Beruflich Dokumente
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Flexible metasurfaces and metamaterials: A review of materials and fabrication processes at micro- and nano-
scales
Applied Physics Reviews 2, 011303 (2015); 10.1063/1.4913751
Photostrictive materials
Applied Physics Reviews 2, 011301 (2015); 10.1063/1.4905505
A review on nanomechanical resonators and their applications in sensors and molecular transportation
Applied Physics Reviews 2, 021301 (2015); 10.1063/1.4916728
Photonic band-gap and defect modes of a one-dimensional photonic crystal under localized compression
Journal of Applied Physics 121, 173101 (2017); 10.1063/1.4982760
TABLE OF CONTENTS from the Gaussian diverge stronger and are focused to
broader spot in the focal plane. Several definitions of the
beam spatial quality are used.1 In laser theories, the spatial
I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 beam quality is most commonly characterized by the beam
II. ONE DIMENSIONAL PHOTONIC CRYSTAL parameter product (BPP), which is defined as the product of
STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 a laser beam divergence angle and the radius of the beam at
A. Chromatic band-gaps and frequency its narrowest point (the beam waist). The larger is the value
filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 of the BPP, the lower is the spatial quality of the beam. The
B. Defect layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 diffraction-limited Gaussian beams have the lowest possible
BPP, which is equal to k/p, where k is the wavelength. The
C. Chirped structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 ratio of a BPP of a given beam to that of the Gaussian one of
D. Angular band-gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 the same wavelength is denoted as M2 (“M squared”), the pa-
III. TWO- AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL rameter which does not depend on the wavelength. A
PHOTONIC CRYSTAL STRUCTURES . . . . . . . 6 diffraction-limited Gaussian beam has a minimal M2 equal
A. Spatial dispersion and angular band-gaps . . . 6 to 1. Usually, the beams emitted by single transverse mode
B. Gapless angular filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 lasers in high finesse resonators and by single-mode fiber
C. Chirped structures to enhance filtering . . . . . 9 lasers are of high spatial beam quality of M2 1. However,
D. Three-dimensional photonic crystals for the beams emitted by various optical devices, such as multi-
spatial filtering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 transverse mode lasers, semiconductor (diode) lasers in reso-
IV. CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 nators of low finesse, and optical parametric oscillators, are
often of a poor spatial quality (M2 1). Moreover, if the
I. INTRODUCTION beam is propagated through an amplifier, nonlinear material,
scattering media, or other optical component, the spatial
Many applications in optics require beams of high spa- quality of such beam is usually reduced.
tial quality (or high spatial coherence), as such beams For many applications, therefore, the spatial structure of
diverge less, and, consequently, can be focused more sharply the beams is needed to be improved inside the optical device
in the focal region. Moreover, clean beams are more immune (amplifier, laser resonator) or outside. A conventional design
against destructive nonlinear effects, such as self-focusing for a beam cleaner, or for a low-angle-pass spatial filter is
and filamentation. The beams of the maximally high spatial shown in Fig. 1, which consists of two focusing lenses in a
quality are the Gaussian ones: beams with profiles different confocal arrangement. A diaphragm of appropriate diameter
~ ¼ AðzÞeiðxtkzÞ þ BðzÞeiðxtþkzÞ ;
E (1)
one material (Fig. 5(a)), or can use material with different re-
fractive index in one layer. If the thickness of the defect
layer is increased, the resonant wavelength of the defect
mode increases (frequency decreases) (Fig. 5(b)). The same
occurs when the refractive index of the defect layer is
increased.35 In the other case, if the thickness (or the refrac-
tive index) of the defect layer is decreased, then the resonant
wavelength of the defect mode decreases. Additionally, if
one would keep increasing the thickness or refractive index
of the defect layer, after some point, it would result into
appearance of several defect modes (the defect would
become a multimode). Depending on the width of the defect
layer (as well as the width of the BG), it can sustain several
defect modes (which have to be the integer multiple of the
fundamental frequency).
FIG. 6. Chirped 1D PhCs: (a) linear increase of the period from left to the right.
The position of the defect layer in the structure is impor- Calculations with scattering matrix method, transmission/reflection spectra for
tant. If the defect is in the middle of the structure, the transmis- unchirped crystals (all parameters are the same as used in simulation for Fig. 4,
sion for the defect modes is maximized (Fig. 5(c)).35 PhCs except periods): (b) for period d ¼ 0.164 lm; (c) for period d ¼ 0.2 lm
with the defects are technologically interesting to filter out the (d1 ¼ d2 ¼ 0:1 lm). Transmission/reflection spectra for a chirped PhC (d) pe-
riod gradually increasing from d1 ¼ 0.164 lm, to d2 ¼ 0.2 lm, N ¼ 40.
narrow ranges of spectra from emission of light-emitting
diodes and other kinds of lasers.37–39 There could be several
index gradient,44,45 resulting into so-called double-chirped
defects introduced into the periodic structure, which lead to the
structures. Here, we present an example of a chirped struc-
increased number of the defect modes in the BG.3
ture of varied period.
C. Chirped structures As the central frequency of the BG depends on the pe-
riod of the structure, in a chirped PhC, where the period is
Another technique to manipulate the BGs of 1D PhC is gradually increasing (Fig. 6(a)), the local BG frequency
the use of chirped (or graded) structures. These are structures range varies along the structure, thus the total BG can
with gradually increasing or decreasing period along the increase. In Fig. 6(b), for unchirped structure one of the BGs
structure (Fig. 6(a)).40–43 If the defects are used to obtain appears around k ¼ 600 nm. In Fig. 6(c), BG appears around
narrow transmission lines, then the chirped structures are k ¼ 750 nm. Smaller (larger) period results in BG at smaller
used to obtain broad reflection regions. Chirping of the pe- (larger) wavelengths. Therefore, introducing chirp into the
riod can also be combined with slowly varying refractive structure, which results in gradually changing period, one
broadens the BG, as it is shown in Fig. 6(d). The larger is the
difference between the first and last periods, the broader is
the bandwidth of the total BG. Obviously, the length of such
crystal must be increased too, until the reflection in the BG
reaches 100%. A too fast variation of the period along the
structure (too strong chirp) can result in a “jump” through
the BG—the so-called Landau—Zener transition (non-adia-
batic effect).46
The chirped mirrors are frequently used for the manipu-
lation of chromatic dispersion in order to compensate disper-
sive broadening of pulses,47,48 also for manipulation of
spatial (angular) dispersion in order to compensate diffrac-
tive broadening of beams, i.e., to focus the reflected
beams,49,50 rather than for the frequency filtering.
We shortly revised the basic techniques of manipulation
of frequency BGs. Very similar physical principles work for
the engineering of angular BGs for spatial filtering.
FIG. 5. (a) PhC structure containing defects, i.e., with one or several layers D. Angular band-gaps
of the width different from that of embedding layers. (b) Numerical simula-
tions by scattering matrix method, where the wavelength of the defect mode
The principles of frequency filtering in 1D PhC can be
(in vacuum) is presented depending on the thickness of the defect layer. The applied to spatial, or angular, filtering. We recall that even in
parameters of the structure are dl1 ¼ dl2 ¼ 0:082 lm, d ¼ 0:164 lm, 1D periodic structures the frequency BGs occur at different
n1 ¼ 2:17, n2 ¼ 1:49, N ¼ 14, and the defect of changing width is introduced frequencies for different propagation directions (Fig. 7). The
in the middle of the PhC. (c) Reflection spectra of the PhCs with the defect
layer of the width of dl3 ¼ 0:02 lm. Blue line corresponds to transmission, Bragg condition for the central wavelength of the band gap
red line corresponds to reflection. kBG for the oblique incidence reads
011102-5 L. Maigyte and K. Staliunas Appl. Phys. Rev. 2, 011102 (2015)
FIG. 8. Center-2D map of transmission spectra depending both on angle of incidence a and on the wavelength k (in vacuum), where BG is clearly observed
(red area); left: (top) vertical cut at a ¼ 25 ; (bottom) vertical cut at a ¼ 0 , right: (top) horizontal cut at k ¼ 600 nm; (bottom) horizontal cut at k ¼ 532 nm.
The parameters of the structure: d ¼ 0:164lm, where dl1 ¼ dl2 ¼ 0:082 lm and refractive indices n1 ¼ 2:17 and n2 ¼ 1:49, number of periods N ¼ 20.
011102-6 L. Maigyte and K. Staliunas Appl. Phys. Rev. 2, 011102 (2015)
FIG. 9. Center-2D map of transmission spectra (depending on a and k in vacuum) with the defect mode within the BG; left: (top) vertical cut at a ¼ 25 ;
(bottom) vertical cut at a ¼ 0 , right: (top) horizontal cut at k ¼ 621 nm; (bottom) horizontal cut at k ¼ 600 nm.
the previous cases (when the transmission window is located lines are marked in dark red in Fig. 11(a) and dashed dark
at a ¼ 0 ). The narrower angular widths for the higher angles red in Fig. 11(b). To illustrate this, we plot iso-lines from
(and, respectively, for smaller wavelengths) compared to the both of the bands together in the Fig. 11(c).
smaller angles are compatible with relation (7) as for the The appearance of angular BG can be illustrated by sim-
higher angles cos function is more sensitive. ple terms, in Fig. 11(c): there are angles for the frequency of
However, the practical use of 1D PhCs with defects for 0.55 (marked in red triangles) corresponding to the Bloch
spatial filtering is very limited. Usually, the filtering angles waves for which the dispersion relation does not appear, i.e.,
of a < 1 are of practical interest, which is practically there is a BG, in particular, angular range. Therefore, the
impossible to achieve with 1D structures, either with or with- corresponding plane wave components inside the angular
out defects. As it was shown from Ref. 54, the experimen- band gap cannot propagate, being reflected back and conse-
tally measured central transmitted angular width of the quently disappear from the angular spectrum of forward
defect mode is 3 times larger compared to numerical calcula- propagating beam.
tions. This disagreement is due to the fabrication errors in An alternative interpretation of the spatial filtering effect
layer thickness. The problem is that in fabrication even a is by the resonant interaction of modes lying on spatial dis-
small discrepancy of the width of defect moves the angular persion curve. The appearance of the frequency BGs and the
characteristics very strongly. Nowadays, technologies allow frequency filtering in 1D PhCs is related to the resonant
to fabricate the angular filters with an angular width range of back-scattering of the plane waves of particular frequencies.
10 in 1D PhCs. The spatial filtering, in the similar manner, can be explained
by the resonant backwards reflection of the particular angular
III. TWO- AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL PHOTONIC components of the light beam (Fig. 12). The spatial disper-
CRYSTAL STRUCTURES sion curve for a monochromatic wave of particular wave-
length propagating in the homogeneous material in
A. Spatial dispersion and angular band-gaps reciprocal space is a circle with the radius of k ¼ 2p=k
The position and the width of the angular BGs can be (Fig. 12). For the waves propagating in the PhC, the periodicity
much more precisely controlled in 2D or/and 3D PhCs, of the crystal plays the key role: the wave vector of refractive
where the refractive index is modulated not only in longitu- index modulation ~ q (in Fig. 12 marked with black arrows)
dinal direction but also in transverse direction.
Fig. 10(a) shows an example of a 2D PhC of a square
symmetry with the circular rods positioned at the lattice
points. Using PWE method, we plot the band diagram of
such structure for TE polarization (electric field is parallel to
the rods) in Fig. 10(b). As follows, there is no complete fre-
quency BG between the two lowest bands for this specific
structure. To explore more in detail, the surroundings of the
lowest bands frequency region, we plot the iso-frequency
contours of the spatial dispersion xðkx ; ky Þ. Figs. 11(a) and
11(b) represent the iso-frequency contours of the first two
bands.
If we illuminate the PhC structure at a normalized fre-
quency a=k ¼ 0.55, the Bloch modes lying on equifrequency FIG. 10. (a) The structure of the 2D PhC. (b) Band diagram. The inset shows
the irreducible Brillouin Zone of the structure. The lattice constant is a ¼
lines will be excited for this particular frequency both for the 0:6 lm, the host medium is air, the rods of the radius r ¼ 0:2a are made
first and the second bands (these particular equifrequency from the material with refractive index n ¼ 1.5.
011102-7 L. Maigyte and K. Staliunas Appl. Phys. Rev. 2, 011102 (2015)
FIG. 11. Iso-frequency contours of the first (a) and the second bands (b). (c)
Iso frequency contours of both first and second bands plotted simultaneously.
FIG. 14. Numerical simulations with sonic crystal built from steel cylinders
with r ¼ 0:6 mm immersed in water. The crystal has a triangular symmetry,
defined pbyffiffiffi lattice parameters a ¼ ja~1 j ¼ ja~2 j ¼ 6 mm. Filling fraction is
f ¼ 2p= 3ðr=aÞ2 ¼ 0:03. The material parameters are qh ¼ 103 kg m3
and Bh ¼ 2:2 109 N m2 for the host medium (water) and qs ¼ 7:8 103
kg m3, Bs ¼ 160 109 N m2, with corresponding sound velocities ch
¼ 1483 m s1 and cs ¼ 4530 m s1. The source is a Gaussian beam. (a) The
far field (angular) distribution of the acoustic intensity transmitted through
the crystal depending on the frequency in the configuration with angular
band gaps. (b) A Gaussian beam propagating inside and behind SC for fre-
quency of f ¼ 140 kHz. Reprinted with permission from Pic o et al., “Spatial
filtering of sound beams by sonic crystals,” Appl. Acoust. 73, 302–306 FIG. 16. Possible configurations for a spatial filtering without the angular
(2012). Copyright 2012 Elsevier. band gap (compare with the Fig. 12).
011102-9 L. Maigyte and K. Staliunas Appl. Phys. Rev. 2, 011102 (2015)
FIG. 17. Numerical calculations of angular profiles of filtered radiation depending on the length of the PhCs (in terms of number of periods n). (a) In condition
of gapless filtering, where deflection of particular angular components is obtained. Reprinted with permission from Purlys et al., Phys. Rev. A 87, 033805
(2013). Copyright 2013 The American Physical Society. (b) In condition of filtering with angular BGs, where particular angular components are reflected
back. Here, blue color marks transmission, while red-reflection. The parameters of PhC are transverse period d? ¼ 1 lm, refractive index of the material
nref ¼ 1:52, and the contrast of refractive index modulation Dn ¼ 103 . Longitudinal period for (a) is dk ¼ 6 lm, while for (b) is dk ¼ 0:35 lm.
the first diffraction maxima are still directed forwards. The In order to achieve efficient angular filtering in the gap-
central position of the angular band gap follows from geo- less case, the reverse scattering process is to be suppressed,
metrical considerations and corresponds to a resonant inter- i.e., the interaction between modes is to be allowed for a lim-
action between field harmonics.65 ited propagation distance, and interrupted just at the distance
This kind of filtering is possible for the larger longitudi- when reverse process starts. For the parameters of Fig. 17(a),
nal periods of the refractive index modulation dk > k (or the optimum length providing maximum dip of filtered out
q k j < jkj),
j~ ~ therefore it is much simpler to fabricate such kind components is approximately 14 periods. However, at the
of structures. The gapless filtering was predicted not only for optimal distance the filtering dip is just of a limited width.
optics but also for the matter waves in Bose-Einstein conden- The possibility to increase the efficiency of spatial filtering
sates.66 As just mentioned above, gapless spatial filtering is in gapless configuration is to use the chirped structures,63
more convenient from the fabrication point of view, however, where the longitudinal period varies along the photonic
the efficiency of filtering is restricted. The reason for that is the structure.
deflected wave components propagate in forward direction,
therefore they can be scattered back into the modes of initial
C. Chirped structures to enhance filtering
radiation. The process is summarized in Fig. 17(a) from Ref.
65 where the gapless filtering depending on the number of The central angle of filtered out radiation follows from
periods n of nonchirped PhC is shown (the calculation method the simple geometric considerations
is explained in Appendix A). For the numerical simulation, a
Gaussian beam of wavelength k ¼ 633 nm was used. q? k
sinðaÞ ¼ ðq 1 Þ ¼ ðq 1Þ: (9)
Initially, just after entrance of beam into the crystal, the 2k0 2d?
“dips” in the angular spectrum (the filtered out angular regions)
increase in depth with the crystal length (Fig. 17(a), n ¼ 8, 14). Here q? ¼ d2p? is the wavenumber of transverse modulation,
However, at larger propagation distances, when the area of 2n
2d?
k0 ¼ 2p
k is the wavenumber of wave, and q ¼ kdk is the con-
angular wave components is depleted to zero, the reverse pro-
cess starts, and the efficiency of the filtering decreases (Fig. venient geometry factor where n is the average refractive
17(a), n ¼ 20, 22). Moreover, the filtered out area appears to be index. As follows from Eq. (9), the angle of filtering depends
not a smooth dip, as needed for most of applications, but devel- on the longitudinal period of the structure, among others;
ops oscillatory character. This is in strong contrast with the spa- therefore, the chirp of longitudinal period, while keeping
tial filtering in PhCs with angular BGs, where the filtered out other parameters constant, would result into the sweep of the
radiation propagates in backward direction (Fig. 17(b), all filtering angle along the PhC. Consequently, the chirp results
parameters for simulation are the same as 17(a), except of lon- in (1) filtering efficiency and the angular range of filtering
gitudinal period dk ¼ 0:35 lm)), and therefore, cannot be re- can be increased and (2) the reverse scattering process can
versely scattered into forward propagating beam. As Fig. 17(b) be suppressed as the angular components efficient interaction
shows, the increase of the length of the PhC does not initiate length can be limited by the velocity of the sweep. Fig. 18(a)
the reverse scattering process. In Fig. 17(b), the red profiles shows the numerical calculations,65 where the positive chirp-
mark the reflected angular components. ing effect was shown for the case of spatial filtering without
011102-10 L. Maigyte and K. Staliunas Appl. Phys. Rev. 2, 011102 (2015)
FIG. 18. Angular transmission profiles for varying chirp parameter C for PhC sample with n ¼ 50 periods. Numerical results (a) for the spatial filtering in gap-
less configuration.65 (b) For the spatial filtering in the configuration with angular band gaps. (c) Experimental results for the spatial filtering in gapless configu-
ration. Reprinted with permission from Purlys et al., Phys. Rev. A 87, 033805 (2013). Copyright 2013 The American Physical Society.
the angular BGs. The parameters of the PhC here are the Chirping of the structure improves the spatial filtering
same as in the case of 17(a), except here longitudinal period significantly; to improve it even more there are several possi-
is linearly incremented by Dd for every new period bilities: (1) to increase the length of the structure or (2) to
dk;j ¼ dk;B þ jDd, where j counts periods i ¼ 1; …; n: The increase the refractive index contrast. Fig. 19 shows the fil-
adimensional chirp parameter is defined by C ¼ Dd=dk , tering performance for the both of the cases, where the filter-
where dz ¼ ðdk;Begin þ dk;End Þ=2 is the average distance ing performance reach up to 80% of efficiency.65
Spatial filtering with 2D PhCs is more controllable and
between layers with dz ¼ 6 lm. Fig. 18(b) shows spatial fil-
tering in case of the angular band gap configuration, where robust compared to 1D PhCs. However, the spatial filtering
the chirping effect improves quality of spatial filtering. In obtained by 2D crystals is only 1D (Fig. 20). 1D filtering can
Fig. 18(b), efficiency of filtering is slightly better but remains be useful in some particular applications, e.g., where only
similar compared to the filtering in the gapless configuration one quadrature of the beam is noisy and the filtering is
(Fig. 18(a)). In Fig. 18(b), the difference from Fig. 18(a) is needed only in the transverse direction; nevertheless, for
the average distance between layers, where in Fig. 18(b) it is most applications the full 2D filtering is required. To per-
dz ¼ 0:35 lm. Fig. 18(c) represents the experimental results65 form a full 2D spatial filtering 3D PhCs should be used.
with exactly the same parameters of PhCs as calculated
numerically in Fig. 18(a). Numerical and experimental results D. Three-dimensional photonic crystals for spatial
have a very good correspondence and prove the constructive filtering
role of chirp for the gapless case.
3D PhCs have refractive index modulation in x, y, and z
directions (Fig. 21). As was mentioned in Sec. III C 3D PhCs
can perform 2D spatial filtering. With 3D PhC case similarly
as with 2D PhC, both kind of filtering mechanisms can be
achieved: with angular BGs and without angular BGs, since
the same relations dk < k, dk > k hold for the corresponding
cases. The gapless filtering, where particular angular
FIG. 19. Numerically obtained field profiles for spatial filtering in chirped struc-
tures with higher number of periods (a) and for higher refraction index contrast
(b). The parameters for (a) n ¼ 120, s ¼ 0.05, C ¼ 0.24%, dk ¼ 7.44 lm; for (b)
s ¼ 0.1, n ¼ 50, C ¼ 0.53%, dk ¼ 7.2 lm. The dashed line indicates angular pro- FIG. 20. (a) A schematic representation of 2D PhC. (b) 1D spatial filtering
file of incident beam. Dashed arrows indicate diffractive scattering of the field by 2D PhC obtained by numerical simulation. Reprinted with permission
components. Reprinted with permission from Purlys et al., Phys. Rev. A 87, from Purlys et al., Opt. Lett. 39, 929 (2014). Copyright 2014 The Optical
033805 (2013). Copyright 2013 The American Physical Society. Society of America.
011102-11 L. Maigyte and K. Staliunas Appl. Phys. Rev. 2, 011102 (2015)
FIG. 22. The 2D transmission profile (a) as well as the distribution on a hori-
FIG. 21. Schematic examples of 3D PhCs: (a) red and grey colors signify zontal cut (b), obtained by numerical simulations with the crystal parameters
different refractive indices of the material. (b) Taken from Ref. 64, where of: transversal period d? ¼ 1:5 lm, longitudinal period dk ¼ 11:6, refractive
ellipses represent different refractive index from the host material. Reprinted index of material nref ¼ 1:52, contrast of refractive index modulation
with permission from Maigyte et al., Phys. Rev. A 82, 043819 (2010). Dn ¼ 103 . This is the Gaussian beam of k ¼ 633 nm. Experimental results
Copyright 2010 The American Physical Society. (c) and (d) Taken from (for the same parameters): (c) CCD camera image of the central part of the
Ref. 67, where (c) represents 3D woodpile structured PhC and (d) represents beam with angular field components filtered out (dark lines crossing each
numerically calculated far field filtering distribution for the structure, where other and making a square within the central maximum). (d) Intensity distri-
the 2D filtering is obtained. Reprinted with permission from Purlys et al., bution behind the PC (in the far-field domain) along the horizontal cut cross-
Opt. Lett. 39, 929 (2014). Copyright 2014 The Optical Society of America. ing the center of the beam. The field from central maximum is marked by a
solid line and from the first diffraction maxima is marked by dashed, col-
oured lines. Reprinted with permission from Maigyte et al., Phys. Rev. A
components are deflected to the first diffraction maxima, was 82, 043819 (2010). Copyright 2010 The American Physical Society.
already demonstrated with 3D PhCs.64
Figs. 22(a) and 22(b) show numerical simulation
(method is explained in Appendix A) of the spatial filtering
with the 3D PhC for the geometry shown in (Fig. 21(b)). The
numerical results are proven by the experiment, which con-
firmed the effect (Figs. 22(c) and 22(d)). However, the dem-
onstrated spatial filtering is of a relatively low efficiency. To
increase spatial filtering efficiency, for 3D PhC, the same
methods, as in 2D case, can be applied: the increase of the
refractive index contrast or the introduction of a chirp.
The profile shape of the filtered our angular components
depends on the geometry of the 3D crystal. The above
described PhC structure64 consists of a square lattice in xy
plane; therefore, the filtering window is of a square shape
(Figs. 22(a) and 22(c)). To change the shape of the filtering
window, the symmetry of the PhC lattice in xy plane has to
be changed. For instance, if instead of a square filtering the
circular (axisymmetric) filtering is needed (which is a usual
situation for most applications), then PhC should have the
axisymmetric shape in xy plane as well (Fig. 23(a)). Fig.
23(b) shows the example of axisymmetric filtering, per-
formed by the axisymmetric photonic microstructure and
calculated by split step method (see Appendix A). In the cen-
tral part of the far field distribution, a dark ring can be FIG. 23. (a) Schematic representation of an axisymmetric crystal, where
each layer consists from concentric circles with a periodic separation
observed, which stands for the angular components coher- between the rings. (b) Intensity distribution of a far field of the Gaussian
ently scattered to the first diffraction maxima (bright circle beam of k ¼ 633 nm which propagated through an axisymmetric crystal.
surrounding the central beam distribution). The filtering Experimentally recorded far field distributions behind the axisymmetric
structure for N ¼ 12 (c) show the large scale distribution, (d) show the small
angle approximately follows the expression in Eq. (9), the scale distributions together their vertical cross-sections crossing the center
same as for 1D filtering. The axisymmetric filtering has been of the beam. Reprinted with permission from Purlys et al., Opt. Lett. 39, 929
demonstrated experimentally (Figs. 23(c) and 23(d)).67 (2014). Copyright 2014 The Optical Society of America.
011102-12 L. Maigyte and K. Staliunas Appl. Phys. Rev. 2, 011102 (2015)
IV. CONCLUSION r Þ~
r feð~ r ; tÞg ¼ 0;
Eð~ (A1)
at least 20 grid points per wavelength; therefore, the method substituting @=@z ! ikz ; r ! ik? in (A11)) is a parabola
2
becomes very time consuming for the structures extending in kz ¼ k? =ð2k0 Þ, which is a parabolic approximation of the
2
space over many wavelength. As an estimation: the use of precise dispersion relation of (A7) the circle k~ ¼ nx=c.
107 grid points (i.e., the 10 Mega-pixels) which is reasonable The model is convenient to simulate the unidirectional
for nowadays desktops allows simulation of the structure of propagation of the fields along the structure, in particular, for
(100 100 lm) in case of 2 spatial dimensions (we assume the gapless spatial filtering. The integration proceeds in
here the visible light of k 0:6 lm), or (10 10 7 lm) in space (not in time as in FDTD), i.e., the field evolution is
case of 3 spatial dimensions. Even the supercomputers that considered iterating on a grid moving along the structure.
are able to use 109 grid points (1 Giga-pixel) are limited to Usually, a split-step method is very efficient for the problems
the calculation of the (1:5 1:5 mm) in 2D case and of such type: integrating the variation of field phase due to
(50 50 50 lm) in 3D case. Therefore, the FDTD methods, refractive index profile in space domain, and calculation of
being a powerful tool for exact calculations of the light propa- the diffractive propagation (the Laplace operators) in spatial
gation in several micron size structures, become inconvenient Fourier domain (Fourier transformation in transverse space).
for the studies of light filtering in PhCs of relatively large The further simplification of the model is possible, if the
extent. We note that most of the structures for spatial filtering field variation is weak in propagation from slice to slice.
reviewed in the paper are of dimensions of around 1 mm.
On the other hand, the structures used for spatial filter- 1. Discretization by layers
ing have relatively large periods of spatial modulation
If the variation of the field distribution in propagation over
(1 10 lm), also relatively small refractive index variation
one longitudinal period of the structure is small, an additional
(Dn 103 ). This offers simplifications of the full model.
simplification is possible by setting the size of the split step
From Eqs. (A1)–(A4) one can obtain
equal to one longitudinal period (or half-period). Then, the
propagation is considered alternatively: a scattering on a layer
1 1 @ 2~
E ð~
r ; tÞ
r r~
E ð~
r ; tÞ ¼ 2 ; (A7) of periodically modulated index and diffractive propagation in
eð~
rÞ c @t2 the homogeneous media between the layers.
The scattering by one layer is conveniently calculated
where c is the speed of light in free space given by integrating the (A11) in space domain, and neglecting the
1 diffraction operator
c ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi : (A8)
e0 l 0
A1 ðr; zÞ ¼ Aðr; zÞeði DnðrÞk0 Dlz Þ Aðr; zÞð1 þ i DnðrÞk0 Dlz Þ:
Assuming relatively large scale modulation of the index:
(A12)
j@eð~
r Þ=@~
r j
jeð~
r Þ=kj the (A7) can be rewritten in the form
of wave equation The diffractive propagation between the layers is calculated
in transverse Fourier domain, Aðr? ; zÞ ! Aðk? ; zÞ where the
r Þ @ 2 Eðr; tÞ
eð~
r2 Eðr; tÞ ¼ 0: (A9) diffractive propagation operator results in a simple multipli-
c2 @t2 cation by eigenvalues of the operator
Next one can derive the paraxial equation in the limit 2
A2 ðk? ; zÞ ¼ A1 ðk? ; zÞeði Dlz k? =ð2k0 ÞÞ : (A13)
j@Eð~ r j
jEð~
r ; tÞ=@~ r ; tÞ=kj, j@Eð~
r ; tÞ=@tj
jxEð~
r ; tÞj, the
so called limit of slowly varying (in space) envelopes The method is applicable for small changes of the fields in
one longitudinal modulation period: jDnðrÞk0 Dlz j
1 and
~ ~ r Þeikzixt : 2
r ; tÞ ¼ Að~
Eð~ (A10) jDlz k? =ð2k0 Þj
1.
Here, one assumes that the field is monochromatic with the 2. Harmonic expansion
frequency x and that the beam propagates paraxially, along
If the profile of the refractive index, which is used in
the wave-vector k0 ¼ nx=c, here n is the averaged refractive
fabrication, is well approximated by a harmonic function:
index (note that the amplitude of modulation of susceptibil-
Dnðx; y; zÞ ¼ Dno =4ðcosðqx xÞ þ cosðqy yÞÞ cosðqz zÞ, where
ity, or index is small and is around the average value). Then
Dn0 is the maximum amplitude of the variation of the refrac-
the paraxial propagation equation is
tive index (refractive index contrast), the field can be
ð2ik0 @=@z þ r2? þ 2Dnðx; y; zÞk02 ÞAðx; y; zÞ ¼ 0: (A11) expanded into spatial harmonic components
ð
It is assumed that the beam propagates along the z axis direc- Aðr? ; zÞ¼ eik? r? A0 ðk? ; zÞ
tion, r2? ¼ @ 2 =@x2 þ @ 2 =@y2 is the Laplace operator in the X
space transverse to the propagation direction: ~ r ? ¼ ðx; yÞ þ Amx ;my ðk? ; zÞeimx qx xþimy qy yiqz z dk? :
denotes the space perpendicular to the propagation direction, mx ;my
and k? ¼ ðkx ; ky Þ denotes the transverse components of the (A14)
propagation wave-vector. The paraxial model does not take
into account the back-reflected wave, nor the waves refracted In the expansion, one can consider only the most relevant
at relatively large angles to the optical axis. In particular, the diffracted components Amx ;my ðk? ; zÞ with ðmx ; my Þ ¼ ð0; 1Þ;
spatial dispersion relation in the paraxial model (obtained by ð0; þ1Þ; ð1; 0Þ; ðþ1; 0ÞÞ, in addition to the zero component
011102-14 L. Maigyte and K. Staliunas Appl. Phys. Rev. 2, 011102 (2015)
A0 ðk? ; zÞ. This particular truncation is justified having in structures. Colloidal crystals then can be processed to obtain
mind the smallness of the index modulation, and also from opals, which can be used as templates into which dielectric
the experimental observations (described in the review), materials may infiltrate. After the infiltration process the
where only four diffraction maxima are dominating. template can be dissolved, which would leave a lattice of air-
Inserting Eq. (A14) into Eq. (A11) results filled spheres in dielectric medium. The process is efficient
and cheap and can produce large samples of periodic struc-
d ik2 iDn0 k0 X tures, however, using this method lattice symmetries are lim-
A0 ¼ ? A0 þ Am ;m ; (A15a)
dz 2k0 16 mx ;my x y ited, in addition to the appearance of random lattice defects.
!
d iðkx þ mx qx Þ2 þ iðky þ my qy Þ2 2. Layer-by-layer lithography and photolithography
Am ;m ¼ þ iqz
dz x y 2k0 With layer-by-layer lithography85 one layer of PhCs is
iDn0 k0 being built at a time, where the main idea is to etch (for
Amx ;my þ A0 : (A15b) example, by applying focused electron beam) a cross section
16
of the PhC pattern onto a substrate. Then etched holes are
(A15) describes an exchange of the radiation between the filled with the different material and the second layer of sub-
central component k? ¼ ðkx ; ky Þ and the diffracted compo- strate can be deposited. The process is being repeated until
nents ðkx þ mx qx ; ky þ my qy Þ. The radiation exchange, and the needed number of layers is reached. When the sample is
consequently the depletion is most efficient for the angles k? ready, the filling material can be dissolved.
corresponding to the resonant interaction between the zero In the case of layer-by-layer photolithography,86 the
component (A15a) and one or several of the diffracted com- photolithographic microstructuring of photosensitive materi-
ponents (A15b). The resonance condition reads als is applied, where after light exposure and structuring of
ðkx þ mx qx Þ2 þ ðky þ my qy Þ2 2qz k0 ¼ kx2 þ ky2 : (A16) one layer it is lowered in a bath of liquid photoresist, and a
second layer is exposed on top of the first. The sequential
The (A15) is a continuous model describing the evolution and procedure is being repeated until the needed height of the
interaction of the field harmonics along the photonic structure, structure is reached.
which is periodic in transverse space. Note that the longitudi-
nally chirped structure (longitudinal period slowly, adiabatically, 3. Holographic lithography
varies along the structure) can be simulated using (A15) too.
Holographic lithography,82–84 also known as multi-
However, the application of (A15) is problematic if the structure
beam interference lithography, can be used for the fabrica-
in transverse space is not periodic, e.g., consists of concentric
tion of the PhCs, since light distribution resulting from mul-
rings, or quasicrystal, or is of a limited transverse extent.
tiple beam interference can have spatial periodicity on the
APPENDIX B: FABRICATION TECHNIQUES order of wavelength. The interference pattern using photore-
sist material can be recorded as volume hologram and then
PhC samples can be assembled by various fabrication
converted into PhC. Using holographic lithography large
methods. Depending on different parameters of required
PhCs samples, with high flexibility in unit cells can be fabri-
PhC, such as dimensionality, lattice, and material, the most
cated. However, the structures are strictly periodic, therefore
suitable fabrication technique can be applied.
additional methods to introduce defects should be applied.
1D PhCs have been produced for a long time, where
mainly evaporation techniques are used.76 To create a 2D
4. Direct laser writing by polymerization
PhCs interference lithography,77,78 electron beam lithogra-
phy,79,80 direct laser writing in photosensitive materials,81 etc., Direct laser writing (DLW) by two-photon or multi-
are implemented. Fabrication of 3D PhC structures for visible photon polymerization96–99 is a suitable technique for poly-
spectrum remains a considerable challenge, however such meric PhCs. In DLW by multi-photon polymerization, pho-
techniques like 3D holographic lithography (multi-beam inter- toresist is illuminated by the tightly focused laser beam at a
ference lithography),82–84 layer-by-layer lithography/photoli- particular frequency, which initiates the multi-photon
thography,85,86 self-assembly,87,88 soft lithography,89,90 auto- absorption in the material and sequentially the polymeriza-
cloning,91,92 micro-manipulation,93,94 glancing-angle deposi- tion. The shape of an object can therefore be traced out by
tion,95 direct laser writing,96–99 and combination of different the laser. The part of the photoresist which was not polymer-
fabrication methods86,93 made great advances in creation of ized by the laser beam can be washed away and the traced
3D PhC for light. In the following, we briefly describe most solid obtained. This technique is very flexible and convenient
common techniques in fabrication of 3D PhCs, as well as, for integration of the defect structures.
we describe in more detail the fabrication method used to
create PhC samples for spatial filtering. 5. Point-by-point modification
The reported 2D and 3D PhCs for spatial filtering in
1. Self-assembly
visible frequency range were fabricated in standard micro-
Colloidal self-assembly87,88 methodology emerges from scope soda-lime glass slides (Carl Roth, nref ¼ 1.52) by a
the property that particles self-organize owing to their elec- point-by-point modification of refractive index by a tightly
trostatic or other interaction, which gives rise to crystalline focused femtosecond laser beam (Fig. 25). The method is
011102-15 L. Maigyte and K. Staliunas Appl. Phys. Rev. 2, 011102 (2015)
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