronization rotor has to rotate initially otherwise rotor
will not move due to inertia and dis-attraction of poles.
 For 3phase: it can be started with other induction motor OR DC motor OR squirrel cage with
damping winding is used.
 For 1phase: split phase method OR capacitor starting method OR shaded pole method are used in
order to generate stator rotating magneting field and with squirrel cage OR any other external
motor at rotor.
 In Squirrel cage rotor damper winding is used on rotor mostly.
 Damper winding is used initially for rotor (rotor field) to get locked with stator rotating field and start
running with synchronous speed then once rotor (rotor field) start rotating behind stator field with
synchronous speed then damper winder disconnect OR damper winding current becomes zero because
of zero relative motion between stator field & rotor speed but DC source always connects with rotor.
 Initially same current flows in rotor through damper winding in order for rotor (rotor field) to get
locked with stator rotating field
 Damper windings are shorted with end rings
 Slip rings and carbon brushes are also used.
 At small load, Synchronous motor act as syn. condenser OR pure capacitor and start providing reactive
power.
 Initially high pf. Load increases then pf decreases.
 Consume P & Q.
 Application for 1phase are toys and house hold small machine.
 Application for 3phase are heavy lifts, cranes etc.

 Speed of Synchronous motor is constant at all loads but somehow speed can be varied by varying input
system frequency by PWM etc.
 Rectifier-inverter and the cyclo-converter are used to convert a constant input frequency to any desired
output frequency.
 By reversing any 2 input phases in 3 phase sync. Motor, the direction of speed can be reversed as well.
 Induction Machine

Induction generator (Asynchronous generator)

 Armature winding is on stator.

 Field winding is on rotor.
 Output is taken from stator
 Induction motor can also act as Induction generator without any internal modifications.
 No DC excitation on rotor and NO field excitation and NO slip rings and carbon brushes.
 Induction generator is not self-starting.
 Rotor shaft runs faster than synchronous speed of stator rotating field.
 Induction machines always consumes Q.
 Q is supplied to stator.
 Stator field always lag behind rotor shaft’s speed.
 Slip is –ve.
 Induction generator is not self-started. Therefore running as a generator, the machine takes reactive
power from the AC power line OR capacitor bank and supplies active power back into the line. Reactive
power is needed always for producing stator rotating magnetic field.
 Squirrel cage rotor are used.
 Squirrel cage rotor winding are shorted with end rings.
 Terminal voltage is maintained by reactive power source.
 Induction generator must start at no-load so that they behave as induction motor and set terminal
voltage and charge-up capacitor bank.
 Application for 3phase wind mills, pf correction generator etc.
 Application for 1phase water fall hydro turbine stand-by generator etc.
 Pf is low.

 Speed of induction generator is controlled by governor but speed of rotor should always greater then
syn. speed of stator rotating field.

Induction motor

 Armature is on stator.
 No DC excitation on rotor and NO field excitation.
 Slip is +ve.
 Rotor shaft runs slower than synchronous speed of stator rotating field.
 Stator field always leads rotor shaft’s speed.
 By varying the rotor induced current OR input phase frequency, the torque of rotor can be controlled
thus speed can be varied.
 3phase induction motor is self-starting.
  1phase induction motor is not self-starting.
 Types of induction motor.
 3phase induction motor.
 Squirrel cage induction motor, in which rotor bars are shorted by end rings. It has constant
resistance and no external rheostat is applied.
 Deep squirrel cage induction motor, in which rotor bars are shorted by end rings it has two rotor
cage of different resistances and no external rheostat is applied.
 Wound type induction motor, in which that rotor with insulated windings brought out via slip
rings and brushes. However, no power is applied to the slip rings, their purpose is to provide
series variable resistance for varying starting current, once the machine start running then this
resistance is shorted then rotor become like squirrel cage rotor.
 1phase induction motor. (Its types depend on starting mechanism)
 Split phase induction motor.
 Capacitor start induction motor.
 Shaded pole induction motor.
 With starting mechanism for 1 phase induction motor, it becomes self-starting.
 Normally, In 3 phase induction motor stator rotating magneting field can produces initial rotor torque,
but In 1 phase induction stator field does not produces initial rotor torque if rotor is initially at rest thus
we use starting techniques. If rotor is initially running than 1 phase induction motor will become self-
starting without any starting methods.
 Pf is low.
 Application of 3phase induction motor are electrical train, Printing machine, rolling mills etc.
 Application of 1phase induction motor are Air conditioner, ceiling fan, blower, water pumps etc.

 Speed of induction motor is constant at all loads, but speed of induction motor can be varied by rotor
resistance control method (wound type rotor), no. of stator pole method & input line voltage method &
volt per hertz method (squirrel cage rotor), injection voltage in rotor circuit & cascade operation
method.

 By reversing any 2 input phases in 3 phase induction Motor, the direction of speed can be reversed as
well.

The fluctuating magnetic field is equivalent to the sum of two opposite constant rotating magnetic
fields, this theory is called as double revolving field theory.

DC Machine

DC generator (Dynamo)

 DC machine can be used as motor OR generator by changing input and output.

 Output is DC power.
 Electrical output is taken from stator using brushes.
 Poles on stator.
 Commutator is only used in DC machines.
 Commutator is rotating rectifier.
 Split ring commutator is used on rotor.
 Split ring commutator in DC generator used to convert AC power into DC power at output.
 Carbon brushes are also used at stator.
  Field windings is on stator which is DC excited OR permanent magnets.
 Armature winding is on rotor.
 Armature windings is of 2 types lap & wave wound.
 Lap wound armature DC generator is used for low voltage and high current applications.
 Wave wound armature DC generator is used for high voltage and low current applications.
 Field winding is on stator.
 Field winding can be excited by DC source OR from DC output form generator.
 Types of DC generator. (it depends on different method of excitation)
 Separately excited DC generator.
o It uses separate DC source
 Self-excited DC generator. (it has also further types depending on type of field
winding)
o DC series generator.
o DC shunt generator.
o Compound wound DC generator/ DC compound generator/flat compound
generator
o Short shunt wound generator.
o Long shunt wound generator.
 Applications of dynamo are DC lighting, supply for DC motor, excitation for alternator etc.

 Speed of DC generator is varied by governor.

DC motor

 Armature winding is on rotor.

 Input is DC at rotor.
 Poles on stator.
 Field winding is on stator OR permanent magnets on stator.
 Field winding is excited by DC source.
 Field winding could be separately excited OR combine excited by DC source.
 Both rotor armature winding and stator field winding are mostly supplied a same DC source.
 Commutator, carbon brushes are used.
 DC input is supplied to rotor by brushes and split ring.
 Field winding is self-excited by several method like DC generator.
 Field winding arrangement are as:
 Series DC motor (it has good starting torque but speed decreases as load increases)
 Shunt/parallel DC motor (it has low starting torque but speed is almost same at any load)
 Compound DC motor
 Permanent magnet DC motor (PMDC motor)
 Types of DC motor.
 Brushed DC motor (It has split ring commutator, carbon brushes on rotor with permanent
OR electromagnets on stator)
 Brushless DC motor/BLDC (It has permanent magnets on rotor, Field winding on stator
and stator winding is excited by DC source to become electromagnet, poles on stator and it has
hall effect sensor for energizing the stator coil)
 Types of BLDC/ brushless DC motor.
o Out runner type BLDC (rotor is at outer cover OR over the stator)
 o In runner type BLDC (rotor is at inside OR inside the stator)
 Applications of DC motor are sewing machine, vacuum cleaner, Conveyors, blowers, spinning machine
and Techno generators for speed sensing and in Servo motors for positioning and tracking.

 Speed of DC motor can be varied by changing field resistance, input terminal voltage and inserting
series resistance in armature.

Universal motor

 It works on 1phase AC OR DC supply.

 Input is DC OR AC at rotor.
 It is also called as 1phase AC series motor because it is modified form of DC series motor.
 Field winding is on stator.
 Armature winding is on rotor.
 Both rotor armature winding and stator field winding are mostly supplied a same DC source OR 1 phase
AC source.
 It is a commutated series-wound motor where the stator's field coils are connected in series with the
rotor windings through a commutator.
 The universal motor is very similar to a DC series motor in construction, but is modified slightly to
allow the motor to operate properly on AC power.
 It has compensating winding on stator & laminated stator core.
 It has large no. of poles than DC series motor.
 Armature and field winding both fed by same 1phase AC supply OR DC supply.
 Armature winding is excited by split ring commutator from AC 1phase supply OR direct DC supply.
 Application are drink and food mixer, drill machines, blender, table fan, home exhaust fan etc.

Servo Motor

DC servo motor

 It is modified form of separately DC motor, permanent magnet DC motor and brushless DC motor.
 In this motors controlling is being done over armature current OR field current.
 It has gears system, potentiometer, error sensor, closed loop feedback control system etc.
 It is a special type of motor which is automatically operated up to certain limit and we can control the
speed of rotation of shaft and its position and can turn it ON and OFF.
 It gives high power output.
 Applications are air craft control system, robotics, machine tools etc.
AC servo motor

 It is 2 OR 3 phase squirrel cage induction motor.

 Armature winding is on stator.
 Field winding is on rotor.
 It has control winding on stator
 Control winding is excited by variable control voltage, which is obtained from a servo amplifier.
  The speed & torque of rotor shaft is controlled by voltage phase difference between main armature
winding and control winding.
 It gives low power output.
 Applications are industrial automation, robotics etc.

Stepper motor

 A stepper motor/step motor/stepping motor is a brushless DC motor.

 It complete its full rotation into a number of equal steps.
 Each input electric pulse produces one step of rotational motion.
 Stepper motors require an external control circuit or micro controller (e.g. Raspberry Pi or Arduino etc)
to individually energize each electromagnet and make the motor shaft turn.
 Applications are floppy disk drives, scanners, computer printers, compact disc drives (CD player),
3D printers etc.

Split ring / commutator is mechanical rectifier for converting AC into DC and DC into AC. A split-ring
commutator makes the current change direction every half-rotation. It is used to transfer electrical power
between rotor and stator through brushes.
Slip ring is only used to transfer electrical power between rotor and stator through brushes with same
polarity.

Tachometer generator

 Output is Voltage proportional to shaft speed.

 The majority of modern tacho-generators are permanent magnet types. These devices use a rotating
armature, one end of which is attached to a machine shaft and other end to measuring circuit
proportional to the rotational speed. The armature rotates within a fixed magnetic field, so that its
rotation induces electromotive force (voltage) proportional to the shaft's speed. The armature
contacts are connected to a voltmeter circuit, which converts the voltage into a speed value.
 Small permanent magnet motors can be used as tachometer generators in some applications.

Motor drive

AC drive

 AC drives control ac motors, such as induction motors. These drives are also called as adjustable speed
drives, adjustable frequency drives, variable frequency drives, variable speed drives, frequency
converters, inverters and power converters. AC drives convert ac to dc and then using a range of
different switching techniques generate variable voltage and frequency signal and send to motor’s
armature (stator) to drive the motor.
 75% of AC drives are used on pumps, fans and compressors.

DC drive
 It is used for speed regulation, frequent starting, braking and reversing.
 DC motor’s rotor at starting consume huge current twice OR 3-5 times the ratted current because at
initially stator field winding OR coils is not energized thus act as open circuit, therefore due to small
resistance of armature (rotor) huge current flows through brushes & split ring commutator into rotor.
 DC motor drive use a thyristor-based control circuit. These circuits consist of a thyristor bridge circuit
that rectifies ac into dc for the motor armature. And varying the voltage to the armature controls the
motor’s speed.
 DC motor drive is the set of series resistance in armature, which is used for limiting the high starting
current and for controlling the speed.
 Application are crane, elevators, spindle drives, winders, paper production machines etc

Synchro scope

 It is device used at the time of synchronization of power sources.

 It measure the frequency and phase angle difference between two voltage signals
 It has only 1 dial meter to show above two quantities.
 It is a small motor having stator winding (coil) over 2 poles and rotor (armature) with pointer attached.
 Input is 2 phase voltages signals from exiting source and in-coming source.
 2 phase voltage signals is fed to rotor from existing source & 2 phase voltage signals is fed to stator
poles from in-coming source.
 When there is a frequency OR phase angle difference then pointer of dial will move.

Direct on-line starter (DOL)

 It uses in small rating induction motors (less than 7.5KW OR 5hp)

 Direct online starter (DOL) or dual starter.
 Dual motor starters are available for motors less than 150kW on 400 V and for motors less than1 MW
on 6.6 kV
 It connect directly induction motor to line to gets full line voltage.
 Small rating three phase induction motors have Star connected stator winding instead of Delta
connected stator winding
 It is used to start motor with high starting torque thus DOL circuit allows motor to start direct on load.
 Application are water pumps, compressors, fans and conveyor belt etc.

Star-Delta starter (reduced voltage starter)

 It uses in large rating induction motor (greater than 7.5KW OR 5hp).

 At the time of starting an Induction motor tends to draw high-current (7 to 8 times higher than rated
current).
 It start motor with Y connection then converted into delta connection for load operation.
 After converting on delta connection load is applied.
 In starting the rotor impedance is low because of greater slip (s=1) and induction motor system also
draws large starting current to over-come air gap so that field induced in rotor bars then flux linkage is
established, impedance of motor cannot be changed therefore by varying phase voltage the phase
current can be controlled (I = V / Z). Once the rotor start running and attains the max. Speed about
80% of full load speed, the slip becomes low and impedance of rotor increases then phase voltage
increases to maintain required current for constant speed and flux linkage.
  High in-rush current required for an induction motor to start, drawing a high current from the line,
which is higher than the current for which this line is designed. This will cause a drop in the line
voltage, all along the line, both for the consumers between the substation and this consumer, and those,
who are in the line after this consumer. This is the reason for which a starter is to be used.
 In a squirrel cage induction motor, the starter is used only to decrease the input voltage to the motor so
as to decrease the starting current.
 The voltage per phase in each stator winding is reduced by 1.732 factor by using Y connection. So the
starting current is reduced by 33.3%. Because of the reduction in starting current, starting torque
reduces.

In starting of induction motor, slip is high, high reluctance, rotor resistance low as compare to reactance, low
pf, Rotor induced voltage is high, stator starting current is high, torque is high, and speed is low.
In running of induction motor, slip is low, low reluctance, rotor resistance is high as compare to reactance,
rotor induced emf is low, torque is low, speed is high, stator starting current is slightly less but to tackle the
load with constant speed high current is always required.

Synchro phasor

 Smart grid is unconventional way to deliver electrical power from remote power plant to your home
by increasing reliability, reducing transmission losses and reducing greenhouse emission.
 Smart grid uses synchro phasor technology along with RTU, digital monitoring and control system.
 Smart grid means the relays that sense and recover from faults in the substation automatically,
automated feeder switches that re-route power around problems, and batteries that store excess energy
and make it available later to the grid to meet customer demand.
 PMU is a technology used to measure magnitude of voltage, current, phase angle, frequency of sin wave
at different remote electric grid station then via wireless communication different power station’s
samples are correlated.
 These are measured by high-speed monitors called Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) that are
100 times faster than SCADA.
 PMU deals with real-time operation and takes sample about 20 or more per electrical cycle

 Rectifier/ DC inverter converts AC to DC

 Inverter converts DC to AC
 Transformer converts AC to AC
 Inverter transformer converts DC to AC at input
 Eliminator charger converts AC to DC at output
 Chopper converts DC to DC
 SMPS (Switch Mode Power Supply) converts 230V to 12V OR 24V
 AC drive converts AC to DC
 Cyclo-converter is a device that converts AC power at one frequency into AC power of an adjustable
but lower frequency without any direct current, or DC, stage in between.
 AC to DC: AC input-transformer-rectification-filter (smoothing)-regulator (DC stepdown convertor/
voltage regulator)-DC output
 DC to AC: DC input-frequency Oscillator (thyristor type) - transistor/MOSFET-resonant filter
regulator (LPF) - transformer- AC output
 DC to DC: DC input-switch, capacitor and inductor- DC output

 Transistor and diode is current controlling device & MOSFET is voltage controlling device.
 In power electronic components: high power rating then low switching frequency.
 Buffer/Buffer amplifier/Voltage follower is used to over-come loading effect.
 Input of op-amp (amplifier), MOSFETs and transistor could be DC or AC.

 In DC inverter air conditioner, there is Rectifier, pf corrector, LC Noise filter and PWM inverter with
output of single phase induction compressor motor OR brushless DC compressor motor.

 Proximity, limit & push button switches are for digital input.

 According to IEEE rule B-23, at any point between power supply terminal and installation, Voltage drop
should not increase above 2.5% of provided (supply) voltage.
 For sizing the electrical wires and cable, we only concern about max. Full load current/line current and
line voltage.

Passive and Active element

 Active elements: Semi-conductor, Power source, discharged devices, display technologies,

optoelectric devices, transistor, diodes, vacuum tube, integrated circuit, logic gate, operational amplifier
etc.
 Those devices or components or elements which required external source to their operation and Those
devices or components or elements which produce energy in the form of Voltage or Current are called
as Active Components
 Passive elements: resistor, capacitor, magnetic (inductive) devices, memristor, network, transducer,
sensors, detectors, antennas, modules, assemblies, photo-typing etc.
 Those devices or components or elements which do not required external source to their operation and
Those devices or components or elements which store or maintain Energy in the form of Voltage or
Current are known as Passive Components

 Electromechanical elements: Piezoelectric devices, crystals, resonators, Terminals, connectors,

Cable assemblies, Switches, Protection devices, Mechanical accessories etc.

A voltage sag/voltage dip is a short duration of reduction in RMS voltage which can be caused by a
short circuit, overload or starting of electric motors. A voltage sag happens when the
RMS voltage decreases between 10 and 90 percent of nominal voltage for one-half cycle to one minute.

Toroidal inductors and Toroidal transformers which use (ring or donut) shape magnetic cores.

Remanence/remanent magnetization/residual magnetism is the magnetization left behind in a

ferromagnetic material (such as iron) after an external magnetic field is removed.

Generator, Transformer & motor rating

 When a manufacturer makes a transformer, generator, UPS etc. they have no idea of the type of load
that will be used & consequently can only rate the device according to its maximum current output that
 the conductors can safely carry (at 0.8 lagging Power Factor) & the insulation rating of the conductors
(voltage & temperature)
 Average industrial loads include many motors, so the standard is 0.8 lagging power factor.
 It is important to realize that, for heating the armature windings, the power factor of the armature
current/line/load current is irrelevant. The heating effect of the stator copper losses is given by
PSCL= 3Ia2Ra
And is independent of the angle of the current with respect to terminal voltage. Because the current
angle is irrelevant to the armature heating, these machines are rated in kilovolt-amperes instead of
kilowatts.
 Power factor angle increases, reactive power increases & real power decreases.
 Both reactive and real power has direct relation with line current.
 Transformer is also rated in KVA instead of KW because of its losses are in-depended of pf.
 Transformers have copper losses and iron losses. Copper loss depends on load/line current and iron
loss depends on system voltage.
 Copper losses account for about 90% of the total losses.
 The relation between the life of the insulation and operating temperature of the machine. Therefore,
temperature rise resulting from the losses is a determining factor in the rating of a machine.

 Motors are rated in KW instead of KVA because we only concern about mechanical shaft output.
 Power factor of motor is already defined because of knowing factors on which pf depends such as air
gap length and no. of turns.

Power Factor

 Power factor range 0-1

 -ve sign of pf shows capacitive load and it’s called leading pf.
 +ve sign of pf shows inductive load and it’s called lagging pf.
 At unity pf, reactive power is zero and apparent power is equal to real power.
 The magnitude of line/armature current directly depends upon the load
(resistive/inductive/capacitive). Greater the load (of any nature) greater will be the line/armature
current.
 The angle of line/armature current directly depends upon components of load (resistance/inductive
reactance/capacitive reactance) therefore the angle of current further effects on pf and its nature.

 For alternator, if pf is leading means reactive power isn’t being used but load by sink into source (over-
excited), terminal voltage increases, and line current decreases.
 For alternator, if pf is lagging means reactive power is being used by load, terminal voltage decreases,
and line current increases.
 For alternator, if pf is more leading means reactive power isn’t being used by load but sink into source
(over-excited), the amount of reactive power is less than real power consumed by load.
 For alternator, if pf is less leading means reactive power isn’t being used by load but sink into source
(over-excited), the amount of reactive power is more than real power consumed by load.
 For alternator, if pf is more lagging means reactive power is being used by load (under-excited), the
amount of reactive power is less than real power consumed by load.
 For alternator, if pf is less lagging means reactive power is being used by load (under-excited), the
amount of reactive power is more than real power consumed by load.
 For alternator, if pf is unity means no reactive power is being by load, the amount of apparent power is
equal to real power consumed by load.

 If pf is lagging then means reactive power consumed by load, line current increases, terminal voltage
decreases then in order to restore OR maintain terminal voltage near rated terminal voltage, induce
voltage increases due to increases of field current.