Chapter 1 Introduction

Ÿ Particle on a 1 - D Lattice
Ñ2 ¶2
HHxL = - + VHxL
2 m ¶ x2
with
VH x + n b L = VHxL n = 0, ±1, ±2, ¼

Ÿ Translational Symmetry
Consider the translation operation Tn defined by the coordinate transformation
x ™ x ' = Tn x = x + n b
Let Tn be the corresponding Hilbert space operator, we have
 x \ ™   x ' \ =   Tn x \ =   x + n b \ = Tn   x \
X x¤ ™ X x '¤ = X x + n b ¤ = X x ¤ Tn Ö
Since
X x x \=1 " x
we have
Y x '   x ' \ = Y x ¡ Tn Ö Tn É x ] = 1 " x
X x¤ x \ = Y x ' ¡ Tn Tn É x ' ] = 1
Ö
" x'
Therefore
Tn Ö Tn = Tn Tn Ö = I
ie., Tn is unitary. This is a general feature of all symmetry operators.

Defining
 Ψ\ ™   Ψ ' \ = Tn   Ψ \
ΨHxL = X x   Ψ \
we have
Ψ ' H x ' L = Y x '   Ψ ' \ = Y x ¡ Tn Ö Tn É Ψ ] = X x   Ψ \ = ΨHxL

The last equality serves to define the transformation Tn of an arbitrary function, ie.
f ™ f ' = Tn f
with
f HxL = f ' H x ' L = f ' H x + n b L = Tn f H x ' L
so that
f ' H x L = f H x - n b L = Tn HxL f H x L = f I Tn -1 x M

The explicit form of Tn HxL can be found by Taylor expanding f H x - n b L:

d f HxL
d 2 f HxL
Tn HxL f H x L = f HxL - n b + € H n b L2
1
-¼
dx 2 d x2

= :1-nb + € H n b L2 - ¼ > f HxL

d 1 d2
dx 2 d x2

= â H -n b Lm f HxL
dm

m=0 d xm

f HxL
d
-n b
= e dx

so that

Tn HxL = e
d
-n b
dx

or
i
-€ n b p
Tn = e Ñ
In this form, we say that the momentum operator is the generator of the translation operator. It is straightforward to show that
the angular momentum & the hamiltonian operators are generators of the rotation & time displacemnt operators, respectively.
 dx 2 dx

= â H -n b Lm f HxL
dm

m=0 d xm
2 1._Introduction.nb

f HxL
d
-n b
= e dx

so that

Tn HxL = e
d
-n b
dx

or
i
-€ n b p
Tn = e Ñ
In this form, we say that the momentum operator is the generator of the translation operator. It is straightforward to show that
the angular momentum & the hamiltonian operators are generators of the rotation & time displacemnt operators, respectively.

The transformation of operators can be found in a similar fashion.

Let
A Ψ \ =   Φ \
™
Tn A   Ψ \ = Tn A Tn Ö Tn   Ψ \ = Tn A Tn Ö   Ψ ' \
= Tn   Φ \ =   Φ ' \
Comparing with the definition
A '  Ψ ' \ =   Φ ' \
we have
A ' = Tn A Tn Ö

In the x - representation
X x   x ' \ = ∆H x - x ' L

X x¤ p \=
1 i
€ px
eÑ
2ΠÑ

X x   p¤ x ' \ = -i Ñ ∆H x - x ' L
¶
¶x
X x AÈΨ \ = X x Φ \

= à d x 'X x A x ' \X x ' Ψ \

For local operators that are functions of x & p ,

X x   AH x , p L ¤ x ' \ = ∆H x - x ' L X x   AH x , p L ¤ x \ = ∆H x - x ' L A x , -i Ñ

¶
¶x
¶
For convenience, we'll write A x , -i Ñ simply as AHxL so that
¶x
X x  A¤ Ψ \ = X x   Φ \ = AHx L X x   Ψ \
or
AHxL ΨHxL = ΦHxL

The transformation under Tn then gives

Y x   Tn A È Ψ \ = Y x ¡ Tn A Tn Ö Tn ¥ Ψ ] = Y x ¡ Tn A Tn Ö ¥ Ψ ' ]
= X x   Tn È Φ \ = X x   Φ ' \
Tn HxL AHxL ΨHxL = Tn HxL ΦHxL = Φ ' HxL = A ' HxL Ψ ' HxL
Thus
ΦI Tn -1 xM = AI Tn -1 x M ΨI Tn -1 xM

The effect of Tn on H is therefore

HHxL ™ HI Tn -1 x M = HH x - n b L
Writing
y = Tn -1 x
we see that
¶2 ¶2
= VHyL = VHxL
¶ y2 ¶ x2
so that
HHyL = HHxL
as expected.
Writing
y = Tn -1 x
we see that 1._Introduction.nb 3
¶2 ¶2
= VHyL = VHxL
¶ y2 ¶ x2
so that
HHyL = HHxL
as expected.

This invariance of the hamiltonian can of course be expressed as

Tn H Tn Ö = H
or
Tn H = H Tn
@ Tn , H D = 0
which means the eigenstates of Tn are also that of H. This is basis of the usefulness of group theory in quantum mechanics.