chapter 2 site

High Performance
(Less Loss)

Operational (0) 0’

Bottom Fill
Immediate Occupancy (I0)
–14’

Dune Sand
Damage Control
(Enhanced Design)
–30’

Life Safe (LS) Bay Mud

–50’
Collapse Prevention (CP)

Marine Sand

Lower Performance –68’

(More Loss)
Upper Sand

Considerations for Seismic Performance –82’

Old Bay Clay

Typical Soil Conditions from South of

Market Street Sites in San Francisco
2.3 Soils
Geotechnical conditions vary widely for sites of ultra-tall structures. Mechan-
ics of the site soil conditions include stability, water effects, and anticipated
deformations. Soil conditions may vary from bedrock to sand to clay, bedrock
having the best geotechnical characteristics, with dense sand having simi-
lar traits. Sand provides good foundation support since settlement is elastic
(associated with initial loading from the structure), but could be difficult to
accommodate during construction and could liquefy (complete loss of shear
strength) when saturated and subjected to lateral seismic loads. Clay could
provide excellent foundation support especially if pre-consolidated, but must
be considered for both initial loading effects and long-term creep effects due
to consolidation. Clay could prove to be excellent for site excavations.
Spread footings usually prove to be the most cost effective foun-
dation solution, followed by mat foundations. When bearing capacities are
low or applied loads are high, deep foundations consisting of piles or cais-
sons are usually required. The following is a general summary considering
foundation type.

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Sarkisian designing tall buildings

Mat Foundation Prior to Concrete Pour,

Burj Khalifa, Dubai, UAE

2.3.1 Spread or Continuous Wall Footings

Spread or continuous footings are used under individual columns or walls in
conditions where bearing capacity is adequate for applied load. This system
may be used on a single stratum, firm layer over soft layer, or reasonably soft
layer over a firm layer. Immediate, differential, and consolidation settlements
must be checked.

2.3.2 Mat Foundations

Mat foundations are used in similar applications as spread or continuous wall
footings where spread or wall footings cover over 50% of building area. Use
is appropriate for heavy column loads, with the mat system usually reducing
differential and total settlements. Immediate, differential, and consolidation
settlements must be checked.

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 chapter 2 site

Pile Foundation,
Jin Mao Tower, Shanghai, China

2.3.3 Pile Foundations

Pile foundations are used in groups of two or more to support heavy column
or wall loads. Reinforced concrete pile caps are used to transfer loads from
columns or walls to the piles. Pile foundations provide an excellent solution
for poor surface and near-surface soil conditions. This foundation system
is a good solution for structures in areas susceptible to potential soil lique-
faction. Piles are generally 20–50 m (65–164 ft) long below the lowest base-
ment. Pile capacity is typically developed by skin friction, but end bearing
may also be considered. Piles are usually designed to resist lateral loads
(due to wind or seismic) in addition to vertical load. Bending on piles may
be considered with heads fixed or pinned into pile caps. Piles typically con-
sist of steel or concrete for tower structures (although timber could also
be used). Corrosive soil conditions may require concrete (precast) to be
used. H-piles in structural steel and 355 mm x 355 mm (14 in × 14 in) or
406 mm x 406 mm (16 in x 16 in) precast piles are common. Open steel
pipe piles have been used in conditions of dense sand and extremely high
applied loads.

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Sarkisian designing tall buildings

Caisson Construction,
NBC Tower at Cityfront Center, Chicago, IL

2.3.4 Caisson Foundations

Cast-in-place reinforced concrete caissons typically have a diameter of 750
mm (30 in) or more and may either be straight-shafted or belled. Bell diame-
ters are typically three times the shaft diameter. Caisson foundations provide
an excellent solution for poor surface and near-surface soil conditions. The
capacity of this system is usually based on end bearing. End bearing of cais-
sons is commonly founded in stiff clay (hardpan). Installation of caissons is
very sensitive to soil conditions. Voids in shafts or bells are quite possible
due to local soil instability during installation. Concrete may be placed under
bentonite slurry to prevent soil instability during installation. The length of the
caisson shaft usually varies from 8 to 50 m (26 to 164 ft).

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 chapter 2 site

Slurry Wall Construction, Slurry Wall Construction,

Jin Mao Tower, Shanghai, China Harvard University Northwest Science Building,
Cambridge, MA

2.3.5 Basement/Foundation/Retaining Walls

Basement/foundation/retaining walls can be used in any soil condition, but
usually require controlled, engineered backfill behind the walls. Where per-
manent water conditions exist, waterproofing is required. Slurry walls, cast
under a bentonite slurry, provide temporary soil retention and permanent
foundation walls. Bentonite caking at the exterior provides permanent water-
proofing. Slurry walls are installed in panels, usually 4.5 m (15 ft) long, with
shear keyways existing between panels. Reinforcing typically does not cross
panel joints.

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Sarkisian designing tall buildings

0.5m Grade
1 2
3 Stiff Clay
4 Average Low Rise Pile Average Tower Pile
Cutoff El: 11m Cutoff El: 14m

5 Soft Clay
6 Stiff Clay
7 1 Sandy Silt
Typical 609mm Dia. Typical 914mm Dia.
Low Rise Pile Tower Pile

Bottom of Pile
7 2 El: 44m
Sand Stratum

Silt Sand
8
9 1 Silt Sand
Bottom of Pile
9 2 Sand Stratum El: 79m

Soil Strata/Extent of Pile Foundation,

Jin Mao Tower, Shanghai, China

2.3.6 Deep Foundation Considerations

Sites that do not have reachable bedrock can be considered for these struc-
tures; however, foundation systems become increasingly complex with both
strength and settlement issues being critical. A bearing capacity of 480 kPa
(10 ksf) usually represents a minimum threshold for design. A bearing capacity
of 1900–2400 kPa (40–50 ksf) is more desirable. Pile or caisson foundations
allow for adequate support where both skin friction and tip bearing can be
used for the design. Piles or caissons should extend 3.0–4.5 m (10–15 ft)
into bedrock through a top plane of weathered material that usually exists.
Where bedrock does not exist, piles or caissons can be supported in deep
stiff sands or hardpan clays. Care should be taken in establishing bearing
elevations. Strength may be satisfied at certain soil layers, but these layers
may exist over lower compressible layers that could cause adverse long-
term settlement. Settlements of 75–125 mm (3–5 in) are not uncommon for
pile supported (driven steel, precast concrete, or auger-cast concrete) ultra-
tall structures. These settlements must be carefully considered for buildings
with entrance levels at grade or interfaces with neighboring structures such
as pedestrian tunnels.

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 chapter 2 site

Tower Core
Podium Structure
Tower Mat
0
Displacement (mm)

-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
40 60 80 98 115 131 146

Stage 1 Distance (meters)

Stage 2
Stage 3 Theoretical
Stage 4
Stages of
Stage 5
Stage 6 Construction
Stage 7
Stage 8
Stage 9
Stage 10
Actual Displacement

Foundation Settlements,
Jin Mao Tower, Shanghai, China

Differential settlements of foundations are far more serious. Elastic

shortening of steel/precast piles and creep, shrinkage, and elastic shorten-
ing of cast-in-place piles or caissons must be considered. Uneven lengths
of pile or caisson foundations require consideration for applied stress and
the length subjected to sustained loads. Longer piles may need to have
their cross-section oversized to control this behavior. Special site conditions
during construction also must be considered. Pressure grouting of soil for
stabilization or for control of ground water infiltration could result in uneven
subgrade moduli. Until load is evenly distributed or forces in piles are mobi-
lized through fracturing areas of grouting, towers may settle unevenly which
could result in a serious out-of-plumb condition causing global overturning
bending moments due to eccentrically placed gravity loads.

33