03 2015 Aerodynamics Chapter 1

FOREWORD
The aim of this course is to give a complete view of:
• basic aerodynamic facts in automotive design

• problems connected to cooling streams and acoustic comfort
• synthesis coming from years of experiments, as well as a tendency
• Last AUTO SALON view
Arguments on this course are the basics of fluid dynamics knowledge useful to create, define aero
performance of a car, that after primary setting, must be evaluated, verified and optimized through:
Numerical simulation CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics), the only system that can help you
to design effective Aerodynamics as you want, because you can control any physical parameter in all
sections and modify it, to reach the desired effect.
Obviously, integrating car’s style and architectural needs.
15/03/2015 03 2015 AERODYNAMICS cap 1 1

The Last BENTLEY EXP 10 CONCEPT, integrating AERODYNAMICS with Style, Compactness,
Mechanical Chassis

It will be explained the effects of aerodynamic due to variations of external shape (local
or distributed) and underbody, around performances and fuel consumption in vehicles.
After this, the main

aeroacoustics problems
explaining their influence on
comfort.
At the same time in the lab, we
will see how to use CFD to
understand the aerodynamic
phenomena, to set the possible
solutions to reduce Resistance or
improve the Efficiency and then
calculate the new form
coefficients, CD and CL
It is not true making the car Aerodynamics, the cars's Style will be the same. On the opposite, in the well
organized Car maker, many Style's innovations, ideas, they are coming from Aerodynamics concepts.
Style represent the main reason for a new car buy. A good aesthetic is imperative for the success of a car
in an evoluted markets.
But engineers must absolutely avoid

conflicts with designer's concepts.
You must know the Style process.
A success car can’t born in this way.
Style is important, packaging is
essential but the most important
thing is to interact, is to synthesize.
Classical examples of success

cars, wherein style, packaging
and aerodynamics are very well
mixed: actual 500,
Another
examples of
success cars,
Mini of Sixties,
very compact,
absolutely
innovative both
for mechanical,
first FWD
transverse
engine,
For
aerodynamics.
the first Square
Back! and
beautiful!

1967 FERRARI 330 P4 GT
The Ferrari's Pininfarina style is not “stand alone”; it is the result of technical efficiency with style
needs, with all Aerodynamics laws well understood before competitors and respected.
With15/03/2015
fantastic style! 03 2015 AERODYNAMICS cap 1 7
the first Aerodynamic engineering discipline applied
to automotive, it was since 1920/1930. Was born in
race cars and then is moved to road cars. Were
ideated in Europe: Italy, France, Germany. It
changed car external shape, with main objective to
increase maximum speed. With no attention to
handling.
SUBSTANTIALLY STREAMLINED
Very high speed on straight, very low speed

when cornering.
Auto Union, around 1930, touched more than
340 km/h, with 520cv.
Those cars were really difficult to drive in high
speed corners, because loss of grip due to
positive lift.

Modern aerodynamic is born between 1960 and 1980 in race cars where Italian intuition and English
aerodynamic school meet together. Many racing engineers were english, coming from aeronautical
experiences: they immediately understood that race cars became an inverted airplane, to produce
downforce. In the same time, an old engineer, Vittorio Jano, introduced the downforce concepts in
Ferrari, speaking with Chiti engineer and Ginther, the driver, suggesting to mount a transversal SPOILER
on top of the back of the 246 Sport Prototype. It was the 1961.
This was an
“important secret”
that Ferrari tried
to protect
declaring it as a
protection against
fuel dropping on
exhausts during
refuelling.
When new elements are introduced in the project, these are only problem but slowly the concept
became familiar and new culture is born. We can think to USA style bumpers or recent concepts
concerning the safety for pedestrian. These concepts, in the first not admitted, now are became normal,
are optimized because all cars are designed with them.
Research sophistication and experience permit to
realize aerodynamic cars also without excessive
shapes because problems and critical parameters
are known: with small parts and appendices, it is
possible to turn into a good shape a shape
considered not good at the beginning.
The aerodynamic engineers must be around the

style. Also why other elements are important as,
for example, optimization of air streams under the
bonnet or underbody design. And fairings,
appendices to running smoothly even the hidden
face of the car. A mix of knowledge make
aerodynamic some shape that aren’t
MAIN AIM OF THIS COURSE is valorize synthesis capacities that young engineers
demonstrate to have, at the opposite seems to live in a world that is often really focused on
analytic capabilities.
It is not real that making a sum of all capabilities a result is automatically reached.
Unfortunately the result is not simply a sum, it is not possible to integrate all analytic
capabilities to obtain a good synthesis job. In that case it is possible that the result is a too
big car, too heavy, not beautiful.
It is necessary to have someone in the team with a global vision of the project that know
properly the problem to reach a correct synthesis.
A good example of this kind of engineer is Mr. Giacosa. This example is nowadays really hard
to find, all synthesis competencies have been demanded to managers, administrators and
not to engineers.
We have know “vertical” engineers really skilled in one aspect but with no transversal vision.
The only vision that is useful is the “transversal”, the “horizontal”: only this is able to make a
success.

Important focus on future cars.
Modern cars are mainly built to move them self. Old cars used to move a volume with a
really “thin skin”. In modern cars the “skin” is thicker because we want safety, protection,
comfort. This makes “skin” big and then bigger cars. The length of Golf mark I (1976)was
3,6 m, now (after 12 years) is 4,25m.
Outside condition are rapidly changing: traffic, fuel consumption, environment.
Natural consequence is to reduce cars’ dimensions.
“Smart” has been a brave news: now is an example often duplicated. The “vogue” to
produce big cars has open spaces in small dimensions cars. These new cars are not scale
reduction of bigger cars, are new architectures for seats (3+1, 2+1), but especially from the
technical-mechanical and style point of view. Dimension reduction is helpful for creativity
not only for designers but also for costumers.
It is really important to avoid “statically thinking” for a long period of time. Important
experiences for this at the Politecnico di Torino are: Squadra Corse for Formula Student,
H2PolitO for Shell eco marathon, 4 wheels vehicle for personal mobility moved via H2:

We consider a wing profile with a front
wind with a certain speed (Vo):
Action transmitted to the structure

are::
LIFT: applied in O perpendicular to Vo
DRAG: applied in O parallel to Vo
Pure moment M, that try to rotate the

wing around O
.

Ρ is the density of the air,
LIFT is positive if directed from belly to the back S is the wing’s surface,
of the profile Vo is the speed of front wind;
DRAG is positive if directed as Vo C is the length of the wing.
MOMENTUM is positive if try to rise the front part
and low the rear part Three coefficients are :
• CL (lift coefficient),
Three forces are: • CD (drag coefficient)
• CM (momentum).
P = CL* ρ * S * Vo2* ½ The EFFICIENCY is the ratio between LIFT
and DRAG:
R = CD* ρ * S * Vo2* ½ ε = P/R = CL/CD
given conditions ρ, S, Vo are constant;
M = CM* ρ * S * Vo2* ½ * C CD, CL,CM, are function of REYNOLDS

number, pitch angle, roughness.
FROM THE WING TO THE CAR.
The car, in normal conditions, is a moving object inside a fluid, the air.
This defines a number of reaction (forces) directed against the wind and vertically.
If you put your hand out of the window of the car you feel a force director rearward (drag)
and, if you incline the hand, you feel a force directed vertically (lift).

This suggest to design cars
with small dimensions.
But unfortunately in late
days we see only cars, as
SUV, bigger and bigger.
What an energy misuse!
CD and CL are form

coefficient: these show
how much the shape of
the car influences forces.
We need to reduce those
coefficients to design a
good car, environment
saving.
If we consider two different cars, with the
same weight, same tires, same transmissions,
the following formula define the
AERODYNAMIC POWER REQUEST:
P = FD * V = ½ CD* S*V3*ρ
The power of the engine is used to move a

car, instead of these forces:
• Aerodynamic resistance
• Rolling resistance, directly linked to the
tires and weight
• Mechanical resistance, directly linked to
gearbox and differential
• Resistance to road inclination
Lets’ check what is the fuel consumption and the top speed of both cars, 4.5 m length, 1600
kg weight, 150 Cv engines, 2.1 m2frontal area:
Car A CD = 0,35
Car B CD = 0,29
At 130 km/h, to win aerodynamic forces car A needs 28,3 Cv, car B needs only 23,5 Cv.
At 160 km/h, A needs 54,4 Cv and B only 45 Cv.
Car A could probably reach a top speed of 207 Km/h, car B could touch 225 Km/h. All these
results are “for free”, came all from the external shape.
Car A Car B GTC F1
CD = 0,35 CD = 0,29
Top speed 207 225
Aero power
@130 km/h 28,3 Cv 23,5 Cv
Aero power @
200 km/h 102,9 Cv 85,3 Cv ≈140 Cv ≈180 Cv

The power REQUESTED by AERODYNAMICS is at “cube”: to raise maximum performances, in highways for
example, aero power raise drammatically:
•130 Km/h = 28,3 Cv

•200 Km/h = 102,9 Cv
•300 Km/h = 347,4 Cv (for F1 is ≈500Cv)

What about fuel consumption?
In modern engines we could find
a lot of technical advantages:
• High compression ratio

• Displacement and cylinder
number reduction, to raise the
mechanical efficiency, and
optimum of unitary
displacement
• Direct injection
• Variable camshaft timing
• High enthalpy turbochargers,
with scavenging
• Tumble and strong fluid
dynamic studies
• Optimized combustion
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Refined mechanics 03 2015 AERODYNAMICS cap 1 24
This can rise the global efficiency up to 0.28, but only for excellences. (in the picture the
new Alfa Romeo Giulietta 1,750 4 cylinders, turbocharged, direct injection, variable
camshaft timing, 235cv, 135 Cv/liter, 1900rpm for max torque).
The global efficiency is the ratio between the output power and what is putted in to the
engine (heat or fuel).Basically, only the ≈26% of the fuel power became moving power.
At 150 Km/h, car B use 14% less fuel than A!

In urban cycle and some extra-city trips the difference is around 7%! Calculating over
30.000 km in an year, the difference is around 600 Euro per year.
Car A, CD = 0,35 Car B, CD = 0,29
Fuel consumption at 150 km/h 8,9 km/litre 10,3 km/litre
City fuel consumption + extra-city fuel 10,7 km/litre 11,5 km/litre

consumption
Money difference over one year +600 Euro

This big difference is only due to the shape difference, with the same base weight, engine, tires. To reduce further fuel
consumption it is necessary to investigate hugely on dimensions, weight, gearbox ratios, etc.
The Audi A2 (2001) has a good CD = 0,25. During this lessons we will understand the
reason of this good aero result. The selling were not really positive. There are many
reasons: too expensive, too small engines (probably linked to the really good aero result),
bad style (really important for Italian market).

The FIAT Tempra was a really good aero example, but with low selling.
The CD was only 0.28; but the poor Quality perceived, determined the flop.
The ability of designers, technical skills of a car manufacturer, have to mix to create a
good aero shape with a nice style.
Many Japanese & Corean Style center, now has this good mix and has been able to
cross these two needs.
They have Style Center in Europe or their Responsible for Styling is coming from Italy
New BMW M6, CD = 0.28, is nice with a personal style.

PAVLOVSKI SOLID
Influences of front radius, “fore body”
Considering a parallelepiped, with “h” as the transversal dimension, air stream at V0along the
main direction. (There are a lot of similarities with a standard car).
If we change frontal radius the CD decrease if r/h rise, up to r/h=0,05 and after, CD rise again.
Why?

In a flowing stream, the friction tensionT0 is proportional to speed gradient on boundary
layer.
T0 is the friction force per surface unit.
Ssl is the thickness of boundary layer
Ssl medium = average gradient, average

friction
Thin Ssl = the speed in contact to the
body is zero, at the end of boundary
layer the speed is V0. This means
that a big speed gradient will be.
And so means high friction (T0).
Thick Ssl = low gradient = low
friction
This relation is valid also for turbulent boundary layer. With this consideration:
We do not use any more the laminar viscosity (momentum exchanges at molecular level)
We will use turbulent viscosity(momentum exchanges at bigger level, like as vortex).
From top view, with small radius Boundary layer after r is thick, and probably detached.
Speed gradient is low and the friction is low. The wake follows the same mechanism, if we
consider it as a static air “bubble” standing still in relation to the car. That it therefore comes
"sucked" little from the flow giving birth to a low depression on the "end." Being however
ample the mass of fluid interested in turbulent state, the general dissipation is high, and it is
high the Cd.
With big radius we find the opposite. The best compromise is with r/h around 0,05

The Aircrafts are “streamlined bodies” and not “blunt bodies” with “cut tail”. The Pressure
recovery connected to the soft tapering along the rear exit, compensates the major friction
on sides
The taper(as pressure recovery and wake’s
narrowing), if possible from dimensional
point of view, decreases CD, because of
reduction of wake surface.
Same considerations could be done on sides

of the car and on the lateral shape.
CAUTION: the limits the angle of the taper

(around 7°). After this limit we could reach
negative gains, because the stream might
separate and an unstable stream, turbulent
stream with thick air mass in wake regime will
be created.
Empiric rule of Wind tunnel expert:
a good “fore body”

creates a bad “after body”: optimum is a compromise.
This is resumed properly with the Povlovski’s solid, on a basic level

tapering the lateral
shape, modifying
specially the extreme of
the roof and the rear
windscreen, the wake
will be narrow
(remember not too
much than 7°)
The same results,

designing the exit on
the sides, always not
more than 7°

MOREL’S SOLID
Influences of rear angle,
“after body”
Since a defined POVLOVSKI’s

solid, Morel cuts the back at
different angles. The result is
shown on the graph: CD has
got a peak around ∂= 35°.

With small∂ (less than 7°), we have a “Fast –
back”, the stream follows the back shape, without
detaching. This is the situation of the airplanes
back with pressure recovery and low CD.
With 90° we have “Square – back” with “micro”

vortexes and not very much dissipative. This is
called also Helmholtz’s wake.
With an angle around 35°, we have two big

vortexes, counter-rotating, with a big kinetic
energy dissipation. This large amount of energy
is lost and therefore we will have an substantial
increase of CD.
Worst examples are 60’s cars, as like Fiat 127,
Lancia Delta, VW Golf, the first…...
All those cars had big steps forward (around 0.05 CD) using a rear small wing. This
appendix creates a neat separation, and those cars behave as “Square - back”.

HYSTORICAL BASE SHAPES
All the considerations studied up to know,

are the basic shake used around 1930’s.
The J shape seems an airplane, where

wing and spindle are mixed together. This
shape is really long and could be used only
for big cars, record cars or race cars.
Around 1960’s, some 24 hours Le Mans
cars had this shape and were faster than
cars with more than double displacement,
only due to the streamlined body

The K shape, Koenig, had a cut back.
The wake completes the body shape.
This body shape is very used today in compact and small cars.

CONNECTION BETWEEN DRAG (CD) and Z-FORCE (CZ)
A symmetric body, without friction dissipation and stream deflection has got Drag= 0 and
Downforce= 0 (D’Alambert paradox).
A symmetric body, with friction dissipation but without stream deflection has got Drag but
Downforce = 0.
The drag is QUANTITY OF MOTION(MOMENTUM) loss on time unit by the slower stream in
the wake.

An asymmetric body without friction dissipation (an idealization) is able to deflect stream.
This body has got a resistance derived from the deflection and is called Induced Resistance:
in this example the deflection is creating a Lift:
Lift is linked to deflection

and to the gain in vertical
momentum, due to the
speed variation: from 0 to
Vsenα
Drag is linked to loss in

axial momentum, due to
speed variation: from V0
to Vcosα
An asymmetric body, subject to friction dissipation, and that can deflect the stream can have lift
and drag, sum of drags from resistance and from deflection, associated to deflection itself, lift..
From this synthesis, with the exception of really rare situations (F1, GTs, …) comes the rule to
design cars with minimum z force, to reduce inducted resistance.
Some examples gives the idea

of designers skills that is able
to minimize the resistance with
a negative lift (downforce)
useful for active safety during
normal driving;
or the countrary, like in this

example

The peculiar shape of
the front end of this
car produce a
deflection that creates
a positive lift with V
>170 km/h.
Consequently the
steering wheel loose
sensitivity, that is no so
good

Downforce for this fast car:
-27kg at310 km/h
with a good CD = 0,31,
is thanks to enough flat underbody, except

under the engine due to the his particular
architecture, boxer flat with turbo and
catalyst, with temperature around 1.000°C
CD = 0,31
CL front = 0,02
CL rear = -0,03
CL front-rear ratio = 0,05
CL total = -0,01
Downforce on back wing at 310 km/h =
273 N
Underbody area= 3,1 m2
All “Best Practices” exist in this car to reach a fantastic CD = 0,26
• External shape as seen with Pavlovski’s solid

• In deep study of all discontinuities to avoid detaching of streams
• Flat underbody with covered fuel tank
• Front dam to reduce air pressure on wheels and to optimize the streams in the wheels compa
• Faired wheels compartments with trailing edges extended
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The spare wheel space is conformed like a diffuser
Lateral windows with device that avoid dust and mud
CLfront = 0,06 (positive)
CLrear = 0,09 (positive)

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION ON CAR’s BODY
This is a consequence of relationship between flow and pressure in a general fluid dynamic contest.
Bernoulli published in 1738 the equation that will perpetuate his name, based on energy conservation:
Ps + ½ ρ V2 = constant = TOTAL PRESSURE

(Ps is static pressure, ρ is air density, V is flow velocity, ½ ρ V2 is dynamic pressure)
Aerodynamic teach that (out of boundary layer) a stream that touches a convex shape, nearby the body has
got an higher speed in comparison to the speed far from the body. Bernoulli principle tells us that situation
has got a lower local pressure

The phenomenon is easily explained by the fact the fluid adhering to the convex wall, curved
trajectories. Then generate a radial centrifugal field, which unload pressure on the convex
wall

The opposite happens in concave bodies:
local speed ON THE CONCAVE, will be LOWER

body pressure, ON THE CONCAVE, will be HIGHER
centrifugal radial motion will LOAD the pressure on the CONCAVE body

This simple rule helps to understand immediately the pressure distribution on bodies, as
usually is measured in wind tunnels:
If the flow velocity is forced to increase, the local static pressure must decrease

A - “stagnation point” OVERPRESSURE, ideal zone for radiators, condenser and heat exchangers
B -convex body shape, UNDERPRESSURE
C -concave body shape, OVERPRESSURE, ideal for inlet for air conditioning systems
HIGH UNDERPRESSURE is in D, convex body shape, is decreased in E, less bent, nearby the roof, but
increase again in F, near the connection between roof-rear window
OVERPRESSUREis in G.This is the reason why liftback are better in races, because in this area the rear
wing is really efficient: far from wake and with a good arm, far from CG. Vice versa hatchback would be
inside the wake with a lot of turbulence
Wake is usually with LOW PRESSURE
In I is almost compulsory to have rear view mirrors. This picture give us the idea why it is
necessary a really deep aerodynamic study around this object. This area presents a really
fast air and it is necessary to reduce dissipation to reduce drag and avoid turbulent motions
to reduce aerodynamic noise. A good idea is to keep them far from the main bodywork, in a
slower air zone. A good example is the rear view mirror of Ferrari GTB 599 Fiorano:

ISOSURFACE

The new 2012 AUDI
A3: an efficient
arrangement of the
outside rearview
mirror, away from
areas of high
turbulence

WAKE CREATION
Separation creation
First situation, constant external speed and constant pressure: the thickness of
boundary layer increases, but speed profile remain similar along the body:
The motion is LAMINAR: all the particles within a parcel of air, are moving in the
same direction as the average air velocity, and “streamlines” traced by the particles
are parallel. The boundary layer thickens along a body.

Second situation, the thickness of boundary layer increase rapidly, and speed profile
becomes thinner and thinner up to reveal a speed gradient = 0.
From this point (critical point) onward, stream motion runs in the opposite way in
comparison to Vaverage, there is a detached stream, than a vortex.
The sum of all vortexes is the wake. Once detached a vortex can be only dissipative, the
wake is always dissipative.
The air particles trace out erratic, non-parallel paths, even though the average velocity
may be of the same magnitude and direction as in the laminar case: the flow is said to
be TURBOLENT
These two type of airflow, may be
visualized shortly after extinguishing a
candle.
The smoke just above the
smouldering wick, may be seen to rise
in more or less straight streamlines,
and exhibits LAMINAR flow.
As the smoke rises further, it starts to
mix and swirl and streamlines aren’t
parallel. The flow has become
TURBULENT
The transition from laminar to

turbulent occurs over distance as
viscous effect remove energy from
the flow.
The transition from laminar flow to turbulent flow can also occurs in the boundary layer.
If the velocity differencies between the sub-layers that make up the boundary layer are
small, they will slide over each other with little interaction, so giving a laminar boundary
layer.
But as energy is removed from the flow by viscous effect within the boundary layer, the
flow within it starts to became more random and the transition to turbulent flow takes
place even over a smooth body surface

The non-parallel components of the velocity of the fluid particles within a turbulent
boundary layer, significantly increase the thickness of the boundary layer, cause it to grow
more rapidly, and thicker boundary layer cause more drag

So the boundary layer may be thin and laminar over the front, upper part of a saloon car,
but it will gradually increase in thickness and at some point will become turbulent further
back along the vehicle.
Where is high pressure, is more difficult to have separation and turbulence creation
Where is low pressure, is more easy to have separation and turbulence creation

It is also possible that something might disturb a laminar boundary layer, such as a change
of curvature or surface “roughness”, and the boundary layer can become turbulent.
How thick is boundary layer? Typically, but depends on the distance along the body and flow
speed, may start as laminar and a few millimeters thick at the front of vehicle, gradually
becoming turbulent and thickening to perhaps a few centimeters at the rear of the car
PRESSURE
GRADIENTS
Air flows quite

naturally from a
region of high
static pressure, to
one of low static
pressure.
For this reason this
is know as a
favorable pressure
gradient
RED = HIGH PS
BLUE = LOW PS

However, the air does not flow naturally from a region of low static pressure to a region of
high static pressure, along what is known as an unfavorable pressure gradient
The airflow that encounters an unfavorable pressure gradient, it will go if has sufficient
kinetic energy (which is related to the square of its velocity) and if the pressure gradient is
not too step.
If one or both of these condition is not met, then the airflow may not be able to remain
attached to the surface, in which event the flow is said to separate.
This can happen with a wing, for example, if the velocity is too low, ( named as “tired flow”,
“flusso stanco”) or if the angle of attack is set too step. In either case the airflow separates
at some point along the lower surface, and in the worst case the flow can totally separate, a
condition known as stall

In the real world of viscous flow regimes, the effects of boundary layer can add to the
potential problem of flow separation. The air within boundary layer loses kinetic energy
because of viscous friction, so can cause the flow to separate.
Indeed, as seen, the flow immediately adjacent to the body surface actually reverses
direction to form a recirculating ”separation bubble”
Areas after convex surface are always places where could be present separation, since it is
more intense than the pressure increases, or slowing the speed along the wall. Wall areas
downstream of convex curves are always at risk of separation. Or, at least, a thickening of
boundary layer. Remember Povloski?
Hard bent = high speed
with a strong deceleration.
Thick boundary layer with
strong aim to separation
Soft bent = lower speed with

a reduced deceleration. Thin
and attached boundary layer

A similar situation can also prevail towards the rear of a production car roof.
The flow is fast over the top of the roof and slows again towards the rear of the car.
Boundary layer thickening also occurs along the roof, and so at some point towards the
rear, the previously attached flow breaks down and separate.
• in the front the stagnation
point V = 0
• velocity decreases at the end
of engine bonnet because
pressure increases
• flow tends to separate at the
end of roof, with some
turbulence start
• around rear windscreen and
specially over rear bonnet,
there is an unfavorable
pressure gradient, with low
kinetic energy because
velocity is low: the flow
separates
• in the rear wake total velocity
is quite = 0
Surface friction

these are the correct solution designed for very sport cars, without any hard bent
(optimum absolutely not-bent) at the end of roof, incoming the rear windscreen

PRESSURE COEFFICIENT
Pressure coefficient are indicators

of local static pressure at locations
of interest around a body
Away from the influence of the

body, air velocity V = V∞
And static pressure Ps = Ps∞
The local pressure and velocity

close to the body at any point will
be Ps and V
Now from Bernoulli’s Equation,

along a given streamlines, static
pressure + dynamic pressure will
be constant:
Ps∞ + 1/2ρV∞2 = Ps + 1/2ρV2
Local velocity Pressure Coefficient Cp
Ps∞ + q∞ = Ps + q At stagnation point V = 0 Cp = 1
Ps - Ps∞ = q∞ - q In freestream V = V∞ Cp = 0
Low local velocity V< V∞ Cp = between 0 and 1
(Ps - Ps∞)/ q∞ = 1 – q/q∞
High local velocity V> V∞ Cp = less than 0, negative
∆P/ q∞ = Cp = 1 – (V/V∞)2
∆P is the change in local static

pressure relative to the ambient
pressure P∞:
if we know the local air velocity (near

interested point) and the free stream
velocity, we can calculate the pressure
coefficient Cp

what does mean Cp negative?
Negative Cp values are indicating that local velocity has been increased quite considerably
over the free stream velocity. For example, in a competitive car, into under body to create
downforce, it needs depression (downforce being equal to depression multiplied by area)
and to create depression will need to accelerate local velocity:
V∞ = 45 m/sec (100 mph)

V underbody = 90 m/sec (200mph)
(V/ V∞)2 = (90/45)2 = 4
Cp = 1- (V/ V∞)2 = 1-4 = -3

GROUND EFFECT
The ground effect is a modification to the aerodynamic stream around a body, moving close to the
track and to the variation to aerodynamic forces linked to the stream itself.
It is widely used in race cars to add downforce.
The GROUND EFFECT alone actually add lift and only with modifications and shapes it is possible to
invert the forces and induce downforce.
A symmetric body moving on to a fluid, produces a symmetric stream, no lift but only drag.
Once moved near to the track,
aerodynamic field is modified and
become not symmetrical: a fraction
of fluid pass above the body with
higher speed then lower pressure;
a smaller fraction is under the body

with lower speed and higher
pressure.
We see then a positive lift,

generally with a drag increase due
to stream distortions,
corresponding to “stagnation
point”, frontal and rearward
A certain reduction in drag could be achieved making the body not-symmetrical with rounded
the middle line, to re-align “stop points” to make them coincident to inlet and outlet
perimeter.
Ground effect (an airplane flying very close to the sea surface)
tipically is:
Raising of positive lift

Raising of drag
Better efficiency

DOWNFORCE is generated if shapes are modified to produce a faster stream under the car.
The faster stream produce a lower pressure then downforce.

All this is done using the Venturi Tube properties.
The Tube is crossed by a mass flow defined by the exit area, with the speed V2 almost
identical to Vo.
It is clear that due to the inferior inlet section, V1 will be higher than the outer speed (V0) and
the pressure will be LOWER.
Inside the Venturi, were all speeds are higher than outside, there is generally a lower
pressure than outside.

The Tube is crossed by a mass flow defined by the exit area, with the speed V2 almost identical to Vo.
It is clear that due to the inferior inlet section, V1 will be higher than the outer speed (V0) and the
pressure will be LOWER.
Inside the Venturi, were all speeds are higher than outside, there is generally a lower pressure than
outside.
VENTURI
TUBE

A benefic effect is
created when a
Venturi end up in this end up
the restricted exactly in the
zone of a bigger restricted area of
Venturi, a lower a bigger Venturi,
pressure zone. the rear wing and
lateral wings. The
This is the effect rear wing is
created by the functioning like
rear wing o fan an extractor
Formula 1 car, in
relation to the
rear diffuser
Venturi effect
The rear wing has
got two functions:
• downforce
creation
• boundary effect
for rear diffuser
extraction
The base
philosophy is
always the same:
create downforce
with the minimum
of drag, in order to
reach the
maximum global
efficiency .
No one control under body depression
It is interesting to
understand
conceptual Side – Skirt, which prevent outside air from
evolutions of race interfering with air passing beneath the car and thus
spoiling the effect. The side-skirt locked sideways of
cars designers, the flow of air and maintained the side pods under
high depressure
also after rules
variation, that
defined the
Flat – bottom, with ground clearance very short: the
aerodynamic flat bottom was nuts, very near to the ground
morphology of
body work.
Sharp edges, in order to have a flow detachment and
vortex creation, which was functioning as a
aerodynamic side-skirt

One more efficient aerodynamic side-skirt was the
“Borda lip” because the sharp edges became thin and
flat, forcing the air flow descending off with a
significant vortex
Details about Borda lip with streamlines explaining

the vortex formation
The most efficient aerodynamic side-skirt, with

efficient transverse velocity vectors inside the double
bottom, introduced as the first on the Ferrari F1 92A
(1992) and now presented in many 2011 F1 (Mc
Laren)

Renault Clio RS with good underbody with a real Venturi effect, almost 6°
beginning exactly from the rear
15/03/2015 wheel
03 2015 axis
AERODYNAMICS cap 1 96
F 355 - 1994: is the first Ferrari/Pininfarina
with depression on underbody , officially
declared. Due the transverse gearbox, the •4250mm 2450mm
width of Venturi Channels are limited. •V8 3495,5
On the front can see the air intake for •380cv a 8250rpm
•363Nm a 6000rpm
channeling the flow underbody
•4”.7 295 km/h

360 Modena 1999
The first with
LONGITUDINAL
GEARBOX,
to allow a rear
diffuser larger,
more efficient, and
a special front air
intake to channel
air into the
underbody to
power the rear
diffuser.

Ferrari Enzo, with a clean external shape, has more downforce than Ferrari F40 with its big rear wing. The
new Mercedes C class has got a really low Cd, without affecting design. In synthesis: the best project is
the good balance between endings, often in opposition
FERRARI ENZO 2002

Downforce
•344 kg a 200km/h
•700 kg a 300km/h
•585 a 350 km/h
•4702mm 2650mm
•V12 5999
•660cv a 7800rpm
•657Nm a 5500rpm
•3”.65 350 km/h

L= 4665 W=1995 H=1336 WB=2750 Engine V12-5999cm3 620CV
599 GTB Fiorano 2006
Max speed=330 0-100km/h= 3’’,7 fuel consumption 401 g/km CO2

-70kg at 200km/h, -160kg at 300km/h, -190kg a 330km/h (CL = -0,190
The CD is really good = 0,336
Aerodynamic Efficiency = -0,190/0,336 = 0,57

The main device for reaching enough downforce with small Drag is the rear extractor,
very well done, with vertical strake and correct inclination

The streamlines show
the air flow attached
until rear end,
energized with lateral
pillar C, designed to
energize the flow
through them. Also the
rear Bonnet has a
spoiler to avoid early
separate airflow and
again reenergize the
flow and controlling
recirculation of air.
With a wake very small
and rear extractor
working for downforce:
F 430 Scuderia 2007
Downforce
-75kg at 150 km/h
-300kg at 320km/h

•4510mm 2600mm
•V8 4307
•510cv a 8500rpm
•470Nm a 5250rpm
•3”.6 320km/h
•360 g/km CO2

Engine and gearbox longitudinal to
make room for diffusers

Ferrari 599 XX with the underbody completely coated and the rear extractor inclination
greater than 7 °, even 16 °. How does it work?
15/03/2015 03 2015 AERODYNAMICS cap 1 599 xx114

2009
Downforce = 280kg a 200km/h 630kg a 300km/h
ACTIFLOW™ SYSTEM - 1st Technology Application
Suction pump
Project 141XX
February 2009
DOWNFORCE +12% AERODYNAMICS
15/03/2015 03 2015EFFICIENCY
AERODYNAMICS cap 1+15% Property of Ferrari S.p.A. 115
Electro fans the two aspiring from the downside Venturi 17°, in order to maintain the
stream attached and throw from the rear lights, energizing the wake

The central Venturi channel with increased inclination, until 16°, just due sucked flow,
trough the porous set

599 GTO 2010
style as a
dialectical
interaction
between
aerodynamic
and
performance
the lowest
understeer
gradient

Downforce = -144kg a 200km/h
• L=4710mm
• WB=2750mm
• H=1326mm
• W=1962
• 3”.35 - 335km/h
• 411 g/km CO2
Downforce = 144kg a 200km/h
V12 long front after Faxle
•V12 5999
•670cv a 8250rpm
•620Nm a 6500rpm

Ferrari 458 Italia 2009

• L=4527mm
• WB=2650mm
• H=1213
• W=1937
• V8 4499cm3
• 570cv a 9000rpm
• 540Nm a 6000rpm
• 3”.4 325km/h
• 307 g/km CO2
AS WELL AS EVERY FERRARI CAR, THE DEFINITION OF LINES AND VOLUMES IS THE RESULT OF AN INTEGRATION BETWEEN
AERODYNAMIC AND STYLE. THE 458 DESIGN, MADE BY PININFARINA, IS BASED ON A COMPACT FORM AND SLEEK,
EXPRESSION
15/03/2015 OF ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS, EFFICIENCY
03 2015AND LIGHTNESScap
AERODYNAMICS THAT
1 INSPIRED ALL PROJECT 128
• Cd = 0,33
• CL = -0,36
• EA = 1,091
• -140kg at 200 km/h
15/03/2015 03 2015 AERODYNAMICS cap 1 • -360kg at 129
325 km/h
Today the actual F12 Berlinetta
(2012) reaches the best Efficiency
never seen before for GT, very low
CD and a very good Download.
And this with

no
compromise
with style,
that is
original and
congruent
with Ferrari’s
Story
E = CL/CD = 1,12
CD = 0,299
15/03/2015 03 2015 AERODYNAMICS cap 1 Download at 200 km/h = 130
-123 kg
TOTAL ROAD RESISTANCE CALCULATION
Aero resistance is just one of the resistance that are against motion on a car. There is the rolling
resistance and the transmission resistance, for example.
Generally speaking, resistance is a function of speed: this is the law we want to define.
The car launched to a certain speed is considered and then quickly in Neutral. Trhe car will decelerate
according to the fundamental law of Newton
(Mv + Mer) dV/dT = –R(V)
Mv is translating mass, Mer is the wheel mass and other rotating masses.
We can measure the resistance law if we put in neutral the car from the top speed until the stop. We
can measure the deceleration law with different methods.
A resistance law could be:
R(V) = K1 + K2 V2

K1, K2 can be easily calculated. To define a law speed resistance we can do a deceleration test from 10
and5 km/h, we will calculate the resistance at 7,5 km/h. at this speed
K2 V2
Will be zero and we can define K1.

The same test between higher speeds (180 to170 km/h) will give us the resistance at 175 km/ and we
can define K2.This method could be easily replicated and give good numbers that could be used for a
correlation between calculation and wind tunnel. To obtain proper numbers it is necessary to use
coherent quantities (m/s, N, second,

an order of magnitude about our form coefficients, for the most important car classes M.Y. 2011-2015:
CD CL Efficiency CL/CD
Citycar 0,35 – 0,25 +
Off Roads 0,38 – 0,35 +
Suv, Crossover 0,35 – 0,3 +
Van 0,39 – 0,35 +
Two Volumes 0,35 – 0,29 +
Sedan 0,3 – 0,22 -
Sports 0,35 – 0,3 -0,1 -0,2 -0,45 0,6 --1,5
Racing F1 0,7 – 0,5 -2,9 3,4
Racing GT 0,4 – 0,6 -7 8,3


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FOREWORD

The aim of this course is to give a complete view of:

• basic aerodynamic facts in automotive design

Obviously, integrating car’s style and architectural needs.

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After this, the main

But engineers must absolutely avoid

Classical examples of success

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Very high speed on straight, very low speed

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The aerodynamic engineers must be around the

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Action transmitted to the structure

LIFT: applied in O perpendicular to Vo

DRAG: applied in O parallel to Vo

Pure moment M, that try to rotate the

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M = CM* ρ * S * Vo2* ½ * C CD, CL,CM, are function of REYNOLDS

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CD and CL are form

The power of the engine is used to move a

Top speed 207 225

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•130 Km/h = 28,3 Cv

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• High compression ratio

At 150 Km/h, car B use 14% less fuel than A!

Fuel consumption at 150 km/h 8,9 km/litre 10,3 km/litre

City fuel consumption + extra-city fuel 10,7 km/litre 11,5 km/litre

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New BMW M6, CD = 0.28, is nice with a personal style.

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T0 is the friction force per surface unit.

Ssl is the thickness of boundary layer

Ssl medium = average gradient, average

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Same considerations could be done on sides

CAUTION: the limits the angle of the taper

a good “fore body”

This is resumed properly with the Povlovski’s solid, on a basic level

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The same results,

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Since a defined POVLOVSKI’s

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With 90° we have “Square – back” with “micro”

With an angle around 35°, we have two big

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All the considerations studied up to know,

The J shape seems an airplane, where

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in this example the deflection is creating a Lift:

Lift is linked to deflection

Drag is linked to loss in

Some examples gives the idea

or the countrary, like in this

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