07 BJT

Bipolar Junction Transistor
November 23, 2017

Amplification-unilateral action at an ’electrical’ distance
v0 and vi has to be electrically isolated and the
amplification should be in one direction (unilateral
behaviour)
An electronic device that can do the following operation
needs to be designed
A A
vi vo vi vo=Avi
A
indeterminate vo
The transcondutance amplifier
One way of generating the voltage amplification is

By generating a current proportional to the input voltage vi
And then pushing the current into a high resistance
vi Rin gvi RL vo
Most amplifiers JFETs, MOSFETS, and BJTs operate on

this principle
PN junction diode- Forward Bias
Current in a diode is due to both holes and electrons

V
Dp Dn D
I = qApn0 + qAnp0 (e VT − 1)
Lp Ln
Dp VD Dn VD
I = qApn0 (e VT − 1) + qAnp0 (e VT − 1)
Lp Ln
| {z } | {z }
=Ip =In
P N
VD
∆p(x)
∆n(x)
I=IP+IN
PN junction diode- Injection efficiency
The hole and electron currents in a forward biased pn

junction diode is given by
Dp VVD
Ip = qApn0 (e T − 1)
Lp
Dn VVD
In = qAnp0 (e T − 1)
Ln
To quantify the contribution of hole and electrons to the
total current, one can define electron and hole injection
efficiency. The hole injection effeciency (γp ) is defined as
Ip Ip
γp = =
Ip + In I
The hole injection efficiency is given by
Ip Ip 1
γp = = =
I Ip + In 1 + In /Ip
In np0 Dn Lp Nd Dn Lp
= =
Ip pn0 Dp Ln Na Dp Ln
The hole injection effeciency is given by
1
∴ γp =
Nd Dn Lp
1+
Na Dp Ln
Similarly one can define electron injection effeciency as
In In 1
γn = = =
I Ip + I n 1 + Ip /In
1
=
Na Dp Ln
1+
Nd Dn Lp
P + N junction diode- Forward Bias
For a p+ n junction diode, since Na >> Nd → Ip >> In .

Hence
I ≈ Ip & γ p ≈ 1
P+ N
IP » IN
I=IP ∆n(x) ∆p(x)
The long diode and the narrow base diode
A long diode is one in which the active regions of the n and
p side is much greater than the diffusion length of the
minority carriers
A Narrow base diode is one in which the active region of
one side (n-side) is much smaller than the diffusion length
of the minority carriers
p+ n
VEB
WB>>Lp
WB<<Lp
p+ n
VEB
The long diode
When the width of the n-region is much larger than the

hole (minority carrier) diffusion length Lp , then all the holes
will recomibne in the n-region. The ground will then supply
for the ’lost’ electrons due to recombination
Hole current
e- current
p+ n
VEB
0 WB
WB>>Lp
The long diode
The long diode
The one dimensional Diffusion equation
In the absence of any carrier generation, and using the fact

that Rp = δp/τp Where τp is the hole (minority carrier) life
time
∂δp 1 ∂Jp (x) δp
=− −
∂t q ∂x τp
Assuming that there is no external applied electric field
∂δp ∂δp
Jp (x) = qpµp E(x) − qDp = −qDp
∂x ∂x
Substituting it in the above equation
∂δp ∂ 2 δp δp
= Dp −
∂t ∂x 2 τp
The one dimensional Diffusion equation
In the steady state ∂δp/∂t = 0
∂δp ∂ 2 δp δp
= Dp − =0
∂t ∂x 2 τp
∂ 2 (δp) δp δp
2
= = 2
∂x Dp τp Lp
wherepLp is called as the hole diffusion length given by
Lp = Dp τp
Similarly one can define an electron diffusion equation as
∂ 2 (δn) δn
2
= 2
∂x Ln
where√Ln is called as the electron diffusion length given by
Ln = Dn τn
Solutions of one dimensional Diffusion equation
The hole diffusion equation is a second order differential
equation
∂ 2 (δp) δp
= 2
∂x 2 Lp
The solution to this equation is a linear combination of
exponential functions
x x
−
δp(x) = C e Lp + C e Lp
1 2
Similarly the solution to the electron diffusion equation

∂ 2 (δn) δn
= 2
∂x 2 Ln
can be expressed as
x x
−
L L
δn(x) = C1 e n + C2 e n
C1 and C2 can be found from the boundary conditions
Steady state injection of minority carrier into a majority
carrier system
Consider a majortiy carrier system. A heavily doped n-type

material which is infinitely long. A stream of holes (minority
carriers) are injected at x = 0 as shown in the figure.
(δp(0) = ∆P) Find the steady state hole concentration in
the n-type material
excess hole steady state concentration
excess holes
n-type
x=0 x x=œ
Steady state injection of minority carrier into a majority
carrier system
The excess hole distribution is given by
x x
−
δp(x) = C e Lp + C e Lp
1 2
From the system it can be seen that the material begins at

x = 0 and the excess carrier distrution at x = ∞ tends to
zero since all the holes would have recombined with the
electrons in the n-type material. This condition ensures
that C2 = 0 as a finite C2 implies that the hole
concentration increases with x, which is not possible
x
−
δp(x) = C e p L
1
Also since δp(0) = ∆p we have C1 = ∆p Thus

x
−
δp(x) = ∆p·e Lp
Minority carrier diffusion current density at the
boundary
The hole concentration as a function of x is given by

x
−
L
δp(x) = ∆p·e p
The hole diffusion current is given by

x
dδp(x) Dp − Lp
Jp (x) = −qDp = q∆p e
dx Lp
Thus at the boundaries x = 0 and x = ∞

Dp
Jp (0) = q∆p
Lp
and Jp (∞) = 0
boundary
boundary
Recombination Current
The holes injected into the n-region create a net positive

charge and hence will lead to drift of electrons in the n-type
material towards x = 0. If the n-region is connected to
ground, then the electrons will be supplied by the ground.
The current injecting into the ground will be electron
recombination current
This is exactly what happens in a pn junction diode
excess holes IR
e-
n-type
The hole current entering the n-region is Ip (0) and the hole
current leaving the n-region is Ip (WB ). The current due to
the electrons injected from the ground is
In (WB ) = Ip (0) − Ip (WB )
The electron current injected by the ground to compensate
for the recombined electrons in the n-region is called as
reconbination current IR .
∴ IR = In (WB ) = Ip (0) − Ip (WB ) = Ip (0) (∵ Ip (WB ) = 0)
excess holes Ip(0) IR

e-
n-type
0 WB
WB>>Lp
Narrow base diode
What would happen when the width of the n-region is

comparable or smaller than the hole (minority carrier)
diffusion length Lp ?
What will be the recombination current in that case
excess holes Ip(0)
IR=?
n-type
0 WB
WB<=Lp
Narrow base diode
Narrow base diode-Qualitative analysis
The holes will not completely recombine as in the case of

the long base diode, some of them will not recombine and
would come out of the n-region
The electrons supplied by the ground will now be lesser in
number and hence the reombination current will decrease.
The electron current or recombination current is given by
IR = Ip (0) − Ip (WB )
excess holes Ip(0) IR=Ip(0)-Ip(WB)

e-
n-type
0 WB Ip(WB)
WB>>Lp
Steady state injection of minority carrier into a
confined majority carrier system
Consider a majortiy carrier system. A heavily doped n-type
material whose length is smaller than the diffusion length
of the minority carrier. A stream of holes (minority carriers)
are injected at x = 0 as shown in the figure. (δp(0) = ∆P
and the material ends at x = WB . So δp(WB ) = 0) Find the
steady state hole concentration in the n-type material
excess hole steady state concentration
excess holes
n-type
x
x=0 x=WB
The excess hole distribution is given by
x x
−
δp(x) = C1 e Lp + C2 e Lp
Using the boundary conditions at x = 0 and x = WB one

can obtain
C1 + C2 = ∆p
WB WB
−
C e Lp + C e Lp = 0
1 2
Solving the above two equations for C1 and C2 , we get

∆peWB /Lp
C1 =
eWB /Lp − e−WB /Lp
∆pe−WB /Lp
C2 = −
eWB /Lp − e−WB /Lp
boundary
The hole concentration as a function of x is given by
x x
−
δp(x) = C1 ·e Lp + C2 e Lp
The hole diffusion current is given by
dδp(x) Dp
Jp (x) = −qDp = q (C1 e−x/Lp − C2 ex/Lp )
dx Lp
Thus at the boundaries x = 0 and x = WB

Dp
Jp (0) = q (C1 − C2 )
Lp
and
Dp
Jp (WB ) = q (C1 e−WB /Lp − C2 eWB /Lp )
Lp
boundary
Substituting the value of C1 and C2 we get
Dp Dp ∆p(eWB /Lp + e−WB /Lp )

Jp (0) = q (C1 − C2 ) = q
Lp Lp eWB /Lp − e−WB /Lp
Dp W
=q ∆p· coth( B )
Lp Lp
Similarly
Dp
Jp (WB ) = q (C1 e−WB /Lp − C2 eWB /Lp )
Lp
Dp 2∆p Dp W
=q W /L −W /L
= q ∆p·csch( B )
Lp e B p −e B p Lp Lp
boundary
The difference between the two current densities is

Dp W W
Jp (0) − Jp (WB ) = q ∆p(coth( B ) − csch( B ))
Lp Lp Lp
Dp WB
=q ∆p tanh( )
Lp 2Lp
Current in a narrow base diode
Extending the analysis of the minority carrier diffusion in a
confined system, one can readily derive the current
expression for a narrow base diode.
Assuming it is a p+ n junction diode. The current in the
diode is simply the hole current itself

Dp WB
∴ I = Ip (0) = qA coth ∆p
Lp Lp

Dp WB
= qA coth pn0 (eV /VT − 1)
Lp Lp
For WB << Lp , coth(x) ≈ 1/x
Dp Lp Dp
∴ I ≈ qA = qA pn0 (eV /VT − 1)
Lp WB WB
since WB << Lp the diode current can be significantly
higher than a normal diode for the same forward bias
voltage
The Long Diode under forward bias
A P+N junction diode current is dominated by the hole

current. The holes diffuse in the n-region and hence the
width of the n-region plays an important role in determining
the current of the diode.
The expression for the diode current is given by(electron
current is neglected since it is a p+n diode)
Dp
I = qA ∆p
Lp
∆p is the excess hole injected from the p+ side to the

n-side of the diode ∆p = pn0 (eVEB /VT − 1)
Thus
Dp
I = qA pn0 (eVEB /VT − 1)
Lp
The Narrow base Diode under forward bias
In some cases the width of the n-region is chosen to be

much smaller than the hole diffusion length WB << Lp .
In that case the hole current entering the n-region is almost
equal to the hole current exiting the n-region.
The expression for the diode current is given by (electron
current is neglected since it is a p+n diode)
Dp W
I = qA ∆p coth( B )
Lp Lp
∆p is the excess hole injected from the p+ side to the

n-side of the diode ∆p = pn0 (eVEB /VT − 1)
Thus
Dp W
I≈qA pn0 coth( B )(eVEB /VT − 1)
Lp Lp
Currents in a narrow base and long P+N diode
Figure showing the different currents in long and narrow
base diodes (electron currents shown in red and hole
currents in blue)
IP(0) IP(WB)=0 I =I (0)

R p
p+ n-type
VEB
e-
IP(0) IP(WB)
p+ n
VEB IR=Ip(0)-Ip(WB)
e-
The Narrow base Diode vs the long diode currents
Long Diode
The hole current entering the n-region is
Dp
I(0) = qA pn0 (eVEB /VT − 1)
Lp
The hole current leaving the n-region is I(WB ) = 0
The recombination current IR = I(0)
Narrow base Diode
The current entering the n-region is
Dp WB
I(0) = qA pn0 coth( )(eVEB /VT − 1)
Lp Lp
The current leaving the n-region is
Dp WB
I(WB ) = qA pn0 · csch( )(eVEB /VT − 1)
Lp Lp
The recombination current
Dp WB
IR = I(0) − I(WB ) = qA ∆p tanh( )
Lp 2Lp
The Narrow base Diode vs the long diode
The narrow base diode produces more current for the

same diode cross sectional area, bias and doping levels
The ratio of the two currents is given by
Dp WB
qA pn0 coth( )(eVEB /VT − 1)
INB Lp Lp
=
IL Dp
qA pn0 (eVEB /VT − 1)
Lp
WB Lp WB
= coth( )≈ (∵ << 1)
Lp WB Lp
Electron current in the Diode under forward bias
So far we have neglected the electron current in the p+

region. The electron current can be found using a similar
appraoch for holes
Dn
In = qA np0 (eVEB /VT − 1)
Ln
The n-region ’loses’ some electrons due to diffusion of
electrons to the p-region which causes the electron current
in the diode. Additionally as discussed earlier the n-region
also loses electrons due to recombination of injected holes
in the n-region.
The ground has to supply for both these ’lost’ electtons. In
the previous analysis the electon diffusion current was
ignored and hence the electron current injected from the
ground was entirely the recombination current
Electron current in the Long Diode under forward bias
The electron current supplied by the ground has two
components. 1) The recombination current IR to replenish
the lost electrons due to recombination and 2) The electron
diffusion current to supply the electrons lost due to
diffusion of electrons to the p-side. Let IG be the total
current flowing into the ground due to the supply of
electrons
IGn = In (0) + IR = In + Ip = I
Hole diffusion current

Ip(0) IR=Ip(0)
e-
p+
n
VEB
WB In(0)
In(0) 0
e- diffusion current WB>>Lp
Building an amplifier-The first Field Effect Device
One of the earliest, Field effect devices. The idea was a

conceptual one and did not see any development for nearly
three decades
++++++++++++ +
−
- - - - - - - -
+
−
Building an amplifier-The Point contact Transistor
The point contact device invented in Bell Labs by Bardeen

and Bratain.
I1
|V2I2| > |V1I1| I2
V1 -V2
Building an amplifier-Schockley’s pnp Transistor
Schockley invented the Bipolar Junction transistor inspired

by the point contact transistor. He repleced the metals with
semicondcutors and it turned to the famous trijucntion
P N P
Building an amplifier
Consider the circuit shown below

If the current in the p-n junction can be transferred to a
resistor R, then we have v0 = di·R = gm Rvi
If R is chosen such that gm R >> 1, then we have built an
amplifier with a gain A = gm R
v0 = gm Rvi = Avi
Electrical Isolator
I+dI I+dI
P+ N
R vo=gmRvi
VBE+vi
The block needs to do two things,

transfer the injection of carriers from the forward bias pn
junction to the other side without any loss
offer electrical isolation between the two points
The carrier(hole) transfer to the resistor can be
accomplished by a reverse biased pn diode as shown
below
Reverse bias pn junction
Electrical Isolator
I+dI I+dI
P+ N N P
R V0+vo=gmRvi
VBE+vi
carrier injection onto a reverse bias PN junction
Holes injected on the n-side will undergo diffusion and then
reach the space charge region
If W >> Lp , then most of the holes will recombine with the
electrons and none will reach the p-side
IfW << Lp , then most of the holes injected on the n-side
witl be swept across the space charge region by the
electric field and reach the p-side
N P W>>Lp
W<<Lp
N P
Since the two diodes share a common n-region, it can be
merged to form a new device as shown below(with biasing
conditions)
The width of the common n-region should be much smaller
than the diffusion length of the holes injected from p-side
I+dI
P++ N+ P
R V0+vo=IR+gmRvi
VBE+vi VBC
incremental model
vi gmvi RL vo
Rin
The p-n-p transistor
The emitter emits the holes into the n-region or base

The base transports the holes into the depletion region of
the np junction
The collector collects the holes arriving from the emitter via
base
E C
P++ N+ P
B
The p-n-p transistor doping concentrations
The emitter base junction is forward biased and hence
holes are injected from the emitter to base and vice versa
To ensure that maximum of the emitter current is
transferred to the base, the emitter is heavily doped
compared to the base
The base width is kept very small compared to the hole
diffusion length
The collector doping concentration is made to be smaller
than the base so that changes in the collector base voltage
doesnot affect the base region and hence the current
transfered from the emitter to collector
E C
P++ N+ P
B
The p-n-p transistor terminal current relations
The emitter current is the sum of hole and electron

currents IE = IEp + IEn
Ideally all of the emitter current should be due to holes.
Since it is not practical, we define a parameter called as
emitter injection efficiency γ
IEp
γ=
IEp + IEn
IEp = γIE
where ideally γ = 1
The injected holes from the emitter reaches the base, In
the base regions they are minority carriers and hence
recombine with the electrons in the base region
In the base region ideally it is preferred that no holes are

recombined so that the transfer of holes is 100% (which
again is not practical)
A parameter called base transport factor B is defined to
quantify the recombination taking place in the base region
Thus in the base region the emitter-hole current IEp enters
the base from the emitter side and the current reaching the
collector is IC
IC = BIEp
Thus the total current transferred from emitter to collector is
IC = BIEp = BγIE = αIE
where α is called as the current transfer ratio

The base current IB is the current that flows from the base
to emitter region as the electron current of the forward
biased emitter-base junction.
Also the base current accounts for the recombination of the
electrons and holes in the base region. The current that is
lost due to the recombination process is simply given by
IR = IEp − BIEp = (1 − B)IEp
Thus
IB = IEn + IR = IEn + (1 − B)IEp = IE − IC
1−α
= (1 − α)IE = I
α C
The collector current can be expressed in terms of base

current as
α
IC = IB = βIB
1−α
where β is called as the collector to base current gain
factor or common emitter current gain defined as
α β
β= &α=
1−α 1+β
The emitter current can also be expressed in terms of the

current gain factor
1+β
IE = IC + IB = (1 + β)IB = I
β C
The p-n-p transistor in active region (Emitter base region is

forward biased and collector base region is reverse biased)
E C
IE IC
++
P N+ P+
IB
B
VEB VCB
p-n-p transistor current gain factors
Emitter injection efficiency
IEp
γ=
IE
Base transport factor (B)
IC
B=
IEp
current transfer ratio (α)
IC BIEp
α= = = Bγ
IE IE
collector to base current gain or common emitter current
gain β
I
β= C
IB
α β
β= &α=
1−α 1+β
The p-n-p transistor internal current relations
The emitter region currents
IEp = γIE IEn = (1 − γ)IE
Base region currents
IB = IR + IEn
IR = (1 − B)IEp = (1 − B)γIE
COllector region current
IC = BIEp = BγIE
The emitter and collector currents in terms of base current

1
IE = IC + IB = (1 + β)IB = IB
1−α
α
IC = βIB = IB
1−α
Emitter and collector current dependence on each other
β
IC = αIE = IE
1+β
The n-p-n transistor
Current in the pnp transistor is mainly due to the diffusion

of holes in the base region
C IE = IEp+IEn
Emitter
IEn=γIE IE
IE = IC+IB
IB = IR+IEp P++ IB
B N+
Base
P
IC
IC = BIEn=αIE Collector
E
Current in the npn transistor is mainly due to the diffusion
of electrons in the base region
All results of pnp transistor applies to npn transistor with
the polarity of currents reversed.
C
IC = BIEn=αIE Collector
IC
N IB
IB = IR+IEp
B P+
Base
N++
IE
IE = IEp+IEn IE = IC+IB
E IEn=γIE Emitter
Since the current in a npn transistor is due to electron

diffusion, the npn transistors are faster than pnp transistors
and are the most commonly used Bipolar transistors in
practice
The diffusion coefficent of electrons is larger compared to
the diffusion coefficient of holes since
D kT kT kT
= =⇒ Dn = µn Dp = µp
µ q q q
Since µn > µp , Dn > Dp

Bipolar transistors are used mostly in very high frequency
applications and most of them are npn. The advancement
of MOSFET has practically exterminated the Bipolar
transistors
Surprise quiz question
The hole current entering the base region from the emitter
in a pnp transistor is 0.99 mA(IEp ). The hole current
collected by the collecter terminal is IC = 0.98 mA It is
further given that the electron current entering the emitter
region from base is 0.01 mA (IEn ).
Find the current transfer ratio (α) between the emitter to
collector. Also find the current gain factor from collector to
base β
p-n-p transistor current gain factors
Emitter injection efficiency
IEp
γ=
IE
Base transport factor (B)
IC
B=
IEp
current transfer ratio (α)
IC BIEp
α= = = Bγ
IEp + IEn IE
collector to base current gain or common emitter current
gain β
I
β= C
IB
α β
β= &α=
1−α 1+β
Q.1-Darlington current amplifier
A design engineer is given with two transistors. One npn

transitor with a current gain of 20 and another pnp
transistor with a current gain of 25. The engineer’s task is
to design a circuit that can give a current gain of atleast
400. Design a device structure or circuit that can give the
desired current gain using only the above transistors
The transistors can be used in cascade to obtain the high
gain. The collector current of one transistor can be fed as
the base current of another transistor. The circuit is shown
with some biasing arrangement
This is popularly called as the darlington transistor pair
βnIb
Iin
Iout
vo
The circuit shown with the current flow indicating the
current gain in the circuit. The total output current is
Iout = βn βp Iin =⇒ βtot = βn βp = 20 ∗ 25 = 500
βnIb
Iin=Ib
Iout=βpβnIb
All possible darlington pair combinations shown below
βnIb
Iin=Ib Iin=Ib
2
Iout=βn Ib
βnIb
Iout=βpβnIb
Iin=Ib
Iin=Ib Iout=βpβnIb
βpIb
βpIb
Iout=βp2Ib
The p-n-p transistor in active region (Emitter base region is

forward biased and collector base region is reverse biased)
E C
IE IC
++
P N+ P+
IB
B
VEB VCB
Electron and hole currents in a pnp transistor
IEp IC
∆pE IC
IEn
IE e- IB=IR+IEn IC
IB IC
VEB VCB
IC
Some useful current expressions to remember
The current in a long pn junction diode is given by
Dp Dn
I = Ip + In = qA ∆p + qA ∆n
Lp Ln
where ∆p = pn0 (eVEB /VT − 1) and ∆n = np0 (eVEB /VT − 1)

For a p+n junction diode electron current is negligible
compared to the hole current, Hence we have
Dp
Ip+n = Ip = qA ∆p
Lp
For a pn+ junction the hole current is negligible compared

ot the electron current
Dn
Ipn+ = Ie = qA ∆n
Ln
The p-n-p transistor currents
The currents in a pnp transistor can be found from the

knowledge of the carrier concentration in each region
Since the base region is much smaller than the hole
diffusion length, the expression for the carrier
concentrations and currents are similar to the narrow
based diode derived previously
A frequenct approximation made in pnp transistor is
pn0 (eVEB /VT − 1) >> pn0 =⇒ pn0 ≈ 0
The pnp transistor is assumed to be in active region, where

EB junction is forward biased and CB is junstion is reverse
biased
The p-n-p transistor carrier distribution in active region
The excess hole concentration injected from the emitter to

the base region is ∆pE = pn0 (eVEB /VT − 1)
The excess carrier concentration in the EB and CB junction
shown below. WB is the active base width.
E ∆pE C
B B
∆nE npC
npE pn
pn
WB
The p-n-p transistor carrier distribution in active region
A fraction of those holes injected from the emitter

recombine with the electrons in the base region and then
are swept to the collector terminal by the reverse biased
Collector base region
E ∆pE C
∆nE npC
npE
pn
WB
Computing the terminal currents
To understand the terminal currents of a BJT, monitoring
the current in the base region is suffficient.
WB
IEp
∆pE
IEn IC
e-
IB=IR+IEn
The p-n-p transistor carrier concentration distribution
To compute the currents of the pnp transistor, we first

make some assumptions. Emitter injection effeciency
γ ≈ 1. Most of the current in the emitter is dominated by
the hole current.
The excess hole concentration at the depletion edge of the
base-collector region is
∆pC = pn0 (eVCB /VT − 1)≈ − pn0
To simplify the analysis it is assumed that ∆pC ≈0

compared to ∆pE since
pn0 (eVEB /VT − 1) >> pn0
Using these boundary conditions the expressions for the

carrier distributions and hole currents can be derived for
the pnp transistor using the condition of narrow base diode
The p-n-p transistor carrier concentration distribution
Computing the terminal currents
The excess carrier concentration in the base region after
making the approximations. This problem is exactly the
same as the minority carrier diffusion in a confined region
of width smaller than the diffusion length.
IEp
∆pE
IC
0
WB
The Narrow base Diode vs the long diode currents
Long Diode
The hole current entering the n-region is
Dp
IL (0) = qA pn0 (eVEB /VT − 1)
Lp
The hole current leaving the n-region is IL (WB ) = 0
The recombination current IR = IL (0)
Narrow base Diode
The current entering the n-region is
Dp WB WB
I(0) = qA pn0 coth( )(eVEB /VT − 1) = IL (0) · coth( )
Lp Lp Lp
The current leaving the n-region is
Dp WB WB
I(WB ) = qA pn0 ·csch( )(eVEB /VT −1) = IL (0)·csch( )
Lp Lp Lp
The recombination current
Dp WB WB
IR = I(0) − I(WB ) = qA ∆p tanh( ) = IL (0) tanh( )
Lp 2Lp 2Lp
The p-n-p transistor current expressions
Let
Dp Dp
Ip0 = qA ∆pE = qA pn0 (eVEB /VT − 1)
Lp Lp
The emitter current can then be expressed as The hole
current injected from the emitter is given by

WB
IE ≈ IEp = Ip0 coth
Lp
The hole current leaving the base region or entering the

collector is nothing but the collector current itself. The
collector current can be expressed as

WB
IC = Ip0 csch
Lp
The current recombined in the base region is given by
Dp W
IR = IEp − IC = qA ∆pE tanh( B )
Lp 2Lp
Ignoring the electron current in the emitter region, base

current is approximately equal to the recombination current
itself
WB
IB = IR = Ip0 tanh
2Lp
The term WB here represents the active base width. The
width of the undepleted region in the base region.
The emitter base and collector currents can be expressed
as
WB
IE ≈ Ip0 coth
Lp

WB
IB ≈ Ip0 tanh
2Lp

WB
IC = Ip0 csch
Lp
where
Dp Dp
Ip0 = qA ∆pE = qA pn0 (eVEB /VT − 1)
Lp Lp
These expressions show the dependence of the terminal

currents on the device parameters. All the three currents
are mainly dependent on the base width and hence it is a
very important design parameter.
Assuming that WB << Lp , we have

WB Lp WB
IE ≈ Ip0 coth ≈ Ip0 +
Lp WB 3Lp

WB W
IB ≈ Ip0 tanh ≈ Ip0 B
2Lp 2Lp

WB Lp
IC ≈ Ip0 csch ≈ Ip0
Lp WB
Thus the emitter and collector currents will decrease with
increasing base width, but the base current increases with
increasing base width.
This follows directly from the fact that increasing the
basewidth will increase the hole (minority carrier)
recombination in the base and thus decrease the current
transported to the collector terminal
The p-n-p transistor current gain factors-current
transfer ratio (α)
Since the emitter is heavily doped compared to the base,
the electron carrier flow from the base to emitter can be
ignored. Thus the emitter injection efficiency γ≈1
In that case α≈B. B is base transport factor given by
Dp W
qA ∆pE csch( B )
IC Lp Lp
B= =
IEp Dp WB
qA ∆pE coth( )
Lp Lp
1 WB
= = sech( )
WB Lp
cosh( )
Lp
For very narrow base width’s WB << Lp , we have

1 WB 2
α≈B ≈ 1 −
2 Lp
The p-n-p transistor current gain factors-Collector to
base current gain (β)
The collector to base current gain is simply the ratio of the
collector current to the base current
IC IC I
β= = ≈ C (∵ γ ≈ 1)
IB IR + IEn IR
Dp WB WB
qA ∆pE csch( ) csch( )
Lp Lp Lp
= =
Dp WB WB
qA ∆pE tanh( ) tanh( )
Lp 2Lp 2Lp
For cases when WB << Lp
WB
csch()
Lp Lp /WB 2Lp 2
β= ≈ =
W (WB /2Lp ) WB 2
tanh( B )
2Lp
(∵ csch(x) ≈ 1/x & tanh(x) ≈ x for x << 1)
The p-n-p transistor current gain factors-Collector to
base current gain (β)
For cases when WB << Lp
2Lp 2 2Dp τp
β≈ 2
=
WB WB 2
The diffusion length and the base width are both designer
controllable paramters. The diffusion length is given by
q
Lp = Dp τp
τp , the minority carrier lifetime can be controlled by varying

the doping concentration in the base region, a lightly
doped base region will increase the carrier lifetime and
hence the current gain
A smaller base width will also reduce the recombination in
the base region which in turn will increase the current gain
and also the forward current transfer ratio
Problem 2-Narrow base width
The base width of an npn transistor is 5 µm and the

diffusion length of an electron in the base region is 50 µm.
The corresponding collector current is IC and the current
gain is β. Now the base width is reduced to 1 µm. What is
the new collector current and the current gain (express
them in terms of IC and β). Assume that the base current
is mostly due to the recombination current.
Problem 2. Narrow base width
The collector current in a narrow base npn transistor is
given by
Dn WB Dn
IC = qA ∆nE csch( ) ≈ qA ∆nE
Ln Ln WB
Since the base width is reduced by a factor of 5, the new
collector current increases by a factor of 5
WB
IC | = IC = 5IC
WB |
The current gain for a narrow base transistor is given by
2Ln 2
β≈
WB 2
2
| WB
=⇒ β = β = 25β
WB |
The Lousy Device Engineer problem
A device engineer had mistakenly designed the base width
of a pnp transistor to be much larger than the diffusion
length of the minority carriers in that region. The doping
concentrations in the different regions were done correctly.
What will be the emitter, base and collector currents for this
transistor? Also find the collector to base current gain β
and the current transfer ratio α
E WB >> Lp C
IE IC
P++ N+ P
B IB
VEB VCB
The Emitter base junction is forward biased and the
emitter-base junction now resembles a long diode (since
base width is much larger than Lp ). Thus the emitter
current is given by
Dp
IE ≈IEp = qA pn0 (eVEB /VT − 1)
Lp
Since the base width is much greater than the minority

carrier (hole) diffusion length, all the holes entering the
base region from the emitter will recombined in the base
region itself
Thus the current entering the collector-base junction is
zero. Hence
IC = 0
Here were are neglecting the reverse saturation as it much
smaller in magnitude. In that case IC = −Is ≈ 0
Since the hole current is recombined completely, the base
terminal has to provide for the recombination current
IB = IR + IEn = IEp − IC + IEn = IE
The base transport factor
IC
B= =0
IEp
The forward current transfer ratio

IC
α= =0
IE
The collector to base current gain
IC
β= =0
IB
Electron and hole currents in a pnp transistor
IEp IC
∆pE IC
IEn
IE e- IB=IR+IEn IC
IB IC
VEB VCB
IC
Including electron current in the terminal currents
We have thus far ignored the electron current in the

analysis. When the electron current is included in the
analysis, the expressions for the emitter and base currents
needs to be modified
The electron current diffusing into the p-region can be
easily computed. Since there is no restriction on the length
of the p-regions, we assume that the p-region is much
larger than the diffusion length and hence
Dn Dn
IEn = qA ∆nE = qA np (eVEB /VT − 1)
Ln Ln
The emitter current is given by

WB
IE = IEp + IEn = Ip0 coth + IEn
Lp
The base current is given by

WB
IB = IR + IEn = Ip0 tanh + IEn
2Lp
Finally the emitter and base currents can be expressed as

follows

Dp WB Dn
IE = qA pn coth + np (eVEB /VT − 1)
Lp Lp Ln

Dp WB Dn
IB = qA pn tanh + np (eVEB /VT − 1)
Lp 2Lp Ln
The collector current remains the same

Dp WB
IC = qA pn csch (eVEB /VT − 1)
Lp Lp
Q.2) Energy Band Diagram
A pnp transistor The doping concentrations in the emitter,

base and collector regions are 1019 cm−3 ,1016 cm−3 and
1016 cm−3 . The mettalurgical base width is 0.985 µm.
Draw the energy band diagram of the BJT under zero
applied bias condition, showing the depletion width and
base width on the band diagram.
Q.2) Energy Band Diagram
Q.2. Energy Band Diagram
Since the emitter base junction is a p+ n junction, the

depletion width of the emitter base junction under zero bias
condition is given by
s
2ǫs V0,EB 1
WEB =
q Nd
The built-in potential of the emitter base junction is

Na Nd
V0,EB = VT ln = 0.873 V
ni 2
s
2 × 11.8 × 8.854 × 10−14 × 0.873 1
WEB =
1.6 × 10−19 1016
= 0.34 × 10−4 cm = 0.34 µm

Q.2-Energy Band Diagram
The depletion width of the collector base junction under

zero bias condition is given by
s
2ǫs V0,CB 1 1
WCB = +
q Na Nd

Na Nd
V0,CB = VT ln = 0.695 V
ni 2
s
2 × 11.8 × 8.854 × 10−14 × 0.695 2
WCB =
1.6 × 10−19 1016
= 0.43 × 10−4 cm = 0.43 µm

Q.2-Energy Band diagram
Energy band diagram under equilibrium conditions
p n p
WB 0.694 eV
Ec
0.873 eV
Ei
Ev Ef
The Lousy Circuit Engineer problem
A circuit engineer had mistakenly interchanged the emiiter
and collector regions in his circuit as shown below. He now
obsevres the terminal currents and computes the current
gains
Qualitatively compare What will be the emitter, base and
collector currents for this transistor compared to the normal
case? Also comment on the collector to base current gain
β and the current transfer ratio α
E C
IC IE
P++ N+ P+
IB
B
The emitter region is now lightly doped compared to the

base, thus the electron current(IEn ) is higher than the
normal case where emitter was heavily doped compared to
base. This results in a reduction of γ, the emitter injection
efficiency
IEn | > IEn =⇒ γ | < γ
The hole concentration injected into the base region will
remain the same as it depends on the base region hole
concenration (pn0 ) and appplied bias (both of which remain
the same)
Assuming that the base width does not change to a first
order, the collector current is also same since IEp is same
and the base transport factor also remains unchanged
The base transport factor is unaltered and the collector

current remains the same as
IC = BIEp
both IEp and B remain unchanged by the flipping of

terminals
The emitter current however increases since the electron
current increases due to the lower p-type doping in the
emitter region. Thus
IE | > IE
The base current increases as the electron current in the
emitter has increased and it has supply for it. The
recombination current however remians constant
IB | = IR + IEn | =⇒ IB | > IB
The forward currrent transfer ratio α reduces

IC IC
α| = |
< =α
IE IE
The collector to base current gain also reduces
IC IC
β| = |
< =β
IB IB
An important point to note is that the variation in currents

and gains are due to the fact that emitter and collector are
not symetrically doped. They are unequally doped. For
p+-n-p+ transistor, the currents and gains will remain same
even if emitter and collector are interchanged
The different regions of operation of pnp
transistor-cut-off region
The pnp transistor has two pn junctions which can be
independently biased. Hence there are four possible
regions of operation
When both the emitter-base and collector-base junctiions
are reverse biased it is called as the cut-off region
IE=-IsEB IC=IsCB
P++ N+ P+
IB=-(IsCB+IsEB)
VEB VCB
Carrier concentrations in cut-off region
E ∆pE C
∆nE ∆nC npC

npE
pn
∆pC
WB
The excess holes injected in the base region from the

emitter (∆pE ) and collector (∆pC ) regions is given by
∆pE = pn (eVEB /VT − 1) & ∆pC = pn (eVCB /VT − 1)
In active region VEB > 0 and VCB < 0, hence
∆pE ≈ pn eVEB /VT & ∆pC ≈ −pn
In cut-off region VEB < 0 and VCB < 0, hence
∆pE ≈ −pn & ∆pC ≈ −pn

The emitter base junction reverse saturation current IsEB

will flow from base to the emitter and similarly the
collector-base reverse saturation current will also from
base to collector
So
IE = −IsEB
IC = IsCB
IB = IE − IC = −(IsEB + IsCB )
Diode charactreistics
A diode is a two terminal device that is characterised by

the current equation given by

I = IS eV /VT − 1
for negaive V, the current simply reduces to I ≈ −IS
V I I
+ -
-IS
V
Some simple diode circtuis
Find the current in both the circuits shown below. Use ideal
diode equations as discussed before
5V 5V
a) b)
Q.3-Punchthrough Breakdown
A pnp transistor The doping concentrations in the emitter,

base and collector regions are 1019 cm−3 ,1016 cm−3 and
1016 cm−3 . The mettalurgical base width is 0.985 µm.
Draw the energy band diagram of the BJT under zero
applied bias condition, showing the depletion width and
base width on the band diagram.
The pnp transistor is now biased in active region with an
emitter base voltage of 0.7 V . It is given that the entire
base region is depleted of mobile charge carriers. What is
the applied collector base voltage that can cause this
condition?. Draw the new energy band diagram for this
condition.

depletion width of the emitter base junction under zero bias
s
2ǫs V0,EB 1
WEB =
q Nd

Na Nd
V0,EB = VT ln = 0.873 V
ni 2
s
2 × 11.8 × 8.854 × 10−14 × 0.873 1
WEB =
1.6 × 10−19 1016
= 0.34 × 10−4 cm = 0.34 µm

The depletion width of the collector base junction under

zero bias condition is given by
s
2ǫs V0,CB 1 1
WCB = +
q Na Nd

Na Nd
V0,CB = VT ln = 0.695 V
ni 2
s
2 × 11.8 × 8.854 × 10−14 × 0.695 2
WCB =
1.6 × 10−19 1016
= 0.43 × 10−4 cm = 0.43 µm

Energy band diagram under equilibrium conditions
p n p
WB 0.694 eV
Ec
0.873 eV
Ei
Ev Ef

depletion width of the emitter base junction forward bias
s
2ǫs (V0,EB − VF ) 1
WEB =
q Nd
Thus the base emitter depletion width under forward bias

condition VF = 0.7 V is given by
s
2 × 11.8 × 8.854 × 10−14 × (0.873 − 0.7) 1
WEB =
1.6 × 10−19 1016
= 0.15 × 10−4 cm = 0.15 µm

Let x1 be the depletion width extending into the base region
on the emitter side. Since EB junction is a p+n junction
x1 ≈ WEB = 0.15 µm
Let x2 be the depletion width extending into the base
region on the collector side. Since the collector and base
junctions are equally doped
W
x2 = CB
2
x1 x2
p n p
WB
It is given that the entire base region is depleted for a

certain VR applied across the collector base junction.
∴ x1 +x2 = WB → x2 = WB −x1 = 0.985−0.15 = 0.835 µm
Since x2 = WCB /2
s
2ǫs (V0,CB + VR ) 1 1
WCB = + = 2x2 = 1.67 µm
q Na Nd
s
2 × 11.8 × 8.854 × 10−14 × (0.695 + VR ) 2
= 1.67 µm
1.6 × 10−19 1016
=⇒ VR ≈ 10 V
Energy band diagram under applied conditions showing

full depletion of base region
n
p p
WB
0.173 eV 10.694 eV
Ec
Ei
Ev
the Base Transit time and charge control analysis
The average time a hole spends in the base region before

being swept off to the collector is defined as the transit
time.
Transit time is much smaller than the hole recombination
time τp as the length of the base region is much smaller
than the hole diffusion length
Transit time depends on two parameters in the base region
the diffusion coefficient in the base region which
determines the velocity of the holes in the base region
The width of the base region as it determines the distance
the hole needs to travel before it hits the collector
Charge control analysis
The steady state hole charge distribution in the base
region can be approximated as a straight line given by

x
δp(x) = ∆pE 1 −
WB
The total hole charge stored in the base region is given by
Z WB
qAWB ∆pE
QBp = qA δp(x) dx =
0 2
∆pE
∆pE(1-x/WB)
Q=qA∆pEWB/2
0 x W
Charge control analysis
There are two phenomenon that occurs in the base region
Every τt seconds this charge is fed to the collector
depletion regionand every τp seconds the charge is
recombined in the base region
The emitter replenishes the hole concentration constantly
in the base region accounting for the two phenomeneon
Q/τp + Q/τt
δp IC=Q/τt
IB=Q/τp
Charge control analysis- terminal currents
The current transferred to the collector is simply the hole
charge transfered to the collector every τt seconds
QB p
IC =
τt
Once the charge is recombined after τp seconds, to
maintain base region neutrality, the base terminal supplies
electrons whose charge equals the hole charge in the
base, every τp seconds. Thus
QBp
IB =
τp
The emitter current is given by

1 1
IE = IC + iB = QBp +
τt τp
Charge control analysis- terminal currents
The expression for the base current from the previous

analysis is
Dp WB
IB = qA ∆pE tanh( )
Lp 2Lp
For narrow base widths
Dp W Dp WB
IB ≈ qA ∆pE B = qA ∆pE
Lp 2Lp 2Lp 2
WB QBp
= qA ∆pE =
2τp τp
Thus the current expression can be derived from the
charge control model as well
Charge control analysis-current gain factors
The current transfer ratio is given by
IC τp
α= =
IE τp + τt
The collector to base current gain factor
IC τp
β= =
IB τt
From our previous analysis we know that
WB
csch( )
Lp 2Lp 2
β= ≈
WB WB 2
tanh( )
2Lp
2Dp τp
=
WB 2
Charge control analysis-base transit time
The transit time can be computed from the current gain

expression
2Dp τp τp
β= 2
=
WB τt
Hence
WB 2
τt =
2Dp
Thus as expected the base transit time depends on the
base width and the base region diffusion coefficient
Q.3-Charge control analysis
Find the base charge in a silicon based pnp transistor

using narrow base approximation for an applied
emitter-base voltage of 0.7 V. The doping concentration in
the n-region is 1016 cm−3 . The base cross sectional area is
1 cm2 and the base length is 1 µm. If the base transit time
and the hole recombination time are 100 ps and 10 ns
respectively. Find the collector and emitter currents in the
pnp transistor. Neglect the electron current in the emitter
and assume that the transistor is biased in active region.
The hole concentration injected from emitter into base is
ni 2 VEB /VT
∆pE = pn0 (eVEB /VT − 1) = (e − 1)
Nd
2
(1.5x1010 )
(e0.7/0.0259 − 1) = 1.23x1016 cm−3
1016
∆pE
∆pE(1-x/WB)
Q=qA∆pEWB/2
0 x WB
Thus the base charge is given by
qAWB ∆pE
QB = = 0.5 · 1.6x10−19 · 10−4 · 10−6 · 1.23x1016
2
= 98.39 fC
The base current is given by
QB 98.39 fC
IB = = = 9.839 µA
τp 10 ns
τp 10 ns
β= = = 100
τt 100 ps
τp 10 ns
IC = βIB = IB = 9.839 µA = 0.9839 mA
τt 100 ps
IE = (β + 1)IB = 101 ∗ 9.389 µA = 0.99376 mA
Q.4-Narrow base width
The base width of an npn transistor is 5 µm and the

diffusion length of an electron in the base region is 50 µm.
The corresponding collector current is IC and the current
gain is β. Now the base width is reduced to 1 µm. What is
the new collector current and the current gain (express
them in terms of IC and β). Assume that the electton
current can be neglected compared to the hole currents in
the transistor
transistor-saturation region
are forward biased, teh BJT is said to be in Saturation
region
To analyse the saturation region, one can use the principle
of superposition to compute the hole distribution in the
base region
E C
IE IC
++
P N+ P+
IB
B
transistor-saturation region
are forward biased it is called as the Saturation region
To analyse the saturation region, one can use the principle
of superposition to compute the hole distribution in the
base region
E C
IE IC
P++ N+ P+
IB
B
VEB VCB
Saturation region
A forward biased emitter region injects holes into the base

region whose value is ∆PE
A forward biased collector region injects holes into the
base region whose value is ∆PC
∆pE
∆pC
0 WB
The excess holes injected in the base region from the

emitter (∆pE ) and collector (∆pC ) regions is given by
∆pE = pn (eVEB /VT − 1) & ∆pC = pn (eVCB /VT − 1)
In active region VEB > 0 and VCB < 0, hence
∆pE ≈ pn eVEB /VT & ∆pC ≈ −pn
In Saturation region VEB > 0 and VCB > 0, hence
∆pE ≈ pn eVEB /VT & ∆pC ≈ pn eVCB /VT

Saturation region
Carrier concentration in Saturation region
∆pE C
E
∆pC ∆nC
∆nE npC
npE
pn
WB
Saturation region
The holes from the emitter diffuse through the base region
and reach the collector and similarly the holes from the
collector diffuse through the base and reach the emitter
Thus there are actually two currents in the pnp transistor
flowing from emitter to collector and collector to emitter
The emitter and collector currents will decrease in
magnitude comapred to their values in the active region.
The base current will increase as there will more
recombination in the base region. Additionally the base
has to aupply the electron current of the forward biased
collector base junction
IB = IR + IEn + ICn
IE = IEp + IEp − αI IC
IC = ICn + ICp − αIE
where αI is the reverse current transfer ratio from collector
to emitter.
The pnp transistor and the diode models
A pnp transistor can be seen as a combination of two pn

junctions. Hence it can be represented as a series of two
diodes as shown below
This model is called as an isolated diode model
WB << Lp
N+
P++ P
E C
B
According to this model

IE = IES eVEB /VT − 1

IC = −ICS eVCB /VT − 1

IB = IE − IC = IES eVEB /VT − 1 + ICS eVCB /VT − 1
In the active region, according to these equations
IC = ICS
IE ≈IB
This does not represent the actual scenario accurately.
The collector current should be proportional to IE and it
should be independent of VCB . This effect cannot be
captured in this model
When the base region width is much larger than the
minority carrier diffusion length, then the BJT can be
modelled as connection of two diodes in series. The holes
injected from the emitter will never reach the collector.
Hence the two junction are ’non-interating’ and can be
modelled as two isolated diodes.
WB >> Lp
N+
P++ P
E C
B
However in a BJT the base width is much smaller and the

two junction are ’interacting’. To model the effect of
interaction between the two junctions, we use what is
popularly called as ’Coupled diode Model’
WB << Lp
N+
P++ P
E C
B
BJT models using simple circuit elements-Eber Moll’s
Equations
The emitter current can be expressed in terms of the
applied volatges VEB and VCB as follows.
Let the collector base junction be shorted, then there is no
current across the collector base junction due to diffusion,
the current is entirely due to the emitter base junction
diode. The emitter current in that case can be expressed
as
here IES is the emitter saturation current when the collector
base junction is shorted
The collector current in this case is given by

IC = αN IES eVEB /VT − 1
here αN is the forward current transfer ratio in the normal

mode
Equations
The emitter and collector current for VEB > 0 and VCB = 0


IC = αN IES eVEB /VT − 1
E C
IE IC
++
P N+ P+
IB
B
VEB 0
Equations
The excess holes into the base region when VEB > 0 and
VCB = 0
∆pE = pn eVEB /VT − 1
∆pC = 0
VEB/VT
∆pE= pn(e -1)
VEB>0
VCB=0
∆pC=0
WB
Equations
Let the emitter base junction be shorted, then there is no

current across the emitter base junction due to diffusion,
the current is entirely due to the collector base junction
diode. The collector current in that case can be expressed
as
IC = −ICS eVCB /VT − 1
here ICS is the collector saturation current when the emitter

base junction is shorted
The emitter current in this case is given by

IE = −αI IES eVEB /VT − 1
here αI is the forward current transfer ratio in the reverse

mode
Equations
The collector and emitter current for VEB = 0 and VCB 6= 0

VCB /VT
IC = −ICS e −1

IE = −αI ICS eVCB /VT − 1
E C
IE IC
++
P N+ P+
IB
B
0 VCB
Equations
The excess holes into the base region when VEB > 0 and
VCB = 0
∆pC = pn eVCB /VT − 1
∆pE = 0
∆pC= pn(eVCB/VT-1)
VEB=0
VCB>0
∆pE=0
WB
Eber Moll’s equations
Applying the principle of superposition, we get

IE = IES eVEB /VT − 1 − αI ICS eVCB /VT − 1

IC = αN IES eVEB /VT − 1 − ICS eVCB /VT − 1
and

IB = (1 − αN )IES eVEB /VT − 1 + (1 − αI )ICS eVCB /VT − 1
another interesting observation to be made is that
αN IES = αI ICS
assuming that the EB and CB voltage are of same value

The p-n-p transistor large signal model and reciprocity
theorem
The pnp transistor produces the same collecter current

even when the emitter and collector terminals are
reversed. This is analogous to the reciprocity theorem in
circuit theory as shown below
IL IL
A B A B
Vi + Vi +
− −
ZL ZL
Coupled diode model and the Eber’s Moll equations
The isolated diode model does not capture the
phenomenon in a pnp transistor, hence we need a coupled
diode model incorporating the current dependencies on
each other as shown below
This model accurately captures the large signal picture of
the pnp transistor
IES(eVEB/VT-1) αNIES(eVEB/VT-1)
E C
IE IC
αIICS(eVEB/VT-1) ICS(eVCB/VT-1)
IB
B
The Eber moll model shown interms of excess carrier and

minority carrier concentrations.
IES (∆pE/pn) αNIES (∆pE/pn)

E C
IE IC
ICS (∆pC/pn)
αIICS (∆pC/pn)
IB
B
It is often convenient to express the terminal currents in
terms of each other than just the saturation currents and
apllied voltages.

IE = IES eVEB /VT − 1 − αI ICS eVCB /VT − 1 (1)

IC = αN IES eVEB /VT − 1 − ICS eVCB /VT − 1 (2)
Multiplying Eq 1 by αN and suntracting it from Equation 2
we get,

IC − αN IE = (αN αI − 1)ICS eVCB /VT − 1

IC = αN IE − (1 − αN αI )ICS eVCB /VT − 1

IC = αN IE − ICO eVCB /VT − 1
where ICO = (1 − αN αI )ICS is the collector saturation
current with emitter open
Similarly one can derive an expression for emitter current
as.

IE = IES eVEB /VT − 1 − αI ICS eVCB /VT − 1 (3)

IC = αN IES eVEB /VT − 1 − ICS eVCB /VT − 1 (4)
Multiplying Eq 2 by αI and suntracting it from Equation 1

we get,

IE − αI IC = (1 − αN αI )IES eVEB /VT − 1

IE = αI IC + (1 − αN αI )IES eVEB /VT − 1

IE = αI IC + IEO eVEB /VT − 1
where IEO = (1 − αN αI )IES is the emitter saturation current

with collector open
Thus the Eber Moll Equations reduce to

IC = αN IE − ICO eVCB /VT − 1

IEO(eVEB/VT-1) αN IE
E C
IE IC
αI IC ICO(eVCB/VT-1)
IB
B
In active region the equations reduce to

IC = αN IE − IEO eVCB /VT − 1 = αN IE + ICO

IEO(eVEB/VT-1) αNIE
E C
IE IC
αIIC IB ICO
B
Pnp- Current tranfer characteristics
The collector current to collector emitter voltage

characteristics
IC
+ VE
+ −
− VB IC
- VCE + V
− C
- VCE˝ VEB
base width modulation
The collector current increases with increase in the
collector to emitter voltage and it given by
|VCE |

VEB /VT
IC = IES e −1 1+
VA
The increase in collector current is due to the reduction in
the base width due to the extension of space charge region
in the base region
IC
-VA - VCE
- VCE˝ VEB
Thermal effects on BJT
A BJt is a minority carrier device and hence the currents

are prone to drastic variations with temperature
IC(T)
PD=IC2(T)RLα Τ RL
IC(T) VCC PD=IC2(T)R

IS(T),β(T)
RB
VBB +
−
IC2(T)RLα Τ
An increase in T results in an increase in the collector

current as the reverse saturation currents increase,which
leads to an increase in the power dissipation across RL ,
which in turn increase T and the process continues as a
positive feedback mechanism until the device is destroyed
due to electrical breakdown or thermal overheating
IC(T)
PD=IC2(T)RLα Τ RL
IC(T) VCC PD=IC2(T)R

IS(T),β(T)
RB
VBB +
−
IC2(T)RLα Τ
The collector current is given by
IC = αIE + ICO
where ICO is the collector current with emitter open in the
active region. It is simple equal to the reverse saturation
current in the base collector pn junction
The emitter current also depends on the reverse saturation
current
If VEB is fixed as is the case in the figure given as an
example in previous slide, then the emitter current can be
written as a function of temperature
Dp W Dp
IE (T ) = qA ∆pE coth( B ) ≈ qA pn0 eVEB /VT
Lp Lp WB
Dp ni 2 VEB /VT
= qA e
WB Nd
Thus we have
Dp ni 2 (T ) VEB /VT
IE (T ) = qA e
WB Nd
Both ni and Dp are strong functions of temperature
Eg
−
3/2
ni = C0 T e 2kT
Dp = VT µp α T · T −3/2 = T −1/2
Thus we can express IE as
Eg − qVEB
−
5/2 kT
IE (T ) = K0 T e
For silicon Eg /q is more than practical values of VEB ,

hence the current increases exponentially with an increase
in temperature if VEB is kept constant
Other explanations of Thermal runaway
Other explanations for increase in the collector current can

be explained by considering the current gain factor
τp
β=
τt
The minority carrier lifetime increases with increase in
temperature as the generation rate increases with
temperature and hence every carrier that gets recombined
is immediately reexcited to create a electron-hole pair. This
can be seen as a reduction in recombination rate and an
increase in the recombination time
T ↑ =⇒ τp ↑
Other explanations of Thermal runaway
The transit time in the base is dependent on the velocity of

the holes in the base regions which again is dependent on
the hole mobility and diffusion coefficient both of which
decrease with increase in temperature. Thus τt increases
with temperature
But the variation in τp is larger than τt with temperature
and hence the current gain increases with temperature.
T ↑ =⇒ β(T ) ↑
Thus IC also increases with T

Thermal runaway- can we fix it?
Thermal runaway is a major problems in circuits that

dissipate high power and hence it needs to be addressed.
One obvious solution is to reduce the temperature of the
pnp transistor by mounting heat sinks on the device. Thus
the termperature can be reduced and the indefinite
increase in the current can be curtailed
But heat sinks take up area and add to physical size of the
device. An easier solution using circuits is preferrable in
some cases
Thermal runaway-Temperature dependent biasing
The goal is to design a circuit that will somehow sense the
increase in temperature and reduce IC , to compensate for
the change in the current due to temperature. Consider the
circuit below
IC(T)=kIDC RL
IDC IC(T)
VCC
Close proximity
Thermal runaway-Temperature dependent biasing
If a constant current is pushed into a diode then the

voltage across the diode is given by
IDC I
VBE = VT ln( ) = −VT ln( S )
IS IDC
Using the well known expression for the diode reverse

saturation currents (IS ) and assuming that it is a narrow
base diode
Eg 5 kT
VBE = −VT ln(K0 T 5/2 e−Eg /kT ) = − ln(K0 T )
q 2 q
Thus it can be seen that the voltage across the diode

decreases with temperature. If this voltage is used as a
biasing voltage for the BJT, then the collector current will
remain constant
Carrier concentration in BJT
Find the applied bias voltage for the EB and CB junctions

from the carrier concentration plots shown below. It is
given that A = 106 np and B = 106 pn . It is also given that
B = 104 A. Assuming the BJT is made of silicon, find the
doping concentrations in the emitter and base regions if
npE = 2.25 × 106 . Also find the approximate collector
current and emitter current
B
A
npC
npE pn
Carrier concentration in BJT
Diode equivalence of a BJT
A BJT with its collector shorted to the base terminal

behaves just as a two terminal narrow base diode, with the
same rectification properties
PTAT and CTAT
An interesting observation to make in the equation of a

narrow base diode voltage is that
Eg 5 kT
VBE = −VT ln(K0 T 5/2 e−Eg /kT ) = − ln(K0 T )
q 2 q
VBE reduces with increasing temperature, such a voltage

Complementary to absolute temperature (CTAT) voltage
Similarly voltages that increase with temperature are called
as Proportional to absolute temperature (PTAT) voltages
PTAT and CTAT
Find the voltage Vx across the forward biased diode shown
in the figure (given that the area of the reverse biased is N
times the are of the forward biased diode)
NA
5V Vx
A
PTAT and CTAT
The reversed biased diode carries a current of NIS where

IS is the reverse saturation current of the forward biased
diode.
Hence the voltage Vx is given by
NIS kT
VX = VT ln(1 + )= ln(1 + N)
IS q
Vx is a PTAT voltage
Drfit in the base region
It is desirable to reduce the transit time in the base region

to increase the current gain factor (β)
the base width cannot be reduced indefinitely as smaller
base widths might lead to the problem of punch through
due to the reverse biased CB junction
The other way is to increase the velocity of the carriers in
the base region.
WB
τt =
vb (x)
The velocity can be increased by introducing an electric
field in the base region
Drfit in the base region-carrier gradient induced
electric field
It is well known that gradients in the doping concentration
leads to induced electric field in the semiconductors as
shown below
n(x)
x
electric field
Under equilibrium the carrier gradients in the base regions
pushes the electrons towards the collector but since the
collector region is reverse biased the electrons cannot be
swept to the collector
Hence the net electron current in x-direction in base due to
the electrons is zero. Since the base region is electrically
neutral, no electron transfer will take place from the base
region to the base terminal as well
Thus we have
dn(x)
Jn (x) = qn(x)µn E(x) + qDn =0
dx
Dn 1 dn(x)
=⇒ E(x) = −
µn n(x) dx
1 dn(x)
E(x) = −VT
n(x) dx
electric field
The induced electric field in the base region is
1 dn(x)
E(x) = −VT
n(x) dx
If n(x) is chosen to have an exponential distribution

n(x) = N0 e−ax/WB . Then the electric field is constant in the
base region is
aVT
E(x) =
WB
Every hole that enters the base region will be swept across
by this electric field there by increasing the velocity and
reducing the transit time
Thus the graded base region finds it usage in high
frequency devices
electric field
Breakdown in Bipolar transistors-Zener breakdown
Avalanche breakdown and Zener breakdown in pn junction

diodes
Zener breakdown is prevalent in cases where the doping
concentrations are very high in the p and n regions so that
the depletion width is very narrow
band to band tunneling
Conduction e-
P N
Valence e-
Avalanche multiplication
Avalanche breakdown occurs due to impact ionization in
the depletion region and it is most common for low to
moderate doping concentrations in the p and n
This is the most common breakdown in the BJTs as the
breakdown occurs in the collector base region and the
collector is usually moderately doped
Avalanche multiplication
VBD
P N
Common Emitter (CE) and Common Base (CB)
configuration
In CE the emitter is the common terminal and is used for
inputs that require huge current amplification or high
impedance
It is mostly used in TTL logic circuits
VCC VCC
RL
vo
+ VBB vo
+ −
−
vi RL
vi
Common base configuration
In CB configuration the base terminal is common and the
input is applied at the emitter.
There is no current amplification but only voltage
amplification without any inversion in sign
VCC VCC
RL
vi
vo
+ V vo
+ V − BB
− BB vi
RL
Breakdown in CB configurations
In CB configuration the output is across the collector base
junction and hence the breakdown in the CB configuration
is simply equal to the breakdown voltage of the collector
base junction itself
IE=0 IC=MICO
RL
VBB +
−
The current under breakdown can be written as
ICBD = (αIE + ICO )M
where M is the breakdown multiplication factor given by the

emperical expression
1
M=
1 − (VBC /BVCBO )n
n varies between 2 and 6

The CB configuration is usually biased using a current
source at the emitter terminal and hence the emitter
current cannot change indefinitely as the collector current
changes abruptly due to breakdown
The current simply loops through the CB junction

indefinitely. The breakdown current can be obtained by
assuming IE = 0. Thus the reverse saturation current in
the collector jucntion is multiplied by the current
amplification factor M
IC = MICO
Hence in CB configuration for the current to reach very

high values, the factor M must be very high, which implies
that VCB ≈ VBCB , where VBCB is the collector base junction
breakdown voltage
Breakdown in CE configurations
In CE configuration the breakdown mechanism is very
different, the base terminal is where the input is applied
and the emitter terminal is directly connected to the supply.
Hence emitter terminal can supply for any excess current
as demanded by the collector breakdown unlike a CB
configuration
IB=0 + V
− CC
+ V
− BB
RL
As the current in the collector region increases, all the

excess electrons generated in the CB depletiion region due
to impact ionization are swept into the base region making
the base electrically negative
This in effect reduces the field across the EB junction due
to the crowding of the electrons near the EB junction. Thus
the hole injection from the emitter into the base region
increases (it can be seen as emitter injecting holes to
maintain base region neutrality)
The holes are then swept into the collector junction which
will further increase the electron hole generation due to
impact ionization
This process repeates itself indefinitely
An interesting observation to make is that the current
amplification occurs at a much faster rate as emitter
current also gets amplified and hence a relatively lower
voltage is required across the collector base junction to
cause the breakdown
In the output characteristics of the CE amplifier this can be
seen as breakdown occuring at a much lower VCE . The
collector expression can be computed as
IC = (αIE + ICO )M
Since the base current does not change much,
IB ≈ 0 =⇒ IC = IE . Thus we have
MICO
IC = (αIC + ICO )M =⇒ IC =
1 − Mα
It can be seen that the collector current can reach very
high values even for values of M slightly larger than 1
1
As M → =⇒ IC → ∞
α
Breakdown in CE and CB configurations
From the previous discussion it is clear that
BVCBO > BVCEO
. This can be seen graphically on the IV charcteristics as

well
IC IC
VBC BVCBO BVCEO -VCE

Parasitics BJTs
Unwanted- parasitics BJTs are commonly formed in
MOSFETs as shown below
Such BJTs are called lateral BJTS and have very low β. To
ensure such BJTs are never turned ’ON’, the source
potential is always kept higher than the bulk terminal
potential
G
S D
G
n+ n+
S D
B B
Parasitics BJTs in CMOS and Latch-up
An interesting parasitic struture forms in CMOS device as

shown below. This pnp-npn combination leads to a
phenomenon called as latch-up
Vdd
G G
D D
n+ p+ p+ n+ n+ p+
p (substrate)
Vdd
βp
βp*βn > 1 for latch up
βn
Vdd
βp
βn
If a current di is injected into the base of the pnp transistor,
then a current of βn βp di is fed back.
This is a regenerative process and if βn βp > 1, then huge
current will flow from the supply to ground.
Vdd
di
βp
βp*βn di βp di
βn
βp di
TTL logic and transistor switching
BJTs were once used in builting logic circuits but are now
obsolete in Large scale VLSI circuits thanks to the CMOS
technology
A simple npn transistor based inverter is shown below
RL
vo
VCC
5V
+ vi
−
0
Assume that the input is changing from 0 V to 5 V, then the

BE junction charges slowly and the collector current
increases gradually.
This increase in IC will reduce VCE as
VCE = VCC − IC RL
The device enters active region from cut-off region first,

then it enters strongly into the active region
As the collector current increases further the collector
potential drops and it drops to a point where the collector
base junction starts to enter forward bias region
TTL logic and transistor switching-Load Line
The operating points of the BJT shown on the IV curve as

the transistor enters saturation from cut-off region while
making 1 to 0 transition
VCC/R
IC
VCC
VCE
Base region charge as the device is switching from OFF

state to ON state (shown for an npn transistor)
It can be seen that the electron charge in the base
increases as the device enters saturation region from cut
off region as it changes its state from logic ’1’ to logic ’0’
Saturation
∆nE
Deep active
active
Cut-off
-np0
0 WB
BJT and CMOS inverters shown below. CMOS inverters do

not draw any input current and dissipate no static power.
VDD VDD
RL
RB
+
−
BJT used as an amplifier
BJT and NMOS amplifiers shown below. For a given
current value, BJT gives the maximum gm due to the
exponential dependance of current on voltage. NMOS
device has a square law dependance and hence gives
inferior gm compared to BJTs
Input resistance of a MOSFET is ∞, but finite for BJT
VDD VDD
RL RL
RB

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Bipolar Junction Transistor

November 23, 2017

One way of generating the voltage amplification is

Most amplifiers JFETs, MOSFETS, and BJTs operate on

Current in a diode is due to both holes and electrons

The hole and electron currents in a forward biased pn

For a p+ n junction diode, since Na >> Nd → Ip >> In .

When the width of the n-region is much larger than the

In the absence of any carrier generation, and using the fact

In the steady state ∂δp/∂t = 0

Similarly the solution to the electron diffusion equation

Consider a majortiy carrier system. A heavily doped n-type

From the system it can be seen that the material begins at

Also since δp(0) = ∆p we have C1 = ∆p Thus

The hole concentration as a function of x is given by

The hole diffusion current is given by

Thus at the boundaries x = 0 and x = ∞

The holes injected into the n-region create a net positive

excess holes Ip(0) IR

What would happen when the width of the n-region is

The holes will not completely recombine as in the case of

excess holes Ip(0) IR=Ip(0)-Ip(WB)

Using the boundary conditions at x = 0 and x = WB one

Solving the above two equations for C1 and C2 , we get

The hole diffusion current is given by

Thus at the boundaries x = 0 and x = WB

Substituting the value of C1 and C2 we get

Dp Dp ∆p(eWB /Lp + e−WB /Lp )

The difference between the two current densities is

A P+N junction diode current is dominated by the hole

∆p is the excess hole injected from the p+ side to the

In some cases the width of the n-region is chosen to be

∆p is the excess hole injected from the p+ side to the

IP(0) IP(WB)=0 I =I (0)

The narrow base diode produces more current for the

So far we have neglected the electron current in the p+

Hole diffusion current

One of the earliest, Field effect devices. The idea was a

The point contact device invented in Bell Labs by Bardeen

Schockley invented the Bipolar Junction transistor inspired

Consider the circuit shown below

The block needs to do two things,

The emitter emits the holes into the n-region or base

The emitter current is the sum of hole and electron

In the base region ideally it is preferred that no holes are

IC = BIEp = BγIE = αIE

where α is called as the current transfer ratio

IR = IEp − BIEp = (1 − B)IEp

IB = IEn + IR = IEn + (1 − B)IEp = IE − IC

The collector current can be expressed in terms of base

The emitter current can also be expressed in terms of the

The p-n-p transistor in active region (Emitter base region is

The emitter region currents

IEp = γIE IEn = (1 − γ)IE

Base region currents

The emitter and collector currents in terms of base current

Current in the pnp transistor is mainly due to the diffusion

Since the current in a npn transistor is due to electron

Since µn > µp , Dn > Dp

A design engineer is given with two transistors. One npn

Iout = βn βp Iin =⇒ βtot = βn βp = 20 ∗ 25 = 500

All possible darlington pair combinations shown below

The p-n-p transistor in active region (Emitter base region is