Mathematics in Ancient Egypt

Philippe Cara

Department of Mathematics
http://www.vub.ac.be/DWIS

BEST Summerschool “Pyramids in the Cosmos”

VUB, 7th September 2001

 1
The use of Mathematics in Ancient
Egypt

• Partitioning of fertile grounds

 1
The use of Mathematics in Ancient
Egypt

• Partitioning of fertile grounds

• Construction of pyramids
 1
The use of Mathematics in Ancient
Egypt

• Partitioning of fertile grounds

• Construction of pyramids

• Administration
 1
The use of Mathematics in Ancient
Egypt

• Partitioning of fertile grounds

• Construction of pyramids

• Administration

• Calendar. . .
 2
Sources

• Wrote mainly on papyrus

 2
Sources

• Wrote mainly on papyrus

• Not suited for long conservation

 2
Sources

• Wrote mainly on papyrus

• Not suited for long conservation

• Hieroglyphics and wall-paintings

 2
Sources

• Wrote mainly on papyrus

• Not suited for long conservation

• Hieroglyphics and wall-paintings

• Babylonians had clay-tablets

 2
Sources

• Wrote mainly on papyrus

• Not suited for long conservation

• Hieroglyphics and wall-paintings

• Babylonians had clay-tablets

• Mainly “real life” problems, no general methods!

 3
Rhind papyrus
 4

• 1650 BC

• Henry Rhind (1833–1863)

• 87 problems with answer

• Main source of information

• Tables with fractions

• Ahmes

• Leather Roll
5
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Back of Rhind papyrus

2/5 = 1/3 + 1/15

2/7 = 1/4 + 1/28
2/9 = 1/6 + 1/18
2/11 = 1/6 + 1/66
2/13 = 1/8 + 1/52 + 1/104
2/15 = 1/10 + 1/30
..
2/101 = 1/101 + 1/202 + 1/303 + 1/606
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Theorem

Every fraction can be written as a sum of unit

fractions.
 7
Theorem

Every fraction can be written as a sum of unit

fractions.
Given p/q with p < q, we subtract the largest unit
fraction 1/n. Repeat till a unit fraction is left. . .
 7
Theorem

Every fraction can be written as a sum of unit

fractions.
Given p/q with p < q, we subtract the largest unit
fraction 1/n. Repeat till a unit fraction is left. . .
p 1 np − q
− =
q n nq
 7
Theorem

Every fraction can be written as a sum of unit

fractions.
Given p/q with p < q, we subtract the largest unit
fraction 1/n. Repeat till a unit fraction is left. . .
p 1 np − q
− =
q n nq
Suppose np − q > p then np − p > q or (n − 1)p > q
1 1 p
< 6
n n−1 q
 8
Remark

There are many ways to write a fraction as sum of

unit fractions.

1 1 1
= +
n n + 1 n(n + 1)
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Multiplication 1

7 × 22 =?
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Multiplication 1

7 × 22 =?

1 7
✔ 2 14
✔ 4 28
8 56
✔ 16 112
22 154
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Division

154 ÷ 7 =?
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Division

154 ÷ 7 =?

1 7
2 14 ✔
4 28 ✔
8 56
16 112 ✔
22 154
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Multiplication 2

5 + 7/8 × 12 + 2/3 =?
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Multiplication 2

5 + 7/8 × 12 + 2/3 =?

✔ 1 12+2/3
2 25+1/3
✔ 4 50+2/3
✔ 1/2 6+1/3
✔ 1/4 3+1/6
✔ 1/8 1+1/2+1/12
5+7/8 99+1/2+1/4
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Writing of numbers

• Decimal

• But not positional

1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000

  ‰ Œ µ  ‹


  

= 275
 
‰ ‰  

µµµµµ ŒŒ    = 152023
 12
Writing of numbers

• Decimal

• But not positional

1 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000

  ‰ Œ µ  ‹


  

= 275
 
‰ ‰  

µµµµµ ŒŒ    = 152023
No zero symbol needed!!
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Moscow papyrus

• 1850 BC

• Golenischev

• 5 metres long, 8 cm high

• 25 problems

• Bad handwriting

• Volume of truncated pyramid

• Surface of half a sphere

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Other papyri

• Reisner papyri (1880 BC)

• Kahun papyri (1800 BC)

• Rollin papyrus (1350 BC)

• Harris papyrus (1167 BC)

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Mathematics used for building pyramids
=
GEOMETRY
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Weights and measures

• 1 cubit = 52.3 cm

• Long distances: ropes with knots

• Shorter distance: ruler

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Egyptian ruler

The cubit of King Amenhotep I (1559 – 1539 BC)

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Other units for distances
• 1 palm = 1/7 of a cubit

• 1 finger = 1/4 of a palm

• 1 hayt = 1 khet = 100 cubits

• 1 remen = half the length of the diagonal

√ of a
square with side one cubit. That is 22 cubit.
Useful when measuring land areas.
√
• 1 double remen = 2 cubit.

• 1 aura = 1 setat = area of square with side 100

cubits, hence 10000 square cubits.
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Weights or volumes

• 1 hekat = 1/30 of a cubic cubit of grain

• 1 hinu = 1/10 of a hekat

• 1 ro = 1/320 of a hekat

• Horus eye to write fractions of a hekat

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Beer and Pesu

• 1 des = approx. half a liter

• The pesu is a unit for measuring the strength of

beer, bread or cakes.

• If one hekat of grain was used to make 5 des of

beer, it was said to have a pesu of 5.
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Beer and Pesu

• 1 des = approx. half a liter

• The pesu is a unit for measuring the strength of

beer, bread or cakes.

• If one hekat of grain was used to make 5 des of

beer, it was said to have a pesu of 5.

• The less the pesu, the stronger the beer!!!

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Rhind problem 76

If you want to trade 1000 des of beer of pesu

10 for beer of pesu 20, how many des do you
get?
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Sekhed of a pyramid

is the inclination of any one of the four triangular

faces to the horizontal plane of its base.

h h

a/2

a
sekhed =
2h
In fact the sekhed is the cotangent of the slope α.
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Rhind problem 57

The sekhed of a pyramid is 5 palms and 1

finger and the side is 140 cubit. What is the
height?
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Sekheds of some well-known pyramids

Name Sekhed
Chephren, Ouserkaf 3/4 cubit
Neferirka-Re, Teti, Pepi 21 fingers
Cheops, Snofru 11/14 cubit
Neouser-Re 22 fingers
Sesostris 6/7 cubit
Amenemhat III 9/14 cubit
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Pythagoras’ theorem

• The sum of the squares of the right angle

sides of a rectangular triangle is the square of
the remaining side.
c
b

a2 + b2 = c2 a
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Pythagoras’ theorem

• The sum of the squares of the right angle

sides of a rectangular triangle is the square of
the remaining side.
c
b

a2 + b2 = c2 a

• If a triangle fulfills the above then it is rect-

angular.
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Construction of right angles 1

p k0 p

k0 p k0 p
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Property of a rectangle

• The diagonals of a rectangle meet eachother

halfway.
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Property of a rectangle

• The diagonals of a rectangle meet eachother

halfway.

• If a quadrilateral fulfills the above then it is a

rectangle.
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Construction of right angles 2
a

d
m a d

b m
c
b

R p R pa

a d a d

m m

R R

b pa b pa
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Area of a triangle?

Rhind problem 49: Multiply half a side with the

other side.
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Area of a triangle?

Rhind problem 49: Multiply half a side with the

other side.

1/2 












   
   

   
   

   
   

   
   

1/2 c









   

   

   
   

















b 

























   

a 



























    

   

   

    

    

    
    
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Area of a quadrilateral?
b

a+c b+d
·
2 2
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Rhind problem 48

d 2
A = (d − )
9
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The area of a circle 1



 

 


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The area of a circle 1

                
            
            
            
            
            
            
        
  
       


  





       

      






      












      












      






      














      







       
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The area of a circle 1

                
            
            
            
            
            
            
        
  
       


  





       

      






      












      












      






      














      







       
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The area of a circle 1

                
            
            
            
            
            
            
        
  
       


  





       

      






      












      












      






      














      







       
  



















  



















  



















  



















  
 

  

 

  
 

  
 

  
 

  
 

  
 

  
 

  
 

  

 

  
 

  
 

  
 

  

 

  
 

  
 

  
 

  
 

  
 

  
 

  
 

  
 

  
 

  
 

  

 

  
 

  
 

  
 

  
 

  

 
 34
The number π

Definition: The ratio of the area of a circle and the

square of its radius is denoted by π.
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The number π

Definition: The ratio of the area of a circle and the

square of its radius is denoted by π.

d2 64 2
π ≈ d
4 81
 34
The number π

Definition: The ratio of the area of a circle and the

square of its radius is denoted by π.

d2 64 2
π ≈ d
4 81
64 256
π≈4 = = 3.1604938 . . .
81 81
 34
The number π

Definition: The ratio of the area of a circle and the

square of its radius is denoted by π.

d2 64 2
π ≈ d
4 81
64 256
π≈4 = = 3.1604938 . . .
81 81

• Babylonians: π ≈ 3.125

• Bible: π ≈ 3
 35
Area of a basket

Moscow problem 10: Find the area of a basket

d

with given “mouth” d.

They use the formula
64 2
A=2 d
81
 35
Area of a basket

Moscow problem 10: Find the area of a basket

d

with given “mouth” d.

They use the formula
64 2
A=2 d
81
This is
256 2
A=2 r
81
 35
Area of a basket

Moscow problem 10: Find the area of a basket

d

with given “mouth” d.

They use the formula
64 2
A=2 d
81
This is
256 2
A=2 r
81
256
and since π ≈ 81 we find
A = 2πr2
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Volume of a truncated pyramid

1
V = h(a2 + ab + b2)
3
 37
How did they do it?

b h’

b
h

a a
 38
Mysticism. . .

• The ratio of twice the side to the height of the

Great pyramid is π.

• In the dimensions of the Great pyramid are en-

coded: the radius of th earth, the density of earth,
the distance between earth and sun, . . .

• All important dates of human history

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Charles Piazzi Smyth

• 1819–1900

• Astronomer

• Professor at university of Edinburgh

• Fellow of the Royal Society

 41
Verification

William Matthew Flinders Petrie (1853–1942)

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Other pyramidologists

• Charles Lagrange

• David Davison

• Georges Barbarin

• Robert Bauval

•...