Yurmouk University

Al Hijjawi Faculty for Engineering Technology

Electrical Power Engineering Department

Secondary project:

Load Frequency Control

of Multi-Area Power System

Done by:

Hasan Abu Alasal (2005975097)

Mohammed Abu Alhaija (2005975098)

Supervised by:

Dr. Muwaffaq Alomoush

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CONTENTS
Page
Dedication…………………………………………………………………………3
Abbreviations………………………………………………………………………..4
Summary.……….………………………………….……………….……………….………5

CHAPTER ONE: REVIEW OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

1.1 Introduction to Control Systems…………………………………………...8
1.2 Stability……………………………..………………………….….……………9
1.2.1. The Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion….………...…….…….…...10
1.2.2. The Root-locus method……………………..……..………..……….12
1.3 The PID Controllers
1.3.1. Introduction………………………….……………..………………..13
1.3.2. Basic Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) Circuit..……..…………14
1.3.3. Proportional (P) controller………………..…..……….…………15
1.3.4. Proportional-Integral (PI) Controller…………..……..…………16
1.3.5. Proportional-Derivative (PD) Controller………..…….…………17
1.3.6. Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controller……….….…19

CHAPTER TWO: INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB AND SIMULINK

2.1 MATLAB……....………………………………….……………..…….………20
2.2 SIMULINK…...………………………………….……………………………20

CHAPTER THREE: LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL

3.1 Frequency-power characteristics of synchronous generators…….……23
3.2 Basic generator control loops.….…….…...………………...……………..25
3.3 The procedure of Load Frequency Control…………..………………..26
3.4 Models and block diagrams………………...………………………….27
3.4.1 Generator Model…………………………………………………27
3.4.2 Load Model………………………………………………………27
3.4.3 Prime Mover Model……………………………………………...28
3.4.4 Governor Model………………………………………………….28
3.5 Automatic generation control…….…..……….…………………...…...32
3.5.1 AGC in single area system…...……………….………………………33
3.5.2 AGC in multi-area system……...………….……………………..35
3.5.3 Tie-Line Bias Control……………………………………………….…40
3.5.4 AGC with Optimal Dispatch of Generation…………………………45

Conclusions and further work……………………………………………………….46

References………………………………………………………………………………47

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DEDICATION
This project is dedicated with love and respect to our families for the help, love
and emotional support they offered us with no hesitation. And also to our beloved
college Alhijjawi for engineering technology for the great environment it gave to
us and to our friends and future colleagues, with special thanks to our respectful
supervisor Dr. Muwaffaq Alomoush who helped us with all he could, and to the
rest of our instructors and friends.

So, thanks for every one helped finishing this work.

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ABBREVIATIONS:

AGC: Automatic Generation Control.

LFC: Load Frequency Control.

SD: Speed Droop.

ACE: Area Control Error.

RA: Reset Action.

AVR: Automatic Voltage Regulation.

EDG: Economic Dispatch of Generation.

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SUMMERY

As the demand of electrical power is increasing and becoming a global issue, the
need of interconnecting power systems is growing up; this growth represents a
great challenge for power engineers, challenges in making power systems reliable,
economic and safe for both supplier and customer, these challenges are
represented in different sections of power systems from protection coordination to
economic dispatch of generation through other many technical and economical
problems.

An important problem is the Load Frequency Control (LFC) which is directly

related to such interconnection in power systems. Other problems related to such
interconnection like the Automatic Voltage Regulation (AVR) have less
intersection in operation with LFC. So, in this project, we will mainly display the
causes and effects of the (LFC) problem, trying to configure its mechanism and to
simulate the system response to such control.

As the name (Load Frequency Control) indicates, this topic deals with the
control of frequency of the system as the load (demand) varies. Since the
frequency of the system does affect the whole operation of the system, especially
for interconnected power systems of multi-area, and as the main objective of
control in power systems is to generate and deliver power as economically and
reliably as possible, then it is important to consider the control of the frequency of
the system.

Frequency and generation control is the major problem in interconnected power

networks. If a network frequency is changed over ±10%, units can leave from
synchronization with the network. These changes are to make impossible the
network interconnection. This issue is becoming more significant recently with
increasing size, changing structure, and complexity of interconnected power
systems. So, to provide the stability of a system, active power balance and

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constant frequency are required. Frequency depends on active power balance. If

any change occurs in active power demand/generation in power system, frequency
can not be held in its rated value. So, oscillations increase in both power and
frequency. Thus, system subjects to a serious instability problems. To improve the
stability of a power network, it is necessary to design a load frequency control
system that controls the power generation and active power of tie lines. In an
interconnected power system network with two or more areas, the generation
within each area has to be controlled so as to maintain scheduled power
interchange.

Because of the relationship between active power and frequency, three-levels of

automatic generation control have been proposed by power system researchers.

Levels of LFC

Load Frequency Control has to be of two main control loops, these are primary
and secondary control. In primary control, control action is realized by turbine-
governor system in the plant. In this control level only the active power is
balanced. However, maintaining the frequency at scheduled value (e.g. 50 Hz) can
not be provided. Therefore, steady state frequency error can occur forever. So this
level is not enough for interconnected systems, as the frequency must be equal at
all areas. The second level of generation control, called secondary or
supplementary control is made in large power systems which include two or more
areas. Active power is controlled at the tie lines between neighbor areas by the
concept of Automatic Generation Control (AGC) and there are central and local
load control and distribution centers. The final level of generation control is
Economic Dispatch of Generation (EDG) among the all plants. The major aim of
this control is to maintain each unit’s generation at the most economic value.
Among this project we are interested only in the two main control levels, namely
the primary and secondary.

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No one of these control levels could be understood or realized with out under-
standing the main concepts of control system theory, so a review of some
important concepts of the control system theory is given in chapter one of this
project, farther more, considering the importance of the PID controllers, being the
most kwon and popular controllers in control systems, a special section of chapter
one was added. Also, as the facility of simulating the response of our systems of
interest is the MATLAB program and its SIMULINK package, another chapter
(Chapter two) is given as a review of the basics of MATLAB and SIMULINK.

Finally, the main chapter of this project; chapter three is concerned with the
analysis of the main elements and loops of LFC, and in the simulation of single
and interconnected multi-area (two-area) power systems, respectively.

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CHAPTER 1

REVIEW OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS

The first step in the analysis and design of any control system is the mathematical
modeling of the system. The two most common methods are the transfer function
approach and the state equation approach. The state equations can be applied to
portray linear as well as non-linear systems. As all physical systems are non-linear
to some extent, then, in order to use the transfer function and linear state
equations, the system must first be linearized. Thus, proper assumptions are made
so that the system can be characterized by a linear mathematical model [4]. The
model may be validated by analyzing its performance for realistic input conditions
and then by comparing with field test data taken from the dynamic system in its
operating environment. Once an acceptable controller has been designed and
tested on the model, the feedback control strategy is then applied to the actual
system to be controlled. When we wish to develop a feedback control system for a
specific purpose, the general procedure may be summarized as follows:
1. Choose a way to adjust the variable to be controlled; e.g. the mechanical
load will be positioned with an electric motor or the temperature could be
controlled by an electrical resistance heater, (or active power generated can
be controlled by adjusting the valves of the governor of the turbine).
2. Select suitable sensors, power supplies, amplifiers, etc.., to complete the
loop.
3. Determine what is required for the system to operate with the specified
accuracy in steady-state and for the desired response time.

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4. Analyze the resulting system to determine its stability.

5. Modify the system to provide stability and other desired operating
conditions by redesigning the amplifier/controller, or by introducing
additional control loops [4].

The objective of the control system is to control the output c(t) in some
prescribed manner by the input r(t) through the elements of the control system.
Some of the essential characteristics of feedback control system are investigated in
the following sections.

1.2 STABILITY:

Considering the block diagram of a simple closed loop control system as shown in
Fig 1.1 below, where R(s) is the S-domain reference input, C(s) is the S-domain
controlled output, G(s) is the plant transfer function, k is a simple gain controlled,
and the feedback element H(s) represents the sensor transfer function. The closed-
loop transfer function is:
C (s) k × G (s)
= T (S ) = (1.1)
R (s) 1 + ( k × G ( s ) × H ( s ))

R (s ) C (s )
k G (s )

H (s )

Fig. 1.1. Block diagram of simple closed loop system.

or the s-domain response is:

C (s) = T (s) × R (s) (1.2)

The gain, k G ( s) H ( s) , is commonly referred to as the open-loop transfer

function. For a system to be usable, it must be stable. A linear time-invariant
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system is stable if every bounded input produces a bounded output. We call this
characteristic stability. The denominator polynomial of the closed-loop transfer
function set equal to zero is the system characteristic equation. That is the
characteristic equation is given by:
1+ k G (s) H (s) = 0 (1.3)

The roots of the characteristic equation are known as the poles of the closed-
loop transfer function. The response is bounded if the poles of closed-loop system
are in the left-hand portion of the s-plane. Thus, a necessary and sufficient
condition for a feedback system to be stable is that all the poles of the system
transfer function have negative real parts.

In the classical control theory, several techniques have been developed

requiring little computation for stability analysis, one of these techniques is the
Routh-Hurwitz criterion. Consideration of the degree of stability of a system often
provides valuable information about its behavior. That is, if it is stable, how close
it is to being unstable? This is the concept of relative stability. Usually, relative
stability is expressed in terms of the speed of response and overshoot. Other
methods frequently used for stability studies are the Bode diagram, Root-locus,
Nyquist criterion, and Lypunov’s stability criterion, but we are to consider Routh-
Hurwitz and Root-locus methods here [4].

1.2.1. THE ROUTH-HURWITZ STABILITY CRITERION

The Routh-Hurwitz criterion provides a quick method for determining absolute

stability that can be applied to an nth order characteristic equation of the from

n n −1
a s
n
+ a n −1 s + .......... .. + a s
1
+ a 0
= 0 (1.4)

The criterion is applied through the use of a Routh table defined as:

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n
a a …..
s n a n−2 n−4

n −1 …..
s a n −1 a n−3 a n−5

n−2 …..
s b 1 b 2 b 3

n −3
c …..
…..
s 1 c 2 c 3

… ….. ….. ….. …..

an, an-1,…., a0 are coefficient of the characteristic equation and

a a
n −1 n−2
− a a n n −3 ; a a n −1 n−4
− a a n n−5
b 1
= b 2
=
a n −1 a n −1

ba − a b ba − a b
c = 1 n−3 n −1 2 ; c = 1 n−3 n −1 3
1 2
b 1 b 1

Calculations in each row are continued until only zero elements remain. The
necessary and sufficient condition that all roots of (1.4) lie in the left of the s-plane
is that the elements of the first column of the Routh-Hurwitz array have the same
sign. If there are changes of signs in the elements of the first column, the number
of sign changes indicates the number of roots with positive real parts. If the first
element in a row is zero, it is replaced by a very small positive number Є, and the
calculation of the array is completed. If all elements in a row are zero, the system
has poles on the imaginary axis, pairs of complex conjugate roots forming
symmetry about the origin of the s-plane, or pairs of real roots with opposite sings.
In this case, an auxiliary equation is formed from the preceding row. The all-zero
row is then replaced with coefficients obtained by differentiating the auxiliary
equation [4] [7].

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1.2.2. THE ROOT-LOCUS METHOD

The Root-locus method, developed by W.R. Evans, enables us to find the closed-
loop poles from the open-loop poles for all the values of the gain of the open-loop
transfer function. The Root-locus of a system is a plot of the roots of the system
characteristic equation as the gain factor k is varied. Therefore, the designer can
select a suitable gain factor to achieve the desired performance criteria. If the
required performance can not be achieved, a controller can be added to the system
to alter the root-locus in the required manner. Consider again the feed-back control
system given in Fig 1.1. In general, the open loop transfer function is given by:
k (s + z )( s + z )........( s + z )
k × G (s) × H (s) = 1 2 m (1.5)
(s + p )( s + p )......... ( s + p )
1 2 n

Where m is the number of finite zeros, and n is the number of finite poles of the
loop transfer function. If n > m, there are ( n − m ) zeros at infinity. The
characteristic equation of the closed-loop transfer function is given by (1.3);
therefore
(s + p )( s + p )......... .( s + p
1 2 n
)
(1.6)
= −k
(s + z )( s + z )......... ...( s + z
1 2 m
)

From equation 1.6 it follows that for a point so in the s-plane to be on the root-
locus, when 0 < k < ∞, it must satisfy the following two conditions.
product of vector lengths from finite poles to s o
k = (1.7)
product of vector lengths from finite zeros to s o

And
∑angles of zeros of G× H(s) − ∑angles of poles of G× H(s) = r(180o ) (1.8)

where r =±1, ±3, ±5,…

A good knowledge of the characteristics of the root-loci offers insights into the
effects of adding poles and zeros to the system transfer function. It is important to
know how to construct the root-locus by hand, so we can design a simple system
and be able to understand and develop the computer-generated loci [4].

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1.3 THE PID CONTROLLERS:

1.3.1 Introduction:
When working with applications where control of the system output due to
changes in the reference value or state is needed, implementation of a control
algorithm may be necessary. Examples of such applications are motor control,
control of temperature, pressure, flow rate, speed, force, LFC, AVR or other
variables. The PID controller can be used to control any measurable variable, as
long as this variable can be affected by manipulating some other process variables.
Many control solutions have been used over the time, but the PID controller has
become the ‘industry standard’ due to its simplicity and good performance. For
further information about the PID controller and its applications the reader should
consult other sources [3].

In Figure 1.2 a schematic of a system with a PID controller is shown. The PID
controller compares the measured process value y with a reference set point value,
y0. The difference or error, e, is then processed to calculate a new process input, u.
This input will try to adjust the measured process value back to the desired set
point. The alternative to a closed loop control scheme such as the PID controller is
an open loop controller. Open loop control (no feedback) is in many cases not
satisfactory, and is often impossible due to the system properties. By adding
feedback from the system output, performance can be improved.

y0 e u y
-
PID SYSTEM

Figure 1.2 Closed Loop System with PID controller

Unlike simple control algorithms, the PID controller is capable of manipulating

the process inputs based on the history and rate of change of the signal. This gives
a more accurate and stable control method. The basic idea is that the controller

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reads the system state by a sensor, and then it subtracts the measurement from a
desired reference to generate the error value. The error will be managed in three
ways, to handle the present, through the proportional term, recover from the past,
using the integral term and finally to anticipate the future, through the derivate
term. Figure 1.3 shows the PID controller schematics, where Tp, Ti and Td denote
the time constants of the proportional, integral, and derivative terms respectively
[3].

Td d
dt
+
e TP + u

+
Ti

Figure1.3 The PID controller schematic.

1.3.2 Basic Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) Circuit

Figure 1.4 shows a simple Op-Amp circuit with input voltage Vi(s), output voltage
Vo(s), input impedance Zi(s) and feedback impedance Zf (s) [3]. It can be shown
that the transfer function of the circuit can be written as

G (s) =
Vo ( s )
= −
Z f
(s)
(1.9)
Vi ( s ) Z i
(s)

Zf (s)

-
Zi(s)
+
Vi(s) Vo(s)

Figure 1.4 Operational amplifier (Op-Amp) schematic of PID controller.

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Simple RC circuits can be used to generate the input and feedback impedances
required to generate transfer functions for P, PI, PD, and PID controllers. To
understand the implementation of the controllers described below, recall:
1) The total impedance of two components in series is the sum of the individual
impedances; and
2) The inverse of the total impedance of two components in parallel is the sum of
the inverses of the individual impedances. Note that the impedance of a resistor
with resistance R is Z(s) = R, and the impedance of a capacitor of capacitance
C is
1
Z(s) = . (1.10)
c s

The total impedance of a resistor and a capacitor in series is

1 R C s +1
Z(s) = R + = (1.11)
C s C s
The inverse of the total impedance of a resistor and capacitor in parallel is
1 1 (1.12)
= +C s
Z(s) R
So the total impedance of the two in parallel is
R (1.13)
Z(s) = .
R C s +1

1.3.3 Proportional (P) Controller

To form a P controller, let the input impedance be generated by a resistor of

resistance Ri, and let the feedback impedance be generated by a resistor of
resistance Rf. In this case, the impedances are Zi(s)) = Ri and Zf (s)) = Rf, and the
transfer function of the circuit is

G (s) = − R f
= Kp = constant . (1.14)
R i

The proportional term (P) gives a system control input proportional with the
error. Using only P control gives a stationary error in all cases except when the
system control input is zero and the system process value equals the desired value.

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In Figure 1.5 the stationary error in the system process value appears after a
change in the desired value (ref). Using a too large P term gives an unstable
system.

Figure 1.5. Step response of P controller.

1.3.4 Proportional-Integral (PI) Controller

To form a PI controller, let the input impedance be generated by a resistor of

resistance Ri and a capacitor of capacitance Ci in parallel, and let the feedback
impedance be generated by a capacitor of capacitance Cf. In this case, the
impedances are

= R i
=
1
.
z i
and z f
(1.15)
R c +1
i i c f
s

And the transfer function of the circuit is:

G (s) = −
1
• R C s + 1 = −  C
i i i
+
1 
=−
 Ki  (1.16)
 Kp + s 
C f
s R  C
i f RC
i f
S


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The integral term (I) gives an addition from the sum of the previous errors to
the system control input. The summing of the error will continue until the system
process value equals the desired value and these results in no stationary error when
the reference is stable [3].

The most common use of the I term is normally together with the P term, called
a PI controller. Using only the I term gives slow response and often an oscillating
system. Figure 1.6 shows the step responses to an I and PI controller. As seen, the
PI controller response have no stationary error and the I controller response is
very slow.

Figure 1.6. Step response of I and PI controller.

1.3.5. Proportional-Derivative (PD) Controller

To form a PD controller, let the input impedance be generated by a resistor of

resistance Ri and a capacitor of capacitance Ci in parallel, and let the feedback
impedance be generated by a resistor of resistance Rf. In this case, the impedances
Ri
are: Zi = ; and Zf =Rf And the transfer function of the circuit is
Ri Ci s + 1

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s +1 Rf 
G (s) = − R i • R i C i =− + R f C i s = − [k p
+ kd s ] (1.17)
R i  R i 

The derivative term (D) gives an addition from the rate of change in the error to
the system control input. A rapid change in the error will give an addition to the
system control input. This improves the response to a sudden change in the system
state or reference value. The D term is typically used with the P or PI as a PD or
PID controller. A too large D term usually gives an unstable system. Figure 1.7
shows D and PD controller responses. The response of the PD controller gives a
faster rising system process value than the P controller. Note that the D term
essentially behaves as a highpass filter on the error signal and thus easily
introduces instability in a system and make it more sensitive to noise.

Figure 1.7 Step response of D and PD controller.

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1.3.6. Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Controller

To form a PID controller with high frequency gain limit, let the input impedance
be generated by a resistor (resistance, R2) be in series with a resistor (resistance,
R1) and a capacitor (capacitance C1) that are in parallel, and let the feedback
impedance be generated by a resistor (resistance, Rf ) and a capacitor (capacitance
Cf ) in series. In this case, the impedances are
R 1 and R C
f f
s +1 (1.18)
Z i
= + R 2 Z =
R C s +1
1 1
f
C f
s
Then, it can be shown that the transfer function of the circuit is

 +  R1 C 1 R f    
G (s ) = −  R1C 1 R f C f k
1 (1.19)
+ + s = −
k p + si + k d s
 ( R 1 + R 2) C f ( R1 + R 2) C s  ( R 1 + R 2 )   
 
f 

Using all the terms together, as a PID controller usually gives the best
performance. Figure 1.8 compares the P, PI, and PID controllers. PI improves the
P by removing the stationary error, and the PID improves the PI by faster response
and no overshoot [3].

Figure 1.8 Step response P, PI and PID controller.

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CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB AND SIMULINK

2.1 MATLAB

MATLAB developed by Math works Inc. is a software package for high

performance numerical computation and visualization. The combination of
analysis capabilities; flexibility, reliability, and power full graphics makes
MATLAB the premier software package for electrical engineers. MATLAB
provides an interactive environment with hundreds of reliable and accurate built-in
mathematical functions. These functions provide solutions to a broad range of
mathematical problems [5].

The most important feature of MATLAB is its programming capability which is

very easy to learn and use, and which allows user-development functions. There
are several optional toolboxes written for special applications such as signal
processing, control systems design, system identification, and others.

MATLAB has been enhanced by the very powerful SIMULINK program.

SIMULINK program is a graphical mouse-driven program for the simulation of
dynamic systems. SIMULINK enables students to simulate linear, as well as
nonlinear, systems easily and efficiently [4] [5].

2.2. SIMULINK

SIMULINK is an interactive environment for modelling, analyzing and simulating

a wide variety of dynamic systems. SIMULINK provides a graphical user
interface for constructing block diagram models using "drag-and-drop" operations.

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A system is configured in terms of block diagram representation from a library of

standard components. It is very easy to learn, a system in block diagram
representation is built easily and the simulation results are displayed quickly.
Simulation algorithms and parameters can be changed in the middle of a
simulation with intuitive results, thus providing the user with a ready access
learning tools for simulating many of the operational problems found in the real
world [5].

SIMULINK is particularly useful for studying the effects of nonlinearities on the

behaviour of the system. It is also an ideal research tool, the key features of
SIMULINK are:
- Interactive simulations with live display.
- A comprehensive block library for creating linear, nonlinear, discrete or
hybrid multi-input/output systems.
- Seven integration methods for fixed step, variable step, and stiff systems.
- Mask facility for creating custom blocks and block libraries.

Simulation parameters and solvers

We can set the simulation parameters and select the solver by choosing parameters
from the simulation menu. The simulation parameters dialog box, have three
pages: solver, workspace I/O and diagnostic.

The solver page allows us to:

• Set the start and stop points.

• Choose the solver and specify solver parameters.

Some solvers may be more efficient than others at solving particular problems.
There are variable step and fixed step solvers:

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Variable step solver: can modify their step sizes during simulation. These are
ode45, ode23, ode113, ode155, ode23s and discrete.

Fixed step solver include ode5, ode4, ode3, ode2, ode1 and discrete.

Block diagram construction

The SIMULINK BLOCK LIBRARY contains seven icons; each icon contains
various components in the titled category. The easy to use pull down menus allows
you to create a SIMULINK block diagram, or open an existing file, perform the
simulation and make any modifications. Generally, when building a model, design
it first on paper, and then build it using the computer. When you start putting the
blocks together into a model, add the blocks to model window, before adding the
lines that connect them. This way, you can reduce how often you need to open
block libraries [5].

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CHAPTER 3
LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL

3.1 FREQUENCIES-POWER CHARACTERISTICS OF

SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

Since synchronous generators are the most common type of machines used in the
generation of electrical power, its characteristics can be used to describe the
relationship between frequency and power during load changes [1].

All generators are driven by a prime mover, which is the generators source of
mechanical power. The most common type of prime mover is a steam turbine, but
other types include diesel engines, gas turbines, water turbines, and even wind
turbines.

Regardless of the original power source, all prime movers tend to behave in a
similar fashion as the power drawn from them increases, the speed at which they
turn decreases. The decrease in speed is in general non-linear, but some form of
governor mechanism is usually included to make the decrease in speed linear with
an increase in power demand.

Whatever mechanism is presented on a prime mover, it will always be adjusted

to provide a slight drooping characteristic with increasing load. The Speed Droop
(SD) of a prime mover is defined by the equation

SD =
n −n
nl fl
× 100% (3.1)
n fl

Where nnl is the no-load prime-mover speed and nfl is the full-load prime-mover speed.
Most generator prime movers have a speed droop of 2 to 4 percent, as defined in equation

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(3.1). In addition, most governors have some type of set point adjustment to allow the no-
load speed of the turbine to be varied. A typical speed-versus-power plot (known as the
house curve) is shown in figure (3.1.a).
Mechanical speed, rpm

nnl
fnl

Frequency, Hz
nfl ffl

0 Pfl Power 0 Pfl Power

kW kW
(a) (b)

Figure 3.1 Speed-power and frequency-power curves (house curves).

Although the house curves are only used for studying the parallel operation of
two generators or that of a single generator connected to a certain network, it helps
understanding the variations of electrical frequency as the power demanded is
changed, since the shaft speed is related to the resulting electrical frequency by the
equation,

n p
m
f e
=
120
(3.2)

Then the power output of a synchronous generator is related to its frequency

and this is clear in figure (3.1.b). Frequency-power characteristics of this sort play
an essential role in the parallel operation of synchronous generators.

The relationship between frequency and power can be described quantitatively

by the equation

P = sP (f nl
− f sys
) (3.3)

where P = power output of the generator

fnl = no-load frequency of the generator
fsys = operating frequency of system
sp = slope of curve, in kW/Hz or MW/ Hz.

24
 LFC

But this equation is not accurate for multi-area power systems. A similar
relationship can be derived for the reactive power Q and terminal voltage VT, for
which the AVR control loop is used, which is not of our interest in this project [1].

3.2 BASIC GENERATOR CONTROL LOOPS

As real power affects the frequency of a network, whereas no big change in the
reactive power due to change in frequency, since reactive power is mainly
dependent on voltage magnitude (LFC: controls frequency and real power, AVR:
controls voltage magnitude and reactive power). Each of them can be controlled
separately and independently [2].

LFC and AVR for generator are shown in the schematic diagram of Fig 3.2.

Excitation Automatic Voltage

System Regulator (AVR)
Gen. Field

Voltage Sensor

Steam

Turbine
G
∆PG , ∆QG
∆PV

Valve Control ∆Ptie

Mechanism

Load Frequency Frequency

Control (LFC) sensor
∆PC

Figure 3.2 LFC and AVR of a synchronous generator.

The controllers are set to take care of any changes in load demand to maintain
the frequency and voltage within specified limits. Small changes in real power
refer to change in the angle δ (rotor angle) and this will affect the frequency.

25
 LFC

Since reactive power depends on |V|, thus the excitation of the generator is a
factor affects reactive power.

There is a time constant for each of the prime mover and the generator
excitation, and this time is much smaller for prime mover and its transient decay
becomes faster. For this reason, the load frequency and voltage excitation are
analyzed and controlled separately and independently.

3.3 THE PROCEDURE OF LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL (LFC)

There are three operation objectives for LFC:

1- To maintain reasonably uniform frequency.

3- To control tie-line interchange schedules.

2- To divide the load between the generators.

Changes in frequency and real power are sensed, and these are a measure of
changes in rotor angle (δ); so the error ∆δ is to be corrected. Error signals such as
∆f and ∆P are amplified, then mixed, then transformed into a real power signal,
which is sent to turbine to cause an increment in torque. Therefore, the prime
mover (steam turbine) cause changes in the generator output by certain amount to
change the value of ∆f and ∆P within a specified tolerance, this mechanism is
discussed in details when we consider the modeling of governor and prime mover.

Typical responses to real power changes are illustrated using the simulation
techniques available in the SIMULINK package of the MATLAB program, these
responses will be viewed for each specified control loop.

As illustrated in chapter one there are two common methods for modeling, the
transfer function method, and this is used for linear systems only where as; the
state variable approach, is used in linear and non-linear systems. If we want to use
transfer function method; non-linear systems must be linearized.

26
 LFC

3.4 MODELS AND BLOCK DIAGRAMS

3.4.1. Generator Model:
We have the equation (the swing equation of synchronous machine)
1
∆Ω( s) = [∆Pm ( s) − ∆Pe ( s)] (3.1)
2H s
Where the input is ∆Pm (the mechanical input power), and the output is ∆Ω
(frequency deviation) and ∆Pe is the electrical power and H is the per unit inertia
constant having a unit of seconds and ranging from 1 to 10 seconds depending on
the type and size of the machine [2] [6].

The block diagram is as shown in figure 3.3:

1 ∆Ω(s)
∆Pm(s) 2H s
_

∆Pe(s)
Figure 3.3 Generator block diagram.

3.4.2. Load Model:

In power systems, the loads are mainly resistive loads, and this is independent of
frequency. And the other type of loads is Motor loads (mainly inductive), which is
sensitive to change in frequency, depending on the composite of the speed-load
characteristic of all driven devices. Speed load characteristic of composite load is:

∆Pe = ∆PL + D∆ω (3.2)

Where; ∆PL: independent frequency loads.

D ∆ω: frequency sensitive loads.
D: ratio of percent change in load to percent change in frequency.
And the block diagram of the load model added to that of generator is shown in
Figure 3.4:

27
 LFC

_ ∆PL(s)

1 ∆Ω(s)
∆Pm(s) 2 Hs + D

Figure 3.4 Load block diagram.

3.4.3. Prime Mover Model:

It is the source of mechanical power; it may be a hydraulic turbine at waterfalls,

steam turbine whose energy comes from burning of gas, coal, and gas turbine. Its
model relates changes in mechanical power out put ∆Pm to changes in steam valve
position ∆PV, then
∆Pm ( s ) 1
GT ( s ) = = (3.3)
∆PV ( s ) 1 + τ T ( s )
which have a single time constant τT, and its block diagram is shown in figure 3.5:

∆PV(s) 1 ∆Pm(s)
1+τTs

Figure 3.5 Prime mover block diagram.

The time constant τT varies from 0.2 to 2 ms.

3.4.4. Governor Model:

The governor is a device used to sense a turbine speed changes when the load of
the generator is suddenly increased, in that case, the electrical power exceeds the
input mechanical power. The shortage of this power is supplied by kinetic energy
stored in the rotating system, reducing the mechanical power of the turbine, [7]
[8].

This reduction in energy causes the turbine speed to fall and thus the generator
frequency to fall. Any change in speed is sensed by the turbine governor, which
will act to adjust the input valves of the turbine to change the output mechanical
power to bring the speed to a new steady state. There are many types of governors;

28
 LFC

the earlier types used mechanical mechanisms of sensing speed changes, and
modern governors use electronics. Figure 3.6 shows a schematic for a
conventional governing system.

To
governor-
Lower controlled
valves
M Raise
To close
Hydraulic
To open
Speed changer amplifier

Speed
Governor

Figure 3.6 A schematic of a governing system.

The speed governor acts as a comparator whose output ∆Pg is the difference
1
between the reference set power ∆Pref and the power ∆ω, that is
R
1
∆Pg = ∆Pref − ∆ω (3.4)
R
In the s-domain:
1
∆Pg ( s ) = ∆Pref ( s ) − ∆Ω( s ) (3.5)
R
where R is the speed regulation.
Governors typically have speed regulation of 5 to 6 percent from zero to full load.

Consider a simple time constant τg and assume linear relationship, we have the
relation:

1
∆PV ( s ) = ∆Pg ( s ) (3.6)
1+τ g s

The block diagram is as shown in figure 3.7:

29
 LFC

1 ∆PV(s)
∆Pref(s) _ ∆Pg 1 + τ g (s)

1 ∆ω(s)
R

Figure 3.7 Governor Block diagram

Combining block diagrams of the preceding models we can find the block
diagram of the LFC of an isolated power station, providing the primary level of
LFC as shown in Figure 3.8.

∆PL(s)
_
∆Pref (s) ∆Pg 1 ∆Pv 1 ∆Ω(s)
1
1+τ gs 1 +τ T s 2Hs+ D
_ ∆Pm
Governor Turbine Rotating mass
and load

1
R

Figure 3.8 LFC block diagram of an isolated power system.

For the purposes of simulation, predetermined parameters are given as:

Turbine time constant τT = 0.5 sec.
Governor time constant τg = 0.2 sec.
Governor inertia constant H = 5.0 sec.

Governor speed regulation R = 0.05 per unit, and a sudden load change of 0.2 per
unit is represented by a step input at ∆PL and the load is considered to vary by 0.8
percent for a 1 percent change in frequency, i.e., D = 0.8. The block diagram
constructed using Simulink is shown if figure 3.9 followed by the response of the
simulation in figure (3.10) with the suggested values of time constants and other
parameters [2].

30
 LFC

Figure 3.9 Simulink block diagram of isolated power system.

-0.005
Frequency [pu]

-0.01

-0.015
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time [sec]

Figure 3.10 simulation results of figure 3.9.

With the load change -∆PL(s) as an input, and the frequency deviation ∆Ω(s) as
an output, results the block diagram in figure 3.11

-∆PL(s) 1 ∆Ω(s)
2 Hs + D
_
1
R(1 + τ g s )(1 + τ T s )

Figure 3.11 LFC with input -∆PL(s) and output ∆Ω(s)

The open loop transfer function is:

1 1
K G ( s)H( s) = (3.7)
R (2 H s + D)(1 + τ g s )(1 + τ T s )

And the closed loop transfer function is:

31
 LFC

∆Ω( s ) (1 + τ g s )(1 + τ T s )
= = T (s) (3.8)
− ∆PL ( s ) (2 Hs + D)(1 + τ g s )(1 + τ T s ) + 1 / R

Or: ∆Ω( s ) = −∆PL ( s )T ( s ) (3.9)

∆PL
The load change in a step input (i.e. ∆PL ( s) = ) then the steady-state value of
s
∆ω is:
1
∆ω ss = lim s ∆Ω( s ) = −∆PL (3.10)
s →0 ( D + 1 / R)

We can find that for the case of no frequency sensitive load (i.e. with D=0) then
the steady-state value of the frequency deviation is:
∆ωss = (−∆PL ) R (3.11)

If we have a case of multiple generators with governor speed regulations, R1,

R2,….Rn then:
1
∆ω ss = − ∆PL (3.12)
( D + 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + ...... + 1 / Rn )

3.5 AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL (AGC)

When the load on the system is increased, the turbine speed drops before the
governor can adjust the input of the steam to the new load. As the change in the
value of speed diminishes, the error signal becomes smaller and the position of the
governor fly-balls gets closer to the point required to maintain a constant speed.
However, the new constant speed will not be the set point, and there will be an
offset. One way to restore the speed or frequency to its nominal value is to add an
integrator; Because of its ability to return a system to its set point, integral action
is also known as the reset action. Thus, as the system load changes continuously,
the generation is adjusted automatically to restore the frequency to its nominal
value. This is known as the Automatic Generation Control (AGC). The role of
AGC is to divide the load among system stations and generators to achieve

32
 LFC

maximum economy and to correctly control the scheduled interchanges of power,

while maintaining reasonable uniform frequency [2], [7], [8].

3.5.1. AGC in single area system

In order to reduce frequency deviation to zero, we must provide a reset action; the
reset action can be achieved by adding integral controller. The LFC system with
addition of integral controller is shown in figure 3.12.

∆PL(s)
∆PV _
∆Pref(s) 1 1 1
∆ω(s)
1 + τ g (s) 1 + τ T (s ) 2Hs +D
_ ∆Pm
_ Governor Turbine Rotating mass
and load

1
R

KI
s

Figure 3.12 AGC for an isolated power system.

For the same single area system given before with the same values of τT, τg , H,
D and ∆PL , with the gain of the I controller suggested to be KI = 7.0 . The
Simulink diagram constructed is shown in figure 3.13 followed by its response
shown in figure 3.14 [2].

Figure 3.13 Simulink block diagram of isolated power system with AGC loop.

33
 LFC

-3
x 10
4

-2

-4
Frequency [pu]

-6

-8

-10

-12

-14

-16
0 5 10 15
Time [sec]

Figure 3.14 Simulation results of figure 3.12.

Combining the parallel branches results in the following block diagram in fig 3.15:

-∆PL(s) 1 ∆ω(s)
2 Hs + D
_

KI 1 1 1
( + )( )( )
s R 1+τ gs 1+τT s

Fig 3.15. Equivalent of AGC of isolated power station.

The transfer function is:

∆Ω( s ) s (1 + τ g s )(1 + τ T s )
= (3.13)
− PL ( s ) s (2 Hs + D)(1 + τ g s )(1 + τ T s ) + K I + s / R

34
 LFC

3.5.2. AGC in multi-area system:

The AGC of multi-area system can be realized by studying first the AGC for a
two-area system. Look at figure 3.17.

P12 →

X12

Area 1 Area 2
Figure 3.16 Schematic of two-area system.

Consider these two areas represented by an equivalent generating units

interconnected by a lossless tie line with reactance Xtie [2]. Each area is represented
by voltage source behind an equivalent reactance as shown in figure 3.17.

X1 Xtie X2

+ +
E1 δ2 E2 δ 2
- -

Figure 3.17 The equivalent network of two area system.

During normal operation the real power transferred over the tie line is given by:

E1 E2
P12 = sinδ 12 (3.14)
X 12

Where: X 12 = X 1 + X tie + X 2 and δ12 = δ1 − δ 2

Equation 3.14 can be linearized for a small deviation in the flow ∆P12 from the
nominal value, that is:

35
 LFC

dP12
∆P12 = δ12 0 ∆δ 12 = Ps ∆ δ 12 (3.15)
dδ 12

Ps: the slope of the power angle curve at the initial operating angle δ12 = δ1 − δ 2 , 0 0 0

thus:
dP12 E1 E2
Ps = δ12 0 = cos ∆δ 120 (3.16)
dδ 12 X 12

Then
∆P12 = Ps (∆δ1 − ∆δ 2 ) (3.17)

The direction of the flow depends on the phase angle difference; if δ1>δ2→ the
power flows from area 1 to area 2. A block diagram for the two area system is
shown below in Fig 3.18.
1
R1
∆PL1(s)

_ _
∆Pref1(s) ove ∆PV1 ∆Pm1 ove ∆ω1(s)
1 1 1
1+τ g1 s 1+τ T 1 s 2 H 1 s + D1

Governor Turbine _ Rotating mass

ove and load

∆P12 Ps
s
_

+
∆Pref2(s) ∆PV2 ∆Pm2
1 1 1
1+τ g 2 s 1 +τ T 2 s 2 H 2 s + D2
∆ω2(s)
_ _
ove Governor Turbine ove Rotating mass
∆PL2(s) and load

1
R2

Figure 3.18 Two area system with only primary LFC loop (AGC).

36
 LFC

Again, for the purposes of simulation, a two-area system connected by a tie

line is suggested to have the following parameters on a 1000 MVA common base.

Area 1 2

Speed Regulation R1 = 0.05 R2 = 0.0625

Frequency-sens. load coeff. D1 = 0.6 D2 = 0.9

Inertia constant H1 = 5 H2 = 4

Base power 1000 MVA 1000 MVA

Governor time constant τg1 = 0.2 sec τg2 = 0.3 sec

Turbine time constant τT1 = 0.5 sec τT2 = 0.6 sec

The Simulink block diagram for such system is shown in figure 3.19, followed by
the resulting response in figure 3.20.

Figure 3.19 Simulink block diagram of tow area system with AGC loop.

37
 LFC

Figure 3.20 (a) Frequency deviation

0.35
Delta Pm1
Delta Pm2
0.3
Delta P12

0.25

0.2

0.15
Power [pu]

0.1

0.05

-0.05

-0.1
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time [sec]

Figure 3.20 (b) Power deviations

Figure 3.20 The resulting response of figure 3.19.

38
 LFC

Consider load change in area 1 is ∆PL1, in the steady-state; both areas will have
the same steady-state frequency deviation;

∆ω = ∆ω1 = ∆ω2

Now,
∆Pm1 − ∆P12 − ∆PL1 = ∆ω D1 and ∆Pm 2 + ∆P12 = ∆ω D2 (3.18)

The change in mechanical power is determined by the governor speed

characteristic, given by:
− ∆ω − ∆ω
∆Pm1 = and ∆Pm 2 = (3.19)
R1 R2
Solving for ∆ω:
− ∆PL:1 − ∆PL1
∆ω = = (3.20)
1 1 B1 + B2
( + D1 ) + ( + D2 )
R1 R2

Giving B = 1 + D and , B = 1 + D
1
R 1
1 2
R 2
2

where B1 and B2 are known as the frequency bias factors. The change in the tie-
line power is:
1
+ D2 )∆PL1
(
R2 B2
∆P12 = − = (− ∆PL1 ) (3.21)
1 1 B + B
( + D1 ) + ( + D2 ) 1 2
R1 R2

We can easily extend the tie-line bias control to an n-area system.

39
 LFC

3.5.3 Tie-Line Bias Control

Up to now, LFC was equipped with only the primary control loop, a change of
power in area 1 was met by the increase in generation in both areas associated
with a change in the tie-line power, and a reduction in frequency. In the normal
operating state, the power system is operated so that the demands of areas are
satisfied at the normal frequency [2] [7] [8]. As mentioned in section 3.3, a simple
control strategy for the normal mode is:
‫٭‬To Keep frequency approximately at the nominal value (50 or 60 Hz).
‫٭‬To Maintain the tie-line flow at about schedule.
‫ ٭‬Each area should absorb its own load changes.

Conventional LFC is based upon tie-line bias control, where each area tends to
reduce the Area Control Error (ACE) to zero. The control error for each area
consists of a linear combination of frequency and tie-line error.
n

ACE i
= ∑ ∆ P i j
+ K i
∆ω (3.22)
j =1

The area bias Ki determines the amount of interaction during a disturbance in

the neighboring areas. An overall satisfactory performance is achieved when Ki is
selected equal to the frequency bias factor of that area, i.e.
1 (3.23)
B i
= + D i
R i

Thus, the ACEs for a two-area system are

ACE 1 B ∆ω
= ∆ P 12 + 1 1 (3.24)
ACE 2
= ∆ P + B ∆ω 21 2 2

where ∆P12 and ∆P21 are departures from scheduled interchanges. ACEs are used
as actuating signals to achieve changes in the reference power set points, and when
steady-state is reached, ∆P12 and ∆ω will be zero. The block diagram of a simple
AGC for a two-area system with ACE loops is shown in figure (3.21).

40
 LFC

B1
1
R1
∆PL1(s)
_
_ _
∆PV1 ∆Pm1 _ ∆ω1(s)
KI1 1 1 1
s 1+τ g 1 s 1+τ T 1 s 2 H 1 s + D1
ACE1
_ Governor Turbine _ Rotating mass
Go and load

+
∆P12 ∆P12
Ps
s
_

+ +
∆PV2 ∆Pm2
KI 2 1 1 1
s 1+τ g 2 s 1+τ T 2 s 2 H 2s + D2
ACE2 _ _
_ Governor Turbine Go Rotating mass
and load ∆ω2(s)
∆PL2(s)
1
R2

B2

Figure 3.21 A simple AGC for a two-area system with ACE loops.

Here the same data is considered for the two area system, except the addition
of the ACE loops, adjusting the integrator gain constants for a satisfactory
response; the simulation results for KI1 = KI2 = 0.3 were obtained.

Other than trail and error technique, there is no certain method that suggests an
optimal evaluation for the gains of the PID controllers used in such control except
using new optimization techniques or artificial intelligence techniques such as
fuzzy logic or artificial intelligence, which are all beyond the scope of this project.
In this project we used the method of trial and error such that an optimal response
was achieved according to the characteristics of optimal step response of control
systems.
The Simulink block diagram of two area power system with both AGC and
ACE loops is shown in figure 3.22 followed by the resulting response of this
simulation shown in figure 3.23.

41
 LFC

Figure 3.22 Simulink block diagram of two area system with both AGC and ACE loops.

-3
x 10
4
Delta w1
Delta w2
2

-2
Frequency [pu]

-4

-6

-8

-10

-12

-14
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time [sec]

Figure 3.23 (a) Frequency deviation

42
 LFC

Delta P m1
Delta P m2
0.3
Delta P 12

0.25

0.2
Power [pu]

0.15

0.1

0.05

-0.05
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time [sec]

Figure 3.23 (b) Power deviation.

Figure 3.23 The resulting response of figure 3.22.

For a better and more satisfactory response, the I term used in figure 3.21 for
the ACE is replaced by a full PID controller in figure 3.24 followed by its
response in figure 3.25 for both frequency and power deviations.

Figure 3.24 Simulink block diagram of two area system with both AGC and ACE loops with full PID
controller used instead of the I term only.

43
 LFC

-3
x 10

Delta w1
2
Delta w2

-2
Frequency [pu]

-4

-6

-8

-10
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time [sec]

Figure 3.25 (a). Frequency deviation

0.35
Delta Pm1
Delta Pm2
0.3
Delta P12

0.25

0.2

0.15
Power [pu]

0.1

0.05

-0.05

-0.1
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time [sec]

Figure 3.25(b). Power deviation.

Figure 3.25. Simulation results of figure 3.24

44
 LFC

Comparing between the responses of both the I term and the full PID controller,
we can observe that the response of the PID controller is more satisfactory
according to the optimized step response characteristics, including lower
overshoot, less vibration, lower rise time and settling time and almost zero steady-
state error.

3.5.4 AGC With Optimal Dispatch Of Generation (EDG)

There are several factors that affect the power generation at minimum cost;
these are efficiencies, fuel cost, and transmission losses and other many factors.
Many types of programs were developed to find the optimal dispatch of generation
of an interconnected power system [2] [8].

The optimal dispatch of generation may be treated within the framework of

LFC as the third level. In direct digital control systems, the digital computer is
included in the control loop which scans the unit generation and tie-line flows, the
results are compared with the optimal settings that found from the solution of
optimal dispatch programs. Now, if the actual settings are off from the optimal
values, the computer generates the raise/lower pulses which sent to the individual
units.

With the development of control theory, several concepts are included in the
AGC which go beyond the simple tie-line bias control. The fundamental approach
is the use of more extended mathematical models. Other concepts of the modern
control theory are being employed, such as state estimation and optimal control
with linear regulator utilizing constant feedback gains.

45
 LFC

Conclusions and further work

1. Load frequency control investigated in this project has recently come into
question in operation of interconnected power networks. Frequency is a
sensitive parameter which affects the system operation so it is controlled
certainly. Therefore, power utilities consider the frequency and active power
balance throughout their networks to sustain the interconnection. In
interconnection between national/continental networks, providing the constant
frequency between areas is a serious operational problem. Hence fast and no
delay decision-making mechanism have to be installed in network control units
namely the LFC.
2. The load frequency control is achieved within tree levels, considering many
issues from maintaining constant frequency and the minimization of losses
through tie lines to the optimal dispatch of generation between units or even
areas.
3. The simulation techniques are very useful in studying and predicting the
response of control systems, giving the opportunity to optimize the response
and so the behavior of the system under study.
4. The great importance of the PID controllers is recognized, considering the
facilities it offers by the different combinations of its terms.
5. As a further work, study could be extended to consider methods of optimal
design of the gains of the PID controllers, like considering the artificial
intelligence methods or the fussy logic giving the opportunity to obtain an
optimal response of the control systems.
6. The economic dispatch of generation plays a vital rule in the AGC, and
this issue could be studied as an extension of this project, adding an
additional dimension to the task of our project.
7. A larger and more complex control system could be considered by
combining both LFC and AVR systems together with the EDG system.

46
 LFC

REFERENCES:

[1]. Electric Machinery Fundamentals, By Stephen J. Chapman. 4th Edition

(2005).
[2]. Power System Analysis, by Hadi Saadat. 2nd Edition (2002).
[3]. PID Controllers, by K. J. Astrom and T. Hagglund (1995).
[4]. Modern Control Systems, by Richard C. Dorf and Robert H. Bishop. 9th
Edition (2000).
[5]. Demos of MATLAB program (version 7.6).
[6]. Power Generation Operation and Control, by A.J. Wood and B.F.
Wollenberg, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1984.
[7]. Power System Stability and Control, by Kundur P, McGraw-Hill, NewYork
1994.
[8]. Electric Energy Systems Theory: An Introduction, By Olle I. Elgerd,
University of Florida.

47