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G. Blick
Land Information New Zealand, Lambton House, 160 Lambton Quay, Private Box 5501, Wellington, New
Zealand ; email gblick@linz.govt.nz
Abstract. This paper describes a schema for an magnitude are possible. Unmodelled deformation is
absolute deformation model (ADM) that can be used undesirable if surveys referenced to different
to transform point positions captured in the measurement epochs of a kinematic datum are to be
International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) integrated or correlated.
and World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84) to a
reference epoch consistently over time. The ADM This paper introduces the concept of an absolute
schema described includes models of rigid plate deformation model (ADM) where models of plate
motion, plate boundary deformation and non-secular motion and plate boundary deformation can be used
deformation (e.g. coseismic and postseismic effects to transform ITRF coordinates to any reference
or subsidence). Application of an ADM can enable epoch in order to maintain consistency of
consistent Precise Point Positioning (PPP) over time coordinates within a local context. Adoption of an
and seamless integration of Continuously Operating ADM by Single Point Positioning (SPP) and PPP
Reference Station (CORS) networks within services is essential where coordinate repeatability
deforming zones. An ADM can also ensure within a localised reference frame is required over
consistency of time-tagged spatial datasets (e.g. laser long periods. An ADM is also essential if positions
scanned point clouds and digital cadastral databases) generated by SPP and PPP are used in conjunction
and GIS within a kinematic environment. An ADM with localised CORS networks within a static or
can also be used as the basis for static realisations of semi-kinematic datum framework. An ADM also has
a national or regional kinematic datum. applications where CORS networks in deforming
zones are used to generate Network Real-Time
Keywords. semi-kinematic datum, dynamic datum, Kinematic (NRTK) corrections, and to improve the
PPP, reference frame, deformation model precision of long baseline processing within a static
_________________________________________ or semi-kinematic datum.
1
consistency of an ADM at a global level, an coordinates. For example, services such as
international geodetic or spatial agency is required to OmniStar-HP (Omnistar, 2010) and NRCan PPP
maintain and host an ADM. The International Earth (Nrcan, 2010) deliver centimetre to decimetre
Rotation and Reference Frame Service (IERS) precise ITRF coordinates to users. Repeat surveys as
already maintains the ITRF in a similar way. little as a few months apart are adversely affected by
Regional, national and local deformation models coordinate changes due to tectonic motion
ideally would be consistent with the ADM. (Stanaway and Roberts, 2010). Satellite-Based
Augmentation Systems (SBAS) and improvements
3 Benefits of a Semi-Kinematic Datum to SPP such as the implementation of the new higher
resolution L5/E5 interoperable signals (Roberts,
Many countries and regions which straddle major 2011) will possibly enable decimetre level real-time
plate boundaries have adopted a semi-kinematic (or positioning for the mass market by 2020. The
semi-dynamic) geodetic datum in order to prevent implications of these improvements are enormous, as
degradation of the datum as a function of time due to the international geodetic community as well as
ongoing crustal deformation that is occurring within vendors of GNSS hardware and associated software
the country, e.g. New Zealand (Blick et al., 2006), do not currently have a uniform strategy to handle
Western USA (Pearson et al., 2010), Japan (Tanaka this deformation. Another limitation of a static
et al., 2007) and Papua New Guinea (Stanaway, datum arises from the processing of long GNSS
2004). The two major drivers for the adoption of a baselines. If the static coordinates of a reference
semi-kinematic datum in these countries have been: station are held fixed, rigid plate rotation of a long
(1) the widespread adoption of precision GNSS baseline will degrade the precision of the point
techniques for surveying and positioning and, (2) the computation as a function of time (Dawson and
need to maintain consistency of coordinates to Woods, 2010).
support combination and integration of spatial
information acquired at different epochs. A The rapid uptake of high-precision GNSS systems
deformation model is an integral part of a semi- configured to ITRF or WGS84 by a wide spectrum
kinematic datum and works by allowing precision of users will conflict with static datum positioning
measurements made across deforming zones to be unless the issue of tectonic deformation is addressed.
“corrected” to the epoch of realisation of the Datums can either become fully kinematic
geodetic datum by accounting for relative (dynamic), or semi-kinematic. A deformation model
deformation computed between the two epochs by can be adopted to enable ITRF positions to be
the deformation model. transformed into a static or semi-kinematic system at
the moment of position acquisition so that users do
4 Limitations of Static Geodetic Datums not see coordinate changes due to global plate
motions.
Countries and regions located on relatively stable
tectonic landmasses such as Australia, South Africa, 5 Limitations of Kinematic Datums
Brazil, Eastern USA, Germany and the UK have
geodetic datums that do not deform significantly as a GNSS devices which use ITRF or closely aligned
function of time. Typically, baselines measured systems position users in agreement with the
between any stable geodetic monuments in these underlying kinematic frame, however, in practice
countries change by less than a few centimetres on there are a number of very significant drawbacks to a
decadal time scales. This stability has supported the kinematic datum. Surveys undertaken at different
adoption of a static geodetic datum for such regions. epochs cannot be combined or integrated unless a
deformation model is applied rigorously, or is
The major limitation with a static geodetic datum embedded within the data, and the data are correctly
arises from the ongoing divergence between ITRF time-tagged. Three-dimensional data sets acquired
and the fixed coordinates of a static geodetic by laser scanning techniques (e.g. airborne or
network due to rigid plate motion. While the terrestrial laser scanning) are often several terabytes
network may not necessarily be deforming internally in size and comparison of point clouds offset by a
to any significant degree, the lithospheric plate on different realisation within a kinematic system
which the network sits is moving as a rigid body imposes an increased computational workload and
over the Earth’s asthenospheric mantle. The impact potential for error. High-precision automated GNSS
of this deformation is noticeable where precision techniques are rapidly being adopted in the
GNSS techniques are used to compute ITRF agricultural, mining and transport sectors (e.g.
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aviation, lane control and shipping). Unless spatial the epoch of measurement or acquisition and a
models of farm machinery tracks, mine reference epoch. An ADM can also be used for
infrastructure, berths and runways also move several processing of long GNSS baselines by forward
centimetres a year to maintain alignment with a prediction of the ITRF coordinates of a CORS
kinematic system, the limitations of a kinematic reference station from a reference epoch. This
datum soon become apparent as kinematic and approach enables processing and network analysis to
ground-fixed coordinates become misaligned. be accomplished wholly within ITRF thereby
eliminating the effects of plate rotation between the
6 A Hierarchy for Geodetic Datums measurement and reference epochs. The same ADM
can then be used in reverse to compute the rover
There are two competing drivers for adoption of a station coordinates at the reference epoch.
kinematic datum. The main conflict is between the
current requirements of users for static datums 8 Different Structures for an ADM
(which inevitably leads to inconsistent coordinates of
ground-fixed features) and the complexities of Regular Global Grid
geodynamics. On the one hand, there is the need for A global grid of different resolutions (e.g. 1° or 0.1°)
a kinematic and high precision global reference of ITRF site velocities can be computed from
frame to compute precise GNSS orbits and to geophysical models and known site velocities. A
monitor real-time changes in the Earth (e.g. Global regular grid can be interpolated in much the same
Geodetic Observing System - GGOS) (Plag and way as a geoid model (e.g. by bilinear interpolation)
Pearlman, 2009). On the other hand, there is the need in order to obtain a site velocity. The size of the
for coordinate consistency within a localised interval would dictate the precision of the computed
reference frame to support cadastral surveys, land velocity. A coarse model will generate velocities
management, spatial data management, mapping and with large uncertainties in rapidly deforming
precision navigation where coordinate stability (and boundary zones, hence the resolution of the model is
by definition positioning repeatability) are essential an important consideration. For example, two nodes
(Stanaway and Roberts, 2009). of the grid may lie on different tectonic plates and a
standardised interpolation method in these instances
At present, the latest realisation of ITRF fulfils the is not ideal.
role of a high precision global scientific datum,
however the kinematic nature of ITRF precludes Irregular Global Grid
practical adoption for the majority of users and real- A global model of varying density sample size can
world applications. Rather, a two-tiered hierarchy overcome the limitations of a regular grid, however
can be used to overcome the limitations of both may require slightly more complex interpolation
kinematic and static datums, while still retaining the methods in order to derive a site velocity. The
benefits of both. Transformation between kinematic density can be increased in tectonically active areas,
and static datums can be achieved by the use of rapidly rotating microplates or crustal blocks (Fig.
deformation models and kinematic transformation 1).
parameters such as the 14 parameter model adopted
in Australia (Dawson and Woods, 2010). The
conventional static geodetic datum is replaced by a
kinematic (dynamic) datum and a deformation or
transformation model to support non-scientific users.
A “one size fits all” datum approach is not a
workable option as it fails to meet the requirements
of most users.
3
Rigid Plate Model An Actual Site Velocity Model
Approximately 94% of the Earth’s surface lies on An irregular global grid model can be augmented by
rigid tectonic plates where localised deformation points with known (measured) site velocities. These
rarely exceeds more than a few mm/yr (Stanaway can be CORS stations or passive survey monuments
and Roberts, 2009). Rigid plates consist of segments with a sufficiently good history of space geodetic
of the Earth’s crust rotating over the mantle. Rigid observations to enable an ITRF site velocity to be
plate motion can be parameterised by three estimated. A major advantage of this approach is that
parameters, either by definition of the Euler pole of it limits potential inconsistencies between modelled
rotation, or the rotation of the Cartesian axes with and measured site velocities at a common location,
respect to the inertial Earth frame. The Earth’s and is well suited to NRTK CORS networks in
surface can be divided into irregular polygons deforming zones.
defining the boundaries of the respective plates (Fig.
2) in order that the correct plate can be assigned for Hybrid Models
any given location to enable a site velocity to be Different model structures can be combined to
estimated. maintain small model size and acceptable precision.
A hybrid model could be constructed by dividing the
Earth’s surface into polygons, with each polygon
assigned a model type with associated data points or
rigid plate rotation parameters. Within a specified
radius of the data point, secondary interpolation
could be applied to ensure consistency with a CORS
network, for example.
4
antenna changes should be handled differently. deformation. To minimise deformation model file
These effects need to be carefully defined and sizes in complex areas, it should be possible to clip a
modelled for NRTK applications, but are not portion of the model to cover the local region in a
representative of localised tectonic deformation, and similar way to the use of geoid models in GNSS
need to be decoupled from tectonic modelling and receiver controllers, for example.
interpolation.
In a similar way, patch models can be applied to
10 Patching of Episodic Deformation model earthquake and other localised deformation of
a more permanent nature. Patch models should be
Strict adherence to modelling of seismic deformation updated after each major seismic event (Fig. 3).
does create a practical dilemma at the location of a
fault trace where relative deformation has occurred
(Blick et al., 2009). Incorporation of coseismic terms
will mean that the coordinates of locations at a
reference epoch before the event on either site of the
fault trace will be the same before and after the
earthquake. To some extent a local coordinate
system should reflect local reality so that coordinates
can be used for engineering and construction.
5
14 Conclusion Dawson, J., and Woods, A.; ITRF to GDA94
coordinate transformations, Journal of Applied
High precision GNSS positioning and navigation is Geodesy, Vol. 4, Issue 4, pp. 189-199, 2010.
very rapidly highlighting the disparity between
global kinematic reference frames such as ITRF and NRCan; Natural Resources Canada, On-line Precise
WGS84, and traditional static geodetic datums. The Point Positioning, (accessed, 11th Nov 2010).
disparity is brought about by the increasingly
widespread use of PPP and the sensitivity of these OmniSTAR; http://www.omnistar.com/about.html
techniques to deformation of the Earth due to plate (accessed, 11th November 2010).
tectonics. In order for precision GNSS techniques to
continue to deliver temporally stable coordinates Pearson, C., McCaffrey, R., Elliott, J. and Snay, R.;
within a localised reference frame, all significant HTDP 3.0: Software for Coping with the
deformations should be modelled in a consistent Coordinate Changes Associated with Crustal
way. The modelling schema described in this paper Motion, J. Surv. Eng., 136, 80, 2010
shows how instantaneous ITRF coordinates can be
transformed to the reference epoch of a static Plag, H-P. and Pearlman, M.,(Eds.); Global Geodetic
geodetic datum, or localised reference frame. The Observing System, Springer, 2009
schema also shows how permanent deformations
arising from seismic activity, uplift and subsidence Roberts, C.; How will new GNSS signals help RTK
can be applied by reverse patching techniques. surveyors?, Proceedings from the Surveying
and Spatial Sciences Conference, Wellington,
New Zealand, 21-25 November, 2011
15 Acknowledgements
Chris Crook of LINZ has devoted some time to Stanaway, R.; Implementation of a Dynamic
reviewing this paper and has provided some insights Geodetic Datum in Papua New Guinea: A case
into how deformation modelling is being study, MPhil thesis, The Australian National
implemented in New Zealand with NZGD2000. University, 2004.