Ani Phys Lab Study Guide

Science and the Scientific Method

- Pattern recognition: the ability to compare observable features of the world and find
similarities/differences b/w discrete events.
- We compare our current sensory perceptions with our memories of previous perceptions
- Language is an extension of pattern language. (Generalize and group perceptions by
naming them. Store symbols)

- Forethought: the ability to make predictions about the future state of the world based
on past observations
- Prediction is an important component of the scientific method

- Stages for the overall knowledge

1. Pure descriptions/observations
2. Reasoning – deductive reasoning proceeds from general principles to prove a specific
case.
Inductive reasoning proceeds from specific examples to general conclusions. Does
not need PERFECT knowledge. Reasoning from probability.
3. Empirical/experimental science – observation and reasoned conclusions and
tests them under controlled conditions

- The Scientific Method: a process designed to increase human understanding of the

natural world.
- Basis of scientific method = EMPIRISIM – a theory of knowledge emphasizing
observation and experimentation
- STEPS
1. Observation: eliminates subjective bias
2. Hypothesis Formation – explanation for an observed phenomenon. Only certain
assumptions
-Scientists attempt to disprove/falsify alternative hypothesis
3. Prediction: ability to make testable predictions of future events
- causes  effects BUT the first event does not always have to cause a second event
4. Experimentation: a procedure conducted under a defined set of conditions used to
test predictions derived from a hypothesis.
-experiment MUST be isolated/controlled AND outcome must be determined
objectively/measured
-if a successful experiment  must determine hypothesis’ predictions were met.
Basic Statistics and Experimental Design
- Accuracy: referring to how well a particular measurement conforms to “true”
measurement.
- Precision: referring to how closely two or more repeated measurements will agree with
each other.
- Histogram: a graph that represents the frequency distribution of our data set.
- Normal distribution/bell-curve: General shape of a graph that looks like a bell
- Continuous data: points that can take on any value within a range of values.
- Discrete data: data with values that are limited
- Standard Deviation: points on a bell curve – on either side of the mean –
corresponding to +ve and –ve

- Null hypothesis: hypothesis w/ 2 sets belonging to 2 different underlying populations,

with a different mean and distribution OR belong to the same population. Difference is
random sampling.
- Test of significance: a class of statistical tests that will determine which of 2
hypothesis is more reasonable.
- Significant: A difference b/w 2 groups of measurements found to result some effect
other than random sampling.
- Variance: the square of standard deviation. Used to avoid problems with –ve values
since the square of any number is ALWAYS positive
- Degrees of freedom/df: calculated from the number of data points in each set. They
are equal to the sum of the number of observations in each group minus two. The shape
of the t-distribution depends on df.

- Difference b/w two-sample t-test and paired t-test

a. Two-sampled t-test assumes the values in each data set are independent of each
other. No influence over the values in the other group.
b. Paired t-test collect pairs of values. Df = # of pairs – 1

- Randomization: ensuring that individual data points are independent of one another
by eliminating systematic bias in the collection of data.
- Systematic bias: bias that has sequence artifacts. (ex. On measurement consistently
following another)
- Observer bias: measurement errors caused by observer’s expectation of the results

- Controls of Variables: serves to eliminate bias when randomization will not.

Variables that are the subject of the experiment and variables that may influence results
are controlled.

Data Presentation and Analysis

- Data: any observation or group of observation that can be formulated or tested for
scientific hypothesis.
 - Quantitative data: numerical observation – calculating means, medians, or ranges of
values as a single number
- Qualitative data: non-numerical data

- 2 primary methods of presenting data are tables and graphs

a. Table: a collection of rows and columns that allow the presenter to compare values
across several treatments.
- compare large values
-Must have a descriptive title
-More than 1 table, should be numbered
-Must have captions on tables for brief explanations
b. Graph: 3 types of graphs: column, line, and XY (scatter graphs)
-Descriptive title
-Both axes are labeled with appropriate units
-A caption to briefly explain and provide additional info

- Type of Graphs
1. Column Graphs: useful for independent variables that are not evenly distributed in
discrete categories.
-the distance b/w the columns on the x-axis is meaningless
-the y-axis represents continuous data

2. Line graph: used when the independent variable is continuous and evenly spaced.
-qualitative and quantitative
-a break in the trend line must be placed IF there are missing data. A continuous line
could give a false impression of data.

3. XY (Scatter) Graphs: used when the independent variable are continuous and not
necessarily distributed evenly.
-STRICTLY numerical
-useful for visualizing raw data sets.

- Legends: a box on the graph that explains what each color, pattern, or symbol the chart
represents.
- Error bar: added to columns or data paints (in line/scatter graphs). The bars refer to a
number of quantities: standard deviation, standard error, or confidence intervals.

Osmolarity and Tonicity

- Source of energy for passive transport = HEAT from the environment
- Molecules with higher free energy  to areas of lower free energy
- The concentration of non-diffusing solutes affects osmotic pressure
- Diffusion: random movement of molecules from an area of high conc. to lower conc.
- No net movement = random movement remains constant = equilibrium

- Tonicity
a. In isotonic soln – water diffuses inward BUT balanced by an equal outward
movement, so no net exchange of water across the membrane
b. Hypertonic – net movement out of cell - cell shrinks
c. Hypotonic – net movement into cell - cell swells

- Plant cells have tough cellulose walls preventing and bursting in hypotonic solutions.
- Plasmolysis: osmotic shrinkage in plant cell
- Deplosmolysis: swelling in plant cells

- Animal cells do not have cell walls; they can swell and burst in solutions of low
osmolarity.
- 2 measurements for RBC
a. Detection of volume changes in swelling cells (measuring changes of the height of a
centrifuge w/ RBC after treatment
b. Time required for bursting (Soln of intact RBC is cloudy vs. soln of burst cells is
transparent)
- Crenation: shrinkage of RBC
- Hemolysis: bursting of RBC

- Osmolarity = MNα
a. M: molarity of the molecule
b. N: Number of ions the molecule can form in soln
c. Α: Activity coefficient of the molecule

- Cyclosis: the continuous directional movement within the cytoplasm

- Regardless of conc gradient, if the membrane is impermeable to the molecule, the
molecule will not cross.
- Solutions crossing the Elodea cell membrane
a. 1.0M Sucrose: shrink
b. 20% Ethyl alcohol (Ethanol): readily cross plasma membrane
c. 1.0M Ethylene Glycol: shrink
d. 1.0M Glycerol (Glycerin): shrink
e. 1.0 Urea: no immediate change
f. 1.0M Mannitol: shrink
 - Percent difference b/w the isotonic soln and each of 3 soln (ex. Comparing 0.16M to
0.4M then compare 0.16M to 0.06M)
- Percent change = VPRC @ 0.4M – VPRC @ 0.16M / VPRC @ 0.16M

- ANOVA: Analysis of Variance – determines whether factor has a significant effect

- Subject: An individual unit that will have the treatment. It can be anything (nerve,
isolated muscle, blood, etc.)
- Factor: (also known as independent variable) conditions that will vary during the
experiment
- Treatment: level of a single factor or combination of factors
- Variate: (dependent variable) the value of this variable depends on the conditions of
the experiment. There is multi-variate
- Replicate: another subject that receives the same treatment
- Replication: the process of treating 2 or more subjects the same way
- Blocks: individual subjects that have something in common other than the treatment.
(ex. Same day of treatment)

- Equations
1. General equation: y = µ + t + e
2. Null hypothesis where t = 0: y(null) = µ + e
3. Having more than one factors: y = µ + t + b + e

Metabolism
- Metabolism: the sum total of all chemical reactions that take place within a living
organism’s body
- Indirect measurements of the rate of metabolism: heat given off by the organism or the
change in conc of reactants or products

- Heat
- Anabolic rxns: building larger molecules from smaller components.
- Catabolic rxns: breaking down larger molecules into smaller components
- Heat is produced from both catabolic and anabolic reactions

- Draws in measuring metabolic rates of the organism

a. Water must be well insulated from other sources of heat
b. Organism must be kept alive
c. Only for small warm-blooded animals

- Warm-blooded: maintain their internal temps at the higher end of the metabolically
optimal range.
- Cold-blooded animals: function in a wider range of ambient temperature conditions.
 - Endotherm: internal heat of the animal is all derived from the environment, but the
metabolism of these organisms do produce heat. Heat is a significant factor in their
internal temperatures.
- Homeotherm and poikilotherm are the more accurate terms
- Homeotherm: maintains a relatively narrow range of internal temperature despite
environmental temperature fluctuations. Have pineal body.
- Poikilotherm: ambient temperature. Have pineal eye for thermal regulation

- Glucose is oxidized and broken down in carbon dioxide and water

- The released energy is used to produce new high energy phosphate bonds in ATP.
- Measuring changes in glucose or water is impractical for total metabolic rate
- Oxygen and carbon dioxide is preferable.

Electrophysiology
- Electrophysiology: the measurement and interpretation of bioelectric signals
- Preparation: the animal or part of the animal whose electrical signals we want to
measure.

- Voltage: an electrical pressure difference. The electromotive force (EMF) which drives
current flow in a circuit.
- Potential is synonymous to voltage.
- Volts (V), millivolts (mV), microvolts (uV)

- Current: the quantity of electrical charge flowing per unit time for a circuit.
- Carried by electrons (metal wires) or ions (biological fluids and salt solutions)
- Amperes (A), milliamperes (mA), microamperes (uA)
- Anodal = positive, cathodal = negative

- Direct current (DC): a constant flow of electricity

- Example: flashlight battery

- Alternating current (AC): an electrical flow that rapidly changes direction in a

circuit. Current alternates above and below the zero level.
- Fluctuation of 1 cycle per second is a frequency of 1 hertz (Hz)
- Example: 60 Hz sine wave household current in N. America

- Resistance: measured in ohms (Ω), kilomhs (kΩ), megaohms (Ω)

- A resistance of 1 ohm will pass a current of 1 ampere at an applied potential of 1 volt.

- Ohm’s law = V = I *R
- V (or E) = voltage in volts; I = current in amperes; R = resistance in ohms
 - Conductance: reciprocal of resistance. Expressed in mhos OR in Siemens.
- Conductors DO have resistance not ≠ 0
- g = 1/R OR I(current) = conductance x V

- Oscilloscopes: readout device used in electrophysiology. Receives signals, displays as

time-dependent function
- Cathode ray tube (CRT)

- Gain: the ratio of output / input voltage

- Connectors, cables, and adaptors:

- BNC cables and connectors help shield from 60 Hz interference
- Banana plug/pin plug connectors are unshielded.
- Pin plugs: Straight and distinctly narrower than banana plugs.
- Banana plugs: thicker, 2/3 wires (1 +ve connection, -ve connection, 1 for ground
connection)

Compound Action Potential

- Neurons specialize in receiving, propagating, transmitting electrical signals
- Resting potential across the neuronal membrane @ -70mV
- At rest, Na+ channels are closed. K+ leakage channels are open.
- CAP: a graded response, uses extracellular electrode
- AP: all-or-none response, uses intracellular electrode
- Suprethreshold/maximal stimulus: a point where the amplitude of the CAP
stopped increasing.
- Absolute refractory period: Na+ gates are inactive and K+ gates are open. Total
unresponsiveness.
- Relative refractory period: some Na+ gates are active. An above-normal
depolarization is required to initiate an action potential.

- Fiber diameter and myelination determines conduction velocity.

- Large, myelinated nerves are fastest
- Conduction velocity (m/s) = distance between electrodes (mm) / time interval between
CAPs (s)
- V = d2-d1 / t2-t1

Visual Physiology
- Visual acuity = Snellen chart

- Color perception/blindness test:

 a. Holmgren’s Worsteds: small skeins of yarn of various colors
b. Ichikawa’s color charts: dots of primary colors printed on backgrounds.

- 3-D perception: reindeer test

Skeletal Muscle

Property Skeletal Cardiac Smooth Muscles

Muscles Muscles
Location Heart Walls of hollow
visceral organs
Control Motor neuron; Myogenic; Myogenic; w/
Voluntary Involuntary some
neuronal/hormonal
control
Involuntary
Unique Properties Presence of Not found in small
gap junctions blood vessels
Ca2+ Source SR SR and SR and
extracellular extracellular
Contraction Rapid onset, Slow, resistant Slow, resistant to
rapid fatigue to fatigue fatigue
Filament Organization Myofibrils, Myofibrils, Scattered through
sarcomeres sarcomeres sarcoplasm, no
sarcomeres
Energy Aerobic @ rest, Almost all Primarily aerobic
more anaerobic aerobic
as activity
increases
(glycolysis)

- Skeletal Muscle Anatomy

- Sarcolemma: plasma membrane surrounding individual muscle cells
- Transverse tubules (T tubules): specialized infoldings of sarcolemma.
- Sarcomeres: repeating contractile units of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
- Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR): the terminal cisternae found in the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum as enlarged ends. Stores ionic Ca+, releases when muscles
contract.

- If the muscle overstretches, few cross bridges form and tension produced during the
reduction of the contraction.
- Length-tension relationship: when the length of the resting muscle is too short, the actin
filaments collide with the M line. This is prior to adequate tension formation.

- Physiology of Skeletal Muscle

 a. Excitation: AP on axon terminal in motor neurons acetylcholine is released at
neuromuscular junction  Ach binds to receptons on sarcolemma  Openinging of
Na+ channels. [If enough AP in sarcolemma, release of Ca+ from SR]

b. Excitation – Contraction Coupling: latent period of several milliseconds b/w the

initiation of AP at neuromuscular junction & beginning of sarcomere contraction.
i. AP is transmitted along T tubules  SR releases Ca2+ diffuses through
sarcoplasmTroponin conform change when bound to Ca tropomyosin
(2nd regulatory protein)myosin heads bind to exposed active sites to form
crossbridges

c. Contraction: Before binding to the active site, myosin heads (mh) split ATP to ADP
 mh towards M line  pulls actin and Z disk  shortening the sarcomere

d. Relaxation: sarcomeres return to resting length  splitting ATP prepares myosin

- Types of Contraction
a. Isometric contraction: a muscle contraction but muscle length remains the same, do
no produce movements or work. Ex. Pushing hands and arms against the wall
b. Isotonic contractions: change in muscle length, produce movement and performs
work

- Stimulus and Response

- Subthreshold/ submaximal stimuli: not strong enough to produce an actual muscle
contraction BUT can change at cellular level and partially depolarize the membrane.
Next stimuli can be triggered by AP.
a. Twitch: extremely rapid, jerky contraction produced by the muscle in response to a
single stimulus. All-or-nothing contraction, lasts less than 0.1 sec. 3 phases: latent
period, contraction phase, relaxation phase
i. Recruitment: # of muscle fibers contracting to increase the stimulus voltage
and contractile tension.
ii. 3 ATP energy sources for contracting muscle: Creatine phosphate, glycolysis,
oxidative phosphorylation
- Increasing the frequency of stimuli produces treppe, wave summation, and tetany
a. Treppe/staircase phenomenon: repeating a constant strength and low frequency
stimulus can make twitch contractions stronger. A muscle contracts more forcefully
after the first contract.
i. Increases Ca2+ in sarcoplasm  muscles begin to work  heat production
and muscle enzymes work more efficiently.
ii. Warm-up period before a strenuous activity
iii. Muscles must relax very briefly between contractions

b. Wave summation/summation of contraction: Before the muscle has time to

fully relax, a second stimulus occurs  another contraction.
i. Not enough time for Ca2+ to be release
 c. Tetany: repetitive threshold stimulus at a frequency rapid enough to produce
sustained maximal contraction. This will cause the muscle to contract with the
greatest tension.
i. Fatigue: a drop in muscle tension during prolonged tetany
ii. Contracture: a total absence of ATP. A state of sustained contraction
iii. Rigor mortis: after death. Ca2+ leaks into the sarcoplasm initiating
contraction. ATP is consumed BUT NO LONGER replenished.

- Motor unit summation/ recruitment: the contraction of additional motor units

within a skeletal muscle which will increase the contraction’s strength.
- Motor unit: a single motor neuron and all muscle fibers it innervates.