English Grammar Notes PDF

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You Will Learn:
Article Sentence
Subject, Predicate and Object Types of Sentences
Difference between Phrase and Clause What is a Phrase
Types of Phrase Clause
Types of Clause High Frequency Words In English
Noun Types of Noun
Verb Forms of Verb
Adjective Degree of Adjective
Adverb Types of Adverb
Pronoun Types of Pronoun
Preposition Types of Preposition
Conjuction Types of Conjuction
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 Article (the & a or an)
There are two articles in English language: “the” and “a / an”. Articles are used for nouns.
An article, like an adjective, modifies the noun. It adds to meaning of the noun. An article is always used before a noun
or an adjective that modifies the noun. An
Examples: A car, a pen, a man, an apple, an onion, the sun, the earth, the river Nile
1. Understanding the Types and Usage of articles

Articles are divided into following two types:
Indefinite Articles: “a or an”

Definite Article: “The”
The indefinite article “a / an” is used for common (non-specific) nouns.
Example: She bought a shirt.
In the above example, the ‘shirt’ is a common noun. The noun ‘shirt’ refers to a group of common things. It can be any
shirt. It is not a specific or particular shirt.
On the other hand, the article “the” is only used for a specific or particular noun.
The article ‘the’ must be used before particular nouns such as ‘The America, The London, The Bible’. The article ‘the’
may also be used before a common noun, if it the common noun is intentionally used as a particular noun in some
context.
Example: He won the competition.
In the above example, the article ‘the’ used before the noun ‘competition’ shows that it was a specific or particular
competition and not any competition. The article ‘the’ is used to make the noun ‘competition’ a particular noun. It
means that this competition was already discussed or known in the context, in which, the above sentence is spoken.

2. Rules for the usage of Indefinite articles – “a / an”
1. The article “a” is used for countable (singular) nouns starting with a consonant or a vowel which sounds like
consonant. e.g. a car, a lamp, a university, a chair
2. The article “an” is used for countable (singular) nouns starting with a vowel or consonant that sounds like vowel
(mute in few words) e.g. an umbrella, an onion, an hour, an apple.
3. Before a countable noun which refers to major group of things. e.g. A potato is rich in carbohydrates.
4. For a name of some profession. e.g. He wants to become an engineer. He is a doctor.
5. For expression of quantities. e.g. a few, a dozen, a couple, a lot.
6. For expression of numbers. e.g. a million, a thousand, a hundred.
7. Before a noun in exclamatory sentences. e.g. What a beautiful home! What a nice book!
8. Article cannot be used before uncountable nouns. e.g. milk, water.

3. Rules for the usage of Definite article – “The”
The definite article “The” is used for both singular and plural nouns in accordance to the rules given below. e.g. the car,
the cars
1. Before proper nouns which are particular and thought to be particular.

e.g. the moon, the sun, the stars, the equator, the earth
2. Before a noun which become particular by being discussed earlier, and now it is used again.
e.g. He gave money to a little boy and the boy bought toys for himself.
3. For such a noun that has become specific in a phrase or a clause

e.g. the young energetic boy, the boy who helped us, the white shirt I bought,
4. For superlatives or other adjective making the noun very particular one
e.g. the most powerful, the first day, the only way, the best option,
5. For a phrase which is combination of a common and proper noun,

e.g. The river Nile, The Muslim League Party, The New York city.
6. For the names of the organizations. e.g. The Society for the protection of Child’s Rights,
7. For the names of scientific terms and concepts, laws and theories. Note, that “the” will be only used if written
like “The Laws of Newton” but not if written as “Newton’s Laws”
8. For the names of universities if the name starts with the word “university” such as “The University of Oxford”
and not when written as “Oxford University”
The article “the” is never used for the names of places, cities and countries e.g. Japan, America but the article
“the” must be for the names which refers to a group of cities or places, e.g. The Philippines, The United states of
America.

 Sentence
A combination or group of words that gives a complete meaning, thought or idea is called a sentence.
Example: I ate an apple.
The above combination of words gives a complete meaning or idea. Such a group words can be called a sentence.
Now, see another combination of words “table he a bought” or “mango read car big”. These combinations of words do
not express a complete meaningful sense to a reader or a listener. Hence, such a combination of words cannot be
termed as a sentence.
A sentence must have all the words in proper sequence to reveal a proper complete meaning. A sentence can have
nouns, adjectives, verbs, subject, object and article in correct sequence according the rules of English grammar. A
sentence starts with a capital letter (first alphabet of first word) and ends with full-stop (or period), exclamation mark or
question mark.
Here are examples:
1. She is singing a song.

2. He is a doctor.
3. Kids are playing in the garden.
4. He will come here tomorrow.
5. We watched a movie.
6. What is your name?
7. What a pleasant weather!
8. It has been raining since 3 O’clock.
9. I am learning how to drive a car.
10. She wrote him a letter.
11. They bought a new computer.
12. There ten students in the classroom.
13. Where had you gone the last night?
14. The birds are flying in the sky.
15. He got admission in a new school.

 Subject, Predicate and Object
A sentence is a combination of words that gives a complete meaning or thought. A sentence has the following three
parts.
1. Subject
2. Predicate
3. Object
1. Subject
Subject is a noun or a pronoun used in a sentence. It is an agent in the sentence which does some action in the sentence.
Read the following examples.
 He is writing a poem.
 She is laughing.
 They are playing football.
 David works in a factory.
It can be seen in the following examples, that the subjects (he, she, they, David) are performing certain action.
In some sentences, the subject may not necessarily perform some task. Hence, subject can also be defined as the noun
or pronoun used in a sentence about which some thing is being told in the sentence. This definition of subject applies to
sentence having static verbs. Read the following examples.
 He is very happy.
 David seems to be angry.
 She looks very beautiful.

2. Predicate
Predicate is the part of a sentence which says something about the subject of the sentence. Predicate is usually a large
part of the sentence. The part of sentence, other than the subject, is called predicate of the sentence. The underlined
part in the following examples is the predicate of each sentence.
 He is writing a poem.
 She is laughing.
 They are playing football.
 David works in a factory.
It can be seen in the above examples, that underlined part of each sentence is predicate part of the same sentence as it
is telling something about the subject.
3. Object
Unlike the subject who acts, an object is a noun or a pronoun in a sentence which is acted upon. The subject is the actor
of the sentence who acts upon the object. The object is a noun or a pronoun that is acted upon by the subject.
Example.
 He is eating an apple.
The noun ‘apple’ in the above sentence is the object of the sentence because it is being acted upon by the subject
‘He’. The subject ‘He’ is acting (eating) and the object ‘apple’ is being acted upon (is being eaten) by the subject.
Examples.
 She is singing a song.

 He is writing a letter.
 She is repairing her laptop.
Note. All sentences do not have an object. Some verbs do not require an object, which are known as intransitive verbs.
Hence, sentences having intransitive verb may not have an object. Read the following examples.
 He is laughing.
 She is sleeping.
 They are running.

Types of Sentences (on the basis of function)
A combination of words which gives a complete meaning is called a sentence. There are various types of sentence
depending upon its structure and function. On the basis of its function, a sentence has the following four kinds.
1. Declarative Sentence
2. Interrogative Sentence
3. Imperative Sentence
4. Exclamatory Sentence
1. Declarative sentence
A sentence which declares or asserts a statement is called declarative sentence. It simply announces an idea. It has a
plan statement. A declarative sentence ends with a full-stop mark or a period (.).
Examples:
He bought a new laptop.

They are playing football.
He is going to college.
I saw my friend in the street.
He is studying a book.
She is watching a movie.
2. Interrogative sentence
A sentence that has a question is called Interrogative sentence. It is also called a question-sentence. An interrogative
sentence ends with a question-mark (?).
Examples:
 How are you?

 When will he come?
 Where are you going?
 What is your hobby?
 Will you help me?

3. Imperative sentence
A sentence which expresses a request, a command or an order is called imperative sentence. An imperative sentence
mostly ends with a period (.). It can also sometimes ends with an exclamation mark (!) depending upon the emotion in
the sentence.
Examples:
 Turn off the light. (command)

 Give me some food. (request)
 Please cooperate with me. (request)
 Don’t smoke. (advice)
 Don’t waste your time. (advice)
 Get out of the room. (command)
4. Exclamatory sentence
A sentence which expresses strong emotion or feeling is called an exclamatory sentence. It describes emotions or
feelings of joy, anger, sorrow, surprise, excitement, frustration and appreciation. An exclamatory sentence is ended with
an exclamation mark (!).
Examples:
 Hurrah! We won the race! (emotions of joy)

 Alas! I lost my purse! (emotions of sorrow)
 What a nice car! (emotions of surprise)
 Hurrah! I got selected for the job! ( emotion of joy)
 How nicely they are dancing! (emotions of surprise)
 It’s fantastic! (emotion of excitement)
 How intelligent you are! (emotions of surprise)

 Types of Sentences (Structure-wise)
A sentence can consist of one clause (independent clause) or more than one clause (independent and dependent
clauses). The independent clause is also known as a main clause. The dependent clause is also known as a subordinate
clause.
Different sentences have different structures. There are four types of sentences depending upon its structure or
formation (the numbers of clauses in the sentence).
1. Simple Sentence
A simple sentence comprises only one clause (main or independent clause). A main clause has both the subject and the
verb and expresses a complete meaning. Hence, a simple sentence is simply a main-clause. It has no dependent clause.
Examples:
 I bought a chair.
 He ate a mango.
 She goes to college.
 They are laughing.
2. Compound Sentence
A compound sentence has at least two main (or independent) clauses connected by coordinating conjunctions. It has
no dependent clause.
The coordinating conjunctions, used to join main clauses, are “and, for, nor, but, so, yet, or”. Independent clauses are
also sometime connected by a semicolon (;) mark. A comma may not or may be used before a conjunction in a
compound sentence.

Examples:
 I wrote him a letter but he didn’t reply me.

 I told him about his failure in the exam and he became sad.
 She failed many times yet she is not disappointed.
 I needed help; he helped me.
3. Complex Sentence
A complex sentence has one main-clause (independent clause) and at least one subordinate-clause (dependent clause)
connected by subordinate conjunctions such as ‘although, because, since, unless, when’ or a relative pronoun such as
‘who, that, which etc’.
In the following examples, the underlined part of each sentence is a main clause while the remaining part is a
subordinate (dependent) clause.
Examples:
 I saw a man who was wearing a white shirt.

 The girl bought a doll which sings a song.
 She gifted me a book that has a great knowledge.
 We helped a child who was crying.
Note. If the complex sentence starts with the independent (or main) clause, a comma will not be used between clauses
in the complex sentence. But if the complex sentence starts with a dependent (or subordinate) clause then the comma
will be used after the dependent clause in the complex sentence. Read the examples given below.
 It is quite hot today although it is raining.

 Although it is raining, it is quite hot today.

4. Complex-Compound Sentence
A complex-compound sentence has at least two main (independent) clause and one or more subordinate (dependent)
clauses. It can also be called compound-complex sentence.
In the following examples, the underlined parts represent main clause while the non-underlined parts represent
subordinate clause.
Examples:
 I like Physic, but my friend likes Biology who wants to become a doctor.
 I waited for him, but he didn’t come which disappointed me.
 She bought a green shirt and I bought brown shirt which looks very decent.
 Difference between Phrase and Clause

Clause and phrase are two important terms in English grammar. Clause and phrase are parts of a sentence.
A clause is a group of words that consists of a subject and a verb.
Examples:
 He laughed.
 The guests arrived.
A phrase is a group of words that does not consist of a subject and a verb.
Examples: on a table, under the tree, near the wall, on the roof, at the door.
Both the clause and the phrase may exist within a sentence. For instance, read the following sentence:
Example: He is sleeping on the bed.
The first part of the sentence “He is sleeping” is a clause because it has a subject and a verb. On the other hand, the
remaining part of sentence, ‘on the bed’ is a phrase because it lacks both the subject and the verb.
Read the following examples. The underlined part of each sentence is a phrase. Non-underlined part of each sentence is
a clause:

 She is standing on the roof.
 The cat is sleeping under the table.
 She is drawing a map on the wall.
 She is waiting at the door.
Understanding the conceptual difference in clause and phrase

A clause has both subject and object. It can stand alone as a complete sentence because it gives a complete meaning.
For instance in the above example the clause ‘He is sleeping’ can alone stand as a sentence as it gives a complete
meaning to the reader.
On the hand, a phrase cannot stand alone as a complete sentence because it does not give a complete meaning. For
instance, in the above sentence ‘on the bed’ cannot stand as alone sentence as it does not give a complete meaning. The
each word of phrase has a meaning but the phrase collectively does not make a complete sense like a sentence. The
purpose of phrase is to complement the overall structure of a sentence.
A simple sentence can also be called one clause. For instance, ‘He laughed’ is a sentence, but it is also one clause. Some
sentence may have more than one clause, read the following example:
 I waited for him but he didn’t come. (two clause)

 I like Biology but my brother likes Physics because he wants to become an engineer. (three clauses)

 What is a Phrase?
A phrase, in a sentence, is a group of related words that complement the structure of sentence.
A phrase is always an important part of a sentence. A phrase cannot stand alone as it does not contain a subject and a
verb. Hence, a phrase (as alone) does not give a complete idea. It is used to complement the overall structure of a
sentence.
It usually consists of articles, preposition or noun. e.g. on a table, at the door, in a box, on the roof.
Examples:
 She is standing on the roof.

 The cat is sleeping under the table.
 She is drawing a map on the wall.
 Someone is waiting at the door.
 The kid sat beside her mother.
 Students are looking at the black-board.
 The dog is barking at a stranger.
 The girl, in the brown shirt, won the debate.
 The students, at the hall, were making a noise.
A phrase is an important part of a sentence. A phrase acts as a noun, an adjective or an adverb in a sentence. Hence, a
phrase can also be defined as a group of related words (lacking a subject and a verb) that acts a single part of speech in a
sentence.
Read the following examples:
 She wrote an interesting story. (as a noun: object)

 One of my friends has gone America. (as a noun: subject)
 The girl in the white shirt won the competition. (as adjective modifying the noun: girl)
 He gave me a cup full of tea. (as adjective modifying the noun: cup)
 She came back in a short while. (as adverb modifying the verb: come)
 He welcomed the guests in a cordial way. (as adverb modifying the verb: welcome)
Depending upon its function in a sentence, the phrases are divided into many types such as: Noun phrase, Verb Phrase,
Adjective Phrase, Adverb Phrase, Appositive Phrase, Infinite Phrase and Gerund Phrase.

 Types of Phrases
A phrase is a group of related words within a sentence that complements the overall structure of sentence. A phrase
lacks both the subject and the object. Hence, a phrase cannot stand alone to give complete meaning. The underline
group of words in the following sentence is a phrase.
Example:
 I saw a joker in the street.
A phrase can act as a noun, an adjective, a preposition or an adverb. The function of a phrase depends upon its
construction and place in a sentence. Depending upon its function in a sentence, phrases are divided into various types:
Noun Phrase, Verb Phrase, Adjective Phrase, Adverb Phrase, Gerund Phrase, Infinitive Phrase and Absolute Phrase.
1. NOUN PHRASE
A phrase that acts like a noun in the sentence is called a Noun Phrase. It contains a noun & other associated words
(usually determiners & modifiers) which modify the noun.
A noun phrase comprises of a noun as a head-word and other related words (determiners & modifiers) may come before
or after the noun. The entire phrase serves as a noun in a sentence.
Noun Phrase = noun + modifiers (or determiners)
Examples:
 They hired a huge beautiful home. (as noun: object)

 She bought a decent black shirt. (as noun: object)
 One of our close relatives never drinks coffee. (as noun: subject)
 A woman in the window shouted for help. (as noun: subject)
A sentence can also consist of more than one noun phrase.
Example:
One of our close relatives bought a beautiful red car. (as nouns both as subject & object)

2. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
A phrase comprising a preposition and object of preposition (noun or pronoun) is called a prepositional phrase. It may
also contain other modifiers.
e.g. near a wall, on a table, in the room, under a tree, at the door etc
Prepositional phrase has a noun or pronoun which called the object of preposition.
Examples:
 The kids were laughing at the joker.

 He is sleeping on the carpet.
 The teacher looked at the black-board.
 He drives the car in a high speed.
 He always speaks in a loud voice.
3. ADJECTIVE PHRASE
A phrase that acts likes an adjective in a sentence is called adjective phrase. Like an adjective it modifies (adds to
meaning of) a noun or a pronoun. It comprises of adjectives, modifiers and other words modifying the noun or pronoun.
 A kid on the roof is looking at the sky. (modifies noun: kid)

 The boy in the shop is my friend. (modifies noun: boy)
 She bought a beautiful brown chair. (modifies noun: chair)
 A lady with long hair is walking in the garden. (modifies noun: lady)
 She gave me a cup full of tea. (modifies noun: cup)
 A student from my college won the competition. (modifies noun: student)
4. ADVERB PHRASE
A phrase that acts like an adverb in a sentence is called adverb phrase. Like an adverb, it modifies (add to meaning of) a
verb or other adverb in the sentence. It contains an adverb and other words (i.e. noun, preposition, modifiers) which, as
a whole, act as an adverb phrase.

Examples:
 He drives a car in a very high speed. (modifies verb: drive)

 The racer was running very fast. (modifies verb: run)
 She always speaks in a respectful way. (modifies verb: speak)
 They walked along the wall. (modifies verb: walk)
 She welcomed the guests in a nice way. (modifies verb: welcome)
 He stayed at college for a few hours. (modifies verb: stay)
 The kid sat beside her mother. (modifies verb: sit)
5. VERB PHRASE
A verb phrase is the group of main verbs and helping-verbs (auxiliaries) within a sentence.
Examples:
 She is writing a letter

 He has taken his annual exam.
 Students must reach in time for the class.
 They have been playing game since morning.
 She is waiting for someone.
6. INFINITIVE PHRASE
An infinitive phrase contains an infinitive (to + base form of verb) and modifiers or other related words linked to the
infinitive. An infinitive phrase will always acts as a noun, an adjective or adverb in the sentence.
Examples:
 I enjoy to drive a car. (As noun)

 To get success in exam is an ambition of every student. (As noun)
 Government made a plan to help the poor. (As adjective modifying noun: plan)
 She sang a song to please the audience. (As adverb modifying verb: sing)
 The joker danced to entertain the people. (As adjective modifying noun: dance)

7. GERUND PHRASE
A gerund phrase is a group of a gerund (verb + ing), modifiers and other related words linked to the gerund. A gerund
phrase functions as a noun in the sentence.
Examples:
 I enjoy listening to the music. (As noun/as object)

 He started writing the letter. (As noun/as object)
 Walking in the sun affects the complexion of a person. (As noun/as subject)
 Crying of a baby disturbed me a lot. (As noun/as subject)
8. PARTICIPLE PHRASE
A participle phrase is a group of a present-participle (verb + ing) or a past-participle verb, modifiers and other linked
words. A participle phrase is punctuated with a comma or commas. It always acts as an adjective (modifying a noun) in a
sentence.
Examples:
 The students, raising their hands, need extra page. (modifies noun: students)
 She got a mail, mentioning about her exam. (modifies noun: mail)
 The chair, made of plastic, looks very beautiful. (modifies noun: chair)
9. ABSOULUTE PHRASE
Absolute phrase is also called a nominative phrase. It consists of a noun or a pronoun, a participle and linked modifiers.
It modifies (tells more about) the sentence. It looks like a clause but lacks true finite verb. It is separated by a comma in
a sentence.
Examples:
 She is looking very much happy, her face expressing a shine of happiness.
 He, having books in his hand, was going to college.
 He, having anger in his eyes, met his enemy.

 What is a Clause?
A clause is a group of related word that contains a subject as well as a verb.
A clause is a meaningful combination of words, as it can, alone, express a complete thought. A clause can be a simple
sentence. Hence, clause is also sometimes defined as group of words having a subject and predicate.
It can also be said that each sentence consists of at least one clause.
Read the following simple examples of a clause:
 He laughed.
 I am sleeping.
 He sings song.
 The dark is barking.
The above examples reveal that a clause can be a simple sentence.
A clause can also be a part of a compound or complex sentence which consists of more than one clause. Read the
following examples:
 She is crying. (one clause)

 The patient died. (one clause)
 I waited for him, but he didn’t come. (two clauses)
 He is going to college, because he wants to meet his friend. (two clauses)
 My sister likes Biology, but I like Physics because I want to become an engineer. (three clauses)
A clause by definition is a combination of words having both subject and verb. Hence, a part of a simple sentence can
also be viewed as a clause. Read the following examples:
 They are laughing at a joker.

 I saw him in the street.
 She cooks food in the kitchen.

 Main Clause & Subordinate Clause
A clause is a combination of related words containing a subject and a verb. It can be a simple sentence or a part of a
compound sentence.
Examples:
 She laughed. (one clause)

 I waited for him, but he didn’t come. (two clauses)
Clauses have two major types:
1. Independent Clause (Main Clause)

2. Dependant Clause (Subordinate Clause)
Understanding ‘Main Clauses & Subordinate Clauses’

Read the following sentence:
 I saw a man who was crying.
The above sentence has two clauses: ‘I saw a man’ and ‘who was crying’. The first clause ‘I saw a man’ gives a complete
meaning and can alone stand as a complete sentence. Such a phrase is called Main or Independent clause.
On the other hand, the second clause ‘who was crying’ does not give a complete meaning and cannot (as alone) stand as
a complete sentence. It depends on the main clause to give a complete meaning. Such a clause is called Subordinate or
Dependent clause.

1. Main or Independent Clause:
Main clause or Independent clause is that clause which expresses a complete meaning. It alone can stand as a sentence.
Examples
 The professor asked many questions but no one could answer.
 I met a friend who helped me a lot.
 They contacted the customer who had not paid the bill.
 He does not like the people who smoke.
 We met a man who could speak many languages.
 She loves her husband, who never tells a lie.
2. Subordinate or Dependent Clause:
Subordinate clause or Dependence clause is that clause which (as alone part) cannot express a complete meaning. It
alone cannot stand as a sentence because it depends on the other clause (independent clause) to give a complete
meaning. It serves a subordinate role in the sentence.
Examples:

 The professor asked many questions but no one could answer.
 I met a friend who had helped me a lot.
 They contacted the customer who had not paid the bill.
 He does not like the people who smoke.
 We met a man who could speak many languages.
 She loves her husband, who never tells a lie.
Dependent Clauses have further three types:
1. Noun Clause
2. Adjective Clause
3. Adverb Clause

Types of Subordinate Clauses
A clause is a group of words containing both subject and a verb. There are two major types of clauses: Main Clause or
Independent Clause and Subordinate or dependent clause.
I saw a man who was crying.
The part of the above sentence ‘I saw a man’ can alone stand as an independent sentence because it gives complete
meaning. Such a clause is called main clause or independent clause. On the other hand, the remaining part of the above
sentence ‘who was crying’ cannot (as alone) stand as an independent sentence. It cannot (as alone part) give complete
meaning because it depends on the main clause to become a complete sentence and give a complete idea. Such a clause
is called subordinate clause or dependent clause.
Types of Subordinate Clause

A subordinate clause can act as an adjective, a noun or an adverb in a sentence. There are three types of Subordinate
Clause depending upon its function in a sentence:
1. Noun Clause
2. Adverb Clause
3. Adjective Clause
NOUN CLAUSE:
A subordinate clause which acts as a noun in a sentence is called a Noun Clause. It usually starts with words such as
‘that, what, whatever, who, whom, whoever, whomever’. It acts exactly like a noun in a sentence. It can work as a noun
either at the place of a subject or an object.
Examples:
 Whatever we study increases our knowledge. (Noun as a subject)

 What you eat determines your body-size. (Noun as a subject)
 I buy whatever I need. (Noun as an object)
 Now I realized what you had thought. (Noun as an object)

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE:
A subordinate clause which acts as an adjective in a sentence is called an Adjective Clause. Like an adjective, it modifies
(add information to) a noun or pronoun in the sentence. An adjective clause mostly starts with relative pronouns such as
‘that, who, whom, whose, which, or whose’.
Examples:
 I saw a child who was crying. (modifies noun: child)

 He hates the people who waste time. (modifies noun: people)
 I watch a movie which amused me a lot. (modifies noun: movie)
 The car, which I like, consumes less fuel. (modifies noun: car )
 The building, where he lives, consists of many apartments. (modifies noun: building )
ADVERB CLAUSE
A subordinate clause which acts as an adverb in a sentence is called an Adjective Clause. Like an adverb, it modifies a
verb, an adjective-clause or another adverb clause in the sentence. It modifies (add information to) a verb (action) of the
main clause in terms of ‘time, frequency (i.e. how often), condition, cause and effect; and intensity (i.e. extent).
It mostly uses the following subordinating conjunctions:
 Time: when, whenever, since, until, before, after, while, as, by the time, as soon as
 Cause and effect: because, since, now that, as long as, so, so that,
 Contrast: although, even, whereas, while, though
 Condition: if, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing or provided that, in case
Examples:
 Call me when you need my help. (modifies verb: call)

 Unless you avoid sugar, you can’t lose weight. (modifies verb: lose weight)
 The patient had died before the doctor reached. (modifies verb: die)
 You live a happy life as long as you think positively. (modifies verb: live)
 I worked in a factory while I was living in London. (modifies verb: work)
 You can succeed in life provided that you are sincere to your work. (modifies verb: succeed)

 What is a Noun?
Noun is an important part of speech which is used a lot in written as well as spoken English.
A noun is a word that names a place, a person, a thing, an animal or an idea.
Examples: ‘table, chair, New York, book, cup, boy, computer, Newton, hospital, garden, room, Paris, man, doctor,
engineer, glass, dog, cat, rabbit, hen’ are all nouns because each of them is a name of a person, a place, a thing or an
animal.
A noun can also be a name of an abstract feeling or an idea such as ‘love, anger, happiness etc’.
Examples:
Names of things: Book, table, chair, camera, cup, picture, bottle, computer
Names of places: London, Paris, New York, Toronto, college, cinema, hospital, garden,
Names of persons: David, Newton, Stephen, Einstein, girl, boy, man engineer, teacher, doctor
Names of animals: Cat, dog, hen, rabbit, penguin, bird, horse, peacock, nightingale
Nouns in Sentences
Names of things:
I bought a book.
He repaired his camera.
I have two computers.
She opened a bottle.
He made a chair.
Names of places:
He lives in London.
They were playing in a garden.
She works in a hospital.
The shop opens at 10 A.M.
They are sitting in a room.
We will go to a zoo.

Names of persons:
David will come today.

He is laughing.
This woman has three sons.
My brother never tells a lie.
My father is a decent man.
The dog is barking at a stranger.
Names of animals:
He is riding a horse.
She has two cats.
The dog is barking at a stranger.
A parrot is flying in the air.
I saw an elephant in the zoo.
Names of idea:
Sincerity in friendship leads to happiness.

Never go against the law.
Frustration is usually the cause of anger.
His love for his country was remarkable.
Common Noun & Proper Noun

A noun is a word that names a thing, a person, a place, or an animal.
Examples: ‘chair, New York, book, cup, boy, computer, college, room, garden, London, girl, doctor, engineer, dog, cat,
rabbit, hen’ are all nouns because each of them is a name of a object, a person or a place or a thing

There are two major types of nouns:
1. Common Noun
2. Proper Noun
COMMON NOUN: A common noun is a name of non-specific or a common thing, place or a person.
Examples: “book, pen, room, garden man, girl, road, camera, month, day, chair, school, boy, car” are common nouns
because each of them is a common thing, place or person.
Common noun refers to a group of items. It does not refer to any specific item.
Example-1
He eats an apple daily.
In the above sentence, the noun ‘apple’ is used as a common noun. The noun ‘apple’ points to a group of fruits. It does
not refer to a specific apple; and it can be any apple. In this sentence the term apple is not specified but used as a
common noun which refers to a common apple and not any specific apple.
Example-2
She bought a camera.
In the above sentence, the noun ‘camera’ is a common noun. This noun ‘camera’ is used as a generalized term that does
not refer to any specific camera but it can be simply any camera.
PROPER NOUN: A name of a specific or a particular thing, person or place, is called a proper noun.
Examples: “Oxford University, Limousine Car, New York, America, David, Newton, Einstein, June, Friday” are some
proper nouns because each of them refers to a specific thing, place or person.
The above noun’s does not refers to common things, but to a particular thing. The word ‘month’ is a common noun
because it can be any month of the year. But the word ‘April’ is a proper noun because it refers to only one (specific)
month of year. Similarly, the word ‘car’ is a common noun as it is a generalized word and can be any car. On the other
hand, BMW car is a specific noun because it refers to one specific car.

The first letter of a proper noun is always capitalized.
Examples:
 They live in London.

 She loves David.
 He studies in the University of Glasgow.
 He will come here in August.
 The meeting will be held on Friday.
 The owner of Microsoft Company is Bill Gates.
Examples.
 He lives in Paris.
 She studies in Oxford University.
 Author of this book is John Stephen.
 Laws of motion were presented by Newton
 The richest person of the world is Bill Gates.
Rules for using article “THE” before a Proper Noun:
1. Article ‘the’ is never used before the names of cities and countries. e.g. “Paris, London, New York, Canada,
America, Mexico”. But if the name of country refers to a group of places (lands or states), the article ‘the’ will be
used. e.g. the United States, the Netherlands, the Philippines.
2. Article ‘the’ is not used before the names of universities. e.g. Yale University, Oxford University, Columbia
University. But if the name of university is written in an order that it includes the word ‘of’, the article ‘the’ will
be used. e.g. the University of Oxford, the University of Toronto.
3. Article ‘the’ must be used before names composed of both common noun and proper noun. e.g. the New York
city, the river Nile, the Dominion of Canada.
4. Article ‘The” used by the name of ocean, sea, river, dessert or forest (except lakes and fall). e.g. the Pacific
Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the Sahara, the Black Forests.
5. Article “The” is used before the name of a geographical region and points on globe, for example: the Middle
East, the West, the Equator, the North Pole
6. Article “The” is usually used before the names of organizations for example: the Association of Chartered
Accountants, the World Health Organization

Countable Noun & Uncountable Noun
There are two types of nouns: Countable Nouns and Uncountable Nouns
COUNTABLE NOUN: Countable noun is a noun that can be counted.
For instance, ‘book is a countable noun because it can be counted. We can say: one book, two books, or three books.
Examples: chair, pen, cup, room, dog, car, bottle, car, table, book, bag.
A countable noun can exist in both form: singular form and plural form.
For singular nouns, article ‘a / an’ is used. If a singular noun starts with a consonant letter (or vowel sounding like
consonant), article ‘a’ will be used before it. e.g. a book, a pen, a university.
If a singular noun starts with a vowel letter (or consonant sounding like vowel), article ‘an’ will be used before it. e.g. an
apple, an onion, an hour.
The plural of a noun is made according to the following rules:
1. A plural of a noun is formed by adding –s or –es to it. e.g. pen – pens, book – books, box – boxes. If a noun ends
with ‘y’, the ending ‘y’ is changed into ‘i’ and –es is added for making its plural. e.g. lady–ladies, country–
countries.
2. A few plurals are formed differently. e.g. child–children, wife–wives, man–men, basis–bases, toot–teeth, foot–
feet, datum–data.
3. A few nouns remain same in plural and singular form. e.g. swine–swine, deer–deer, sheep–sheep.
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN: A noun that cannot be counted is called an uncountable noun.
For instance, ‘water’ is an uncountable noun because it cannot be counted. It cannot be said: one water, two waters, or
three waters. Such nouns that cannot be counted in numbers are known as uncountable nouns.
Examples: rain, honey, milk, bread, furniture, wheat, information, news, honesty, pleasure, warmth, excitement, love,
weather.
Article ‘a /an’ is mostly not used before an uncountable noun, except in some special cases. The article ‘the’ can be used
before an uncountable noun if refers to a specific thing.
 He is drinking a water. (Wrong)

 He is drinking water. (Correct)
 Money gives you a power. (Wrong)
 Money gives you power. (Correct)
The word such as, ‘some, more, too much’ can be used to modify the amount of an uncountable noun.
Examples:
 Please give me some water.
 Add some milk to the tea.
 They had no information about the criminal.
Though uncountable noun refers to things in its collectivity, it is mostly treated is as a singular in a sentence.
Examples:
 The sea water are polluted. (Wrong)
 The sea water is polluted. (Correct)
 The information are helpful. (Wrong)
 The Information is helpful. (Correct)
Changing an Uncountable Noun into a Countable Noun

Some of the uncountable nouns can be changed into countable form by adding a measuring unit to it. For instance,
‘water’ is an uncountable noun but it can be used as countable by saying: one glass of water, two glass of water.
Similarly, ‘tea’ can be used as one cup of tea, or two cups of tea.
Here are some ways of converting uncountable into countable:
Uncountable -to- Countable

Wheat -to- a grain of wheat
Bread -to- a piece of bread
Milk -to- a glass of milk
Information -to- a piece of information

 What is Verb?
A verb is a word that expresses a state or an action of something.
e.g. Go, Write, come, run, play, eat, weep, read, catch, clean, drink, walk, speak, cut, hold.
Example:
She is driving a car. In the above sentence, the word ‘drive’ is a verb because it tells about an action being done by the
subject (she) of the sentence. It tells what is being done – the action.
Most of the verbs express the action of something but a few verbs also express a state of something.
The verbs which tell about the action of something are called dynamic verb. e.g. go, come, play, run, eat, drink etc.
Examples:
 She is singing a song. (expresses an action)

 He is laughing at a joker. (expresses an action)
 The kids are making a noise. (expresses an action)
One the other hand, those verbs which tells about a state of something, are called stative verbs. e.g. seem, resemble,
consist of, belong to, be, impress, surprise.
Examples:
 He seems a nice man. (expresses a state)

 She resembles her sister. (expresses a state)
 She belongs to a noble family. (expresses a state)
A few verbs can be used both as dynamic as well as a stative verb.
Example:
 He looks very handsome. (‘look’ used as stative verb)

 He looked at the door. (‘look’ used as dynamic verb)

FORMS OF VERBS
There are three forms of verbs depending upon its usage in sentence according to the tense.
1. Base Form (1st Form)

2. Past Simple (2nd Form)
3. Past Particle (3rd Form)
Examples:
Base Form Past Simple Past Participle

Write Write Write
Go Go Go
Note. “-ing” attached to base form of a verb (i.e. laughing) is called present participle. e.g. run—running, drink—
drinking, do—doing.
 FORMATION OF PAST SIMPLE AND PAST PARTICIPLE FORM

Verbs are divided into following two types depending on formation of its 2nd and 3rd forms.
1. Regular Verbs
2. Irregular Verbs
1. Regular Verbs
A verb whose past-simple and past-participle are formed simply by adding ‘-ed’ to it, is
called a regular verb.
Verb Verb Verb Verb

To work To work To work To work
To look To look To look To look
To dry To dry To dry To dry
To help To help To help To help
To move To move To move To move

2. Irregular Verbs
A verb whose past-simple and past-participle are formed in different ways (not by
adding ‘-ed’) is called an irregular verb.
Verb Verb Verb Verb

To Send To Send To Send To Send
To buy To buy To buy To buy
To teach To teach To teach To teach
To do To do To do To do
To fly To fly To fly To fly
A few verb remains the same in all three forms (base, past-simple and past-participle).
Verb Verb Verb Verb

To shut To shut To shut To shut
To cut To cut To cut To cut
To spread To spread To spread To spread
To read To read To read To read
 Adjective
An adjective is a word which modifies (tells us more about) a noun or a pronoun.
Examples: hot tea, old man, beautiful girl, white shirt, intelligent student, interesting story, handsome boy, huge room.
In these examples the words “hot, old, white, white, intelligent, interesting, handsome, & huge” are adjectives because
they modify (gives more information about) the attached nouns.
Adjectives modify the nouns by telling more about various aspects of nouns such as quantity, quality, size, colour, and
personal characteristics about the noun.
A sentence can have one adjective as well as more than one adjective.

Example:
A handsome boy won the competition (one adjective)

A handsome and intelligent boy won the competition (two adjectives)
A handsome, tall and intelligent boy won the competition (three adjectives)
A handsome, tall, smart and intelligent boy won the competition. (four adjectives)
Common examples:
 ‘Red, white, black, purple, green, yellow, and brown’ are some adjectives because they tells us about the colour
of a noun.
 ‘Thin, fat, short, tall, beautiful, and ugly’ are some adjectives telling about the physical characteristics of the
nouns or the pronouns.
 ‘Brave, intelligent, courageous, exuberant, diligent, and determined’ are some adjectives telling about personal
trait of the nouns or the pronouns.
Using Adjectives in a Sentence

Adjectives are used at two places in the sentence on the basis the structure of the sentence.
 Before a noun
 After some stative verbs (e.g. resemble, look, feel etc) or dynamic verbs used as stative verbs in a sentence.
1. Use of adjectives before a noun

Examples:
Adjectives are mostly used before a noun the sentences.
 He bought an expensive car.

 He gifted me a nice shirt.
 She gave me a red rose.
 He told us an interesting story.
 The fat man helped the boys.
 A beautiful girl is dancing in the room.
 They hired a huge building.
 He faced many complicated problems.
 He is running a small business.

 They gave us delicious food.
 He is suffering from severe fever.
2.Use of adjectives after a verb (Stative verbs)

An adjective is also used after a stative verb (seem, consist, is, have, feel, possess) or verbs used as a stative verb in the
sentence.
Unlike a dynamic verb which expresses an action (e.g. eat, write, go), the stative verb is a verb that expresses a state of
something (e.g. seem, consist, is, feel, possess)
More Examples.
 He looks handsome.
 He is a naughty.
 The kids became happy.
 His problems seem complicated.
 The movie is interesting.
 That idea was good.
 She feels sad.
 The shirt is yellow.
 The soldier is brave.
 The rotten food tastes bad.
 She was angry.
 Degrees of Adjective
An adjective is a word which modifies (tells us more about) a noun or a pronoun.
Examples: hot tea, old man, beautiful girl, white shirt, intelligent student, interesting story, handsome boy, huge room.
In the above examples, ‘hot, old, beautiful, white, intelligent’ are adjectives because they modify (give more information
about) the attached nouns.
Every adjective has its three degrees.
1. Positive Adjective
2. Comparative Adjective
3. Superlative Adjective

These three degrees of an adjective express the intensity of adjective in increasing order. e.g. big – bigger – biggest,
good – better – best.
Examples:
Positive Comparative Superlative

Happy Happier Happiest
Heavy Heavier Heaviest
Large Larger Largest
Short Shorter Shortest
Lucky Luckier Luckiest
Old Older Oldest
Many More Most
Little Less Least
Bad Worse Worst
Horrible More horrible Most horrible
Attractive More Attractive Most Attractive
Beautiful More beautiful Most beautiful
Use of Comparative Adjectives

A comparative adjective is used to show a characteristic or a property of one thing (noun or pronoun) in a comparison to
another thing (only one thing).
It makes comparison between two things (not more than two).
Words like “than” & “to” are used after a comparative adjective in a sentence to show comparison of the two things.
Examples:
A bus is bigger than a car.

She is cleverer than him
A car is heavier than a bicycle.
You are taller than me
He is more handsome than his brother.
Your voice is louder than her voice
Use of Superlative Adjective

A superlative adjective is used to show a characteristic or a property of one thing (noun or pronoun) in a comparison to
many other things (many things, more than one). It makes comparison of one thing to many other things.

A superlative degree expresses highest intensity (i.e. quality or quantity) of a thing in a comparison to other many things
(not one but more than one).
A superlative adjective states that a thing is surpassing all the other things in terms of property, characteristic or
quantity.
Example:
John is the tallest boy of his class.
It means that john is surpassing all the boys of his class in tallness. No one other boy, in the class, is taller than john. It
makes the comparison of John and all the students of his class.
Words like “of” and “in” are used after a superlative degree in the sentence. An article “the” should be used before a
superlative degree when modifying a particular noun.
Some Examples:
Einstein was the most intelligent scientist in the world.
He is the richest man of the town.
He is the most brilliant boy of his class.
My room is the biggest of all room in my house.
Sara is the most talkative girl in his family.
A train is the fastest vehicle.
Rive Nile is the deepest river in the world.
 Adverb
An adverb is a word that modifies (tell us more about) a verb or an adjective or any other adverb in a sentence.
Example:
Sara is laughing.
Sara is laughing loudly.
In the above example, the verb ‘laugh’ expresses an action. In the second sentence, the word ‘loudly’ is an adverb
because it gives us more information about the verb ‘laugh’. In the first sentence, we come to know only about the
action. But in the second sentence, due to the adverb ‘loudly’ we know more about (intensity of) action. We know that
the voice of laughing is quite loud. Such a word that modifies (tells more about) a verb is called an adverb.
An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective or the other adverb in the sentence. Read the following examples.

1. Adverb modifying a verb - Examples
 He answered the question quickly.
 She can speak Chinese fluently.
 He treats his kids harshly.
 She is talking nicely.
 The officers behaved decently.
 She goes to club daily.
 He sometimes needs my help.
 I will go to New York tomorrow.
 He may come here.
 She watches movies on holidays.
2. An adverb modifying an adjective - Examples

See the examples, each bold word is an adverb while each underlined word is an adjective.
 They were joyously happy.
 The duration of class is exceedingly long.
 The joke was truly funny.
 This shirt is extremely nice.
 We saw a badly damaged car on the road.
 The movie was really interesting.
3.An adverb modifying other adverb - Example

Read these examples, the bold word is adverb which modifies the other adverb (underlined)
 They were laughing too loudly.

 They started their married life very happily.
 My brother drives his car very carelessly.
 She responded too quickly.
 He walked fast enough to reach the school in time.
 She painted the wall pretty beautifully.
Formation of adverbs
Most of the adverbs are made by adding “-ly” at the end of adjectives.
Examples: fluently, quickly, happily, immediately, easily, loudly, proudly, interestingly, e.t.c.

Few of the adverbs exist without having “-ly” at their ends.
Examples: too, very, late, here, close, straight, well, pretty, low, right, fast, deep, hard, far, high, hard, e.t.c
Types of Adverbs
An adverb modifies a verb in various aspects, and on the basis of such aspects of modification adverbs are classified as
follows
 Adverb of manner: Happily, Sadly, Easily, Rudely, Loudly, Fluently, Rapidly, Angrily, Greedily, Wildly, etc
 Adverb of Place: Here, There, Near, Somewhere, Outside, Inside, Ahead, High, Top, Bottom, etc
 Adverb of time: Now, Then, Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow, Late, Early, Again, Tonight, Soon etc
 Adverb of frequency: Sometimes, Often, Usually, Seldom, Frequently, Daily, Generally, Occasionally, Again and
again, Never, etc

Types of Adverb
An adverb is a word that modifies (gives us more information about) a verb in a sentence.
Example:
 She is singing a song.
 She is singing a song loudly.
The adverb “loudly” in the 2nd sentence modifies the verb “sing” by giving us more information that the song is
sung with a loud voice . Such a word is called an adverb.
Adverbs modify a verb by giving us information about the following aspects of a verb.
1. How an action occurs

2. Where an action occurs
3. When an action occurs
4. How often an action occurs
Depending on the above aspects of modification, the adverbs have following four types:
 Adverbs of manner: Angrily, Happily, Easily, Sadly, Rudely, Loudly, Fluently, Greedily, etc
 Adverbs of Place: Near, There, Here, Somewhere, Inside, Outside, Ahead, Top, High, Bottom, etc
 Adverbs of time: Yesterday, Now, Then, Tomorrow, Today, Late, Early, Tonight, Again, Soon etc
 Adverbs of frequency: Often, Sometimes, Usually, Frequently, Seldom, Daily, Again and again, Generally,
Occasionally, Never, etc
1. Adverbs of Manner – Usage

These adverbs describe the manner of an action or the way of the occurrence of an action.
e.g. happily, sadly, sympathetically, harshly, carefully, carelessly, rudely, nicely, decently, etc
Examples:
 They are living happily.

 She completed her work nicely.
 He was behaving angrily.
 She treats the kids sympathetically.
 Sara is driving carelessly.
 Students were listening to lecture carefully.

Adverbs of Place – Usage
These adverbs express the place of the occurrence of an action or
regarding an action. e.g. here, there, near, outside, inside, bottom, top, ahead, somewhere, beneath, etc
Examples:
 They were coming here.

 Some is talking outside.
 Please come inside.
 They live somewhere in Paris.
 Kids are playing near the house.
 He went downstairs.
Adverbs of Time – Usage

These adverbs states the time of occurrence of the action. It may give
sharp or rough idea about the time of occurrence of an action.
e.g. soon, late, today, to night, early, tomorrow, yesterday, then, now, etc.
Examples:
He will go to school tomorrow.

I met him yesterday.
Please call him now.
He will come soon.
I am still waiting for my friend.
Adverbs of Frequency – Usage

These adverbs tell about how often (or how many times) an action occurs. It gives an idea about the frequency of
occurrence of an action.
e.g. daily, weekly, seldom, frequently, usually, sometimes, most of the times, again and again, often, etc

Examples:
 I meet him daily.
 He usually sleeps in the day.
 She is calling me again and again.
 The failed student was frequently thinking about his failure in exam.
 The always helped me.
 They come here too often.

 Pronoun
A pronoun is a word which is used instead of a noun. e.g. she, he, they, it, her, his, him, its
A pronoun is used instead of a noun to avoid repetition of a noun in an essay. Read the following paragraph:
"David is an eighteen years old boy. He lives in a small village. He loves the people of his village. He always helps the
poor people his village. He studies Biology. He wants to become a doctor to provide medical services to the people of his
village."
In the above paragraph, a pronoun ‘he’ is used instead of noun ‘David’ in the sentences. The pronoun ‘he’ is used to
avoid the repetition of noun ‘David’ again and again in the same paragraph. Such a word is called a pronoun.
Examples:
‘He, she, it, they, you, I, we, who, him, her, them, me, us, whom, his, its, their, your, mine, our and whose, myself,
himself, herself , yourself, which, this, that these, those’ are the commonly used pronouns.
Read the following examples. Bold words are nouns and the underlined are the pronouns.
 Sara is a student. She goes to college daily. She got high marks in exam. She is very happy.
 I saw a dog in the street. It was barking at a stranger. It ran after the stranger.
 Boys are very happy today. They are dancing in the room. They are singing songs.
 A girl was crying in the room. I looked at her. I asked her why she was crying. She replied that she was hungry
and she had no money to buy food. I gave her some food. She ate the food and became happy.
The pronouns having following six types:
Personal Pronouns: e.g. I, you, He, she, it, they, who, me, him, her, them, whom
Possessive Pronouns: e.g. yours, mine, his, hers, ours, theirs,
Reflexive Pronouns: e.g. myself, himself, herself, itself, yourself, ourselves, themselves
Reciprocal Pronouns: e.g. each other, one another
Relative Pronouns: e.g. who, whom, whose, which, that
Demonstrative Pronouns: e.g. this, these, that, those

Types of Pronoun
A pronoun is a word which is used instead of a noun. A pronoun is used instead of a noun to avoid repetition of a noun
in an essay. e.g. she, he, they, it, her, his, him, its
Pronouns are classified into following types:

1. Personal Pronouns
2. Possessive Pronouns
3. Demonstrative Pronouns
4. Reflexive Pronouns
5. Relative Pronouns
6. Reciprocal Pronouns
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
A personal pronoun refers a specific person or object or group of things directly.
e.g. He, I, she, you, it, they me,, who, him, whom her, them etc.
A person pronoun describes a person or a thing in following ways.
1st Person: (the person who speaks) e.g. I, we, me, us

2nd Person: (the person who is spoken to) e.g. you
3rd Person: (a person or a thing which is spoken about). e.g. she, he, they, it, her, him, them,
Usage of Personal Pronoun:
Person Personal Pronouns

Subjects Objects
1st Person I Me
Singular
2nd Person You You
3rd Person He, She, It Him, Her, It
1st Person We Us
Plural 2nd Person You You
3rd Person They Them
Examples:
 She is an intelligent teacher.

 They were going to market.
 He bought some nice books.
 She shouted for help.
2. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
A possessive pronoun describes a close possession to or an ownership of or
relationship to a noun (a person or a thing).
e.g. his, yours, hers, mine, ours, theirs, mine, etc
Person Personal Pronouns
1st Person Mine

Singular
2nd Person Yours
3rd Person his, Hers, its
1st Person Ours
2nd Person Yours

Plural
3rd Person Theirs
Examples:
 This book is yours.
 This laptop is mine.
 That car is hers.
 These houses are ours not theirs.
 He lost his books. He needs yours.
 This computer is mine, not yours.
3. REFLEXIVE PRONOUN
A reflexive pronoun expresses a noun when the subject’s action affects (or influences) the subject itself.
e.g. herself, yourself, himself, ourselves, itself, themselves, are few reflexive pronouns.
A reflexive pronoun always acts as an object, not as subject, and it expresses inter-influence between a subject and the
object.
Persons Subjects Reflexive Pronouns

1st Person I Myself
Singular 2nd Person You Yourself
3rd Person He, she, it Himself, Herself,
Itself
1st Person We Ourselves
Plural 2nd Person You Yourselves
3rd Person They Themselves
Examples:
 She was looking to herself in the picture.

 She locked herself in a room.
 He prepared himself for the test.
 They considered themselves the happiest people of the world.
4. RECIPROCAL PRONOUN
A reciprocal pronoun is used when two or more nouns (subjects) are reciprocating to each other or one another in some
action.
A reciprocal pronoun is used if two sor more subjects act in a same manner towards each other or one another.
There are two reciprocal pronouns in English language.

 One another
 Each other
Examples:
 Two girls pushed each other.
 Sara and John love each other.
 The people in the party greeted one another.
 Two students in exam copied from each other.
 The balls on the snooker table collided with one another.

5. RELATIVE PRONOUNS
A relative pronoun is a word which is used in relation to a noun and modifies
(gives more information about) the same noun.
OR
Relative pronouns are those pronouns that join relative clauses and the relative sentences.
e.g. which, who, that, whom, whose etc.
Example: She is the girl, who sings songs.
The word ‘who’ in above example is a relative pronoun that modifies (tell more about) the noun(girl). The same pronoun
joins the sentence ‘she is the girl’ to a clause ‘sings songs’.
Examples:
 It is the dog which barks at strangers.
 The girl who is walking in the garden is very beautiful
 It is the laptop which I like the more.
 They were the people who had come out for a strike.
6. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
A demonstrative pronoun is the pronoun which points to a noun (a thing or things).
e.g. that, this, those, these, none, neither e.t.c.
In a short distance (or in terms of time): This, these.

In a long distance (or in terms of time): That, those.
Examples:
 This is a book.
 That is a car.
 These are ducks.
 Those are birds.
 Can you see that?

 Preposition
A preposition is a word which expresses relationship of a noun or a pronoun to other words of the sentence.
A preposition is used before a noun or pronoun to show the relationship of the same noun or pronoun to other words of
the sentence.
e.g. ‘in, of, to, at, by, for, with, under, above, into, onto, upon, about, behind, beside, before, after, towards, inside,
outside, below, around’ are commonly used examples of prepositions.
Examples:
Words of the sentence (i.e. subject, verb) Preposition Noun or Pronoun
He was sitting on a table.
She is going to college.
There is a cat under the bed.
They are dancing in the room.
He was drawing a picture on a wall.
His family lives in America.
She was knocking at the door.
She is throwing stones into a river.
The students were discussing about the exam.
The meeting was held on 25th December.
They will come here in July.
The party will start at 8 P.M
He goes to factory by bus.
The lock cannot be opened with the key.
This book has been written by John Keats.
The guests were invited by her.
In the above examples, all the prepositions express relationship of a noun or a pronoun ot the other words of the
sentence.
Different preposition are used for time, place, direction, agent, device and so on. Some of the examples are follows:
 Preposition for time e.g. in, on, at, etc.
 Preposition for place e.g. in, on, at, etc
 Preposition for direction e.g. to, towards, into, through etc.
 Preposition for agent e.g. by
 Preposition for device, instrument or machines. e.g. on, by, with, etc.
What is a Prepositional Phrase?

A preposition phrase, in a sentence, is a group of words consisting of a preposition and a noun.
It is a group of a preposition, a noun and other linked word within a sentence. The noun in a prepositional phrase is
called object of the preposition.
e.g. on a table, on a paper, in a room, at the door, into a river.
In the following examples, the underlined words are prepositional phrases.

 He was sitting on a table.
 She is writing on a paper.
 Kids were dancing in a room.
 He is throwing ball into the river.
 Someone is knocking at the door.
What is Dependent Preposition?

Some prepositions are always used after a specific verb in a sentence to complement the sense of the verb. Such a
preposition is called a dependent preposition.
Example: She was waiting for her mother.
The preposition ‘for’ is a dependent preposition for the verb ‘wait’.
Read the following examples to understand.
 She is suffering from high fever.

 The patient died of cancer.
 He provided me with some information about the topic.
 I agree with you.
 I agree to your proposal.
 He had to prepare for the exam.
Note. The group of verb and preposition, within a sentence, is called prepositional verb. e.g. suffering from, provide
with, agree with.

 Types of Preposition
A preposition is a word which expresses relationship of a noun or a pronoun to other words of the sentence.
e.g. ‘in, of, to, at, by, for, with, under, above, into, onto, upon, about, behind, beside, before, after, towards, inside,
outside, below, around’ are commonly used examples of prepositions.
There are six types of prepositions:
1. Prepositions for Time

2. Prepositions for Place
3. Prepositions for Direction
4. Prepositions for Agent
5. Prepositions for Instruments
6. Prepositional Phrases
1. Preposition for Time (e.g. at, on, in)

These prepositions are used to refer to time in various aspects. e.g. at, on, in.
Prepositions Time Nature
1. Months or Years
e.g. in March, in 2005
2. Particular time of a day or a month or an year
In e.g. in evening, in morning, in the 3rd week of April, in winter, in summer
3. A century or a specific time in past or future etc
e.g. in the 20th century, in early days, in the stone age, in future, in past,In England
In a room
In a cupboard
1. A Day
e.g. on Sunday
On 2. Dates
e.g. on 7th of February, on February 7
3. Particular days
e.g. on my birthday, on Independence Day
1. Time of a clock
e.g. at 3 O’clock, at 4:20 PM
At 2. Short & precise times
e.g. at night, at sunset, at noon, at lunch time, at the moment, at bed time,At bus stop
At the entrance
At front of the chair
At the bottom of glass
At the edge of roof
Examples:

 She was born in 1986.
 His father died in 2005 in a car accident.
 I was very happy on the first day of my job.
 We went to see glaciers in the summer.
 The party will start at 8 PM.
 They will come here on 15th February.
 Everyone takes breakfast in the morning.
2. Prepositions for Place (e.g. on, at, in)

These prepositions are used for several of types of places. e.g. on, at, in.
 “In” is mostly used for a place having some sort of (physical or virtual) boundary.
 “On” is usually used for a surface
 “At” is usually used for a specific place.
Prepositions Nature of the Places

In Place having some (physical or virtual) boundary
Examples:.
In a hall
In a school
In the building
In the box
In the car
In a library
In a garden
In England
In a room
In a cupboard
On Surfaces of things.
Examples:
On the table
On the blackboard
On the page
On a wall
On a roof
On the map
At Specific Places:
Examples:
At bus stop
At the entrance
At front of the chair
At the bottom of glass
At the edge of roof
Examples:

 They live in England.
 They placed their books on a table.
 I met him at the bus stop.
 She waited for her kids at the gate of her home.
 There is a cat under the table.
 They were running on the road.
3. Prepositions for Direction (e.g. into, to, through, towards)

These prepositions express the direction of something. e.g. into, to, through, towards
Examples:
 They are going to classroom.
 The snake was coming toward her.
 He threw a ball into a river.
4. Prepositions for Agent (e.g. by, with)

These prepositions are used to express a causal relationship between the noun (doer)
and an action. e.g. by, with etc
Examples:
 A nice book was written by John Keats.
 A lot of noise was made by the kids.
 The task was finished by him.
 Some schools have been made by Government.
 Have they gone to their college?
5. Prepositions for Instrument, Devices, or Machines

Such prepositions are used for joining nouns (instruments, devices, machines etc) to
other words in the sentence. e.g. on, by, with the help of, etc.
Examples:
 He went to home by a car.
 This lock cannot be opened with the key.
 She watered the plants with the help of a water-pipe.
 He broke the wall with a hammer.

Prepositional Verb
A preposition verb is a combination of a verb and a preposition. It is simply a verb followed by a preposition.
Some verbs require specific prepositions to be used after them in a sentence. The combination of such a verb and its
required preposition is called a prepositional verb.
Prepositional Verb = Verb + Preposition
Examples:
 She is waiting for him.
 He is knocking at the door.
 She is listening to music.
 The kids are laughing at a joker.
 We believe in God.
 She is suffering from fever.
 I agree with you.
 I agree to your proposal.
Some commonly used prepositional verbs are as follows:

e.g. Laugh at, knock at, listen to, consist of, beg for, look at, wait for, agree with, agree too, believe in, suffers from,
remind of, worry about, approve of, charge with,
Using correct preposition in a prepositional-verb is very important. A sentence, having a wrong preposition, is
grammatically not correct.
Example:
 He is knocking on the door. (WRONG)
 He is knocking at the door. (CORRECT)
Note. Prepositional verbs must have an object in the sentence. The object comes directly after the preposition of the
prepositional-verb.
Examples:
 She is suffering from fever.
 Don’t laugh at poor.
 She is looking at the black-board.
 The dog is barking at a stranger.

 Conjunction
Conjunction is a word that joins words, phrases, clauses or sentence.
e.g. but, and, yet, or, because, nor, although, since, unless, while, where etc.
Examples:
1. She bought a shirt and a book.
2. You can write your paper with a pen or a pencil.
3. I sent him a letter but he didn’t respond.
4. She laughed and entered into the room.
5. He sings songs because he wants to become a singer.
6. You cannot succeed unless you work sincerely.
7. I saw him while I was driving my car.
8. I went to a market where I saw a joker.
A conjunction can be a single word or a group of words.
Single-word conjunctions: e.g. and, but, yet, because etc

Compound conjunctions: e.g. as long as, as far as, as well as, in order to, even if, so that etc
Examples:
 You live a happy life as long as you think optimistically.
 I will not tell him the secret even if he insists a lot.
 He bought a laptop as well as a bag for it.
 Always speak the truth in order to avoid problems in life.
 He as well as I had gone to Cinema.
 He came here so that you can meet him.
There are three types of conjunctions:

1. Coordinating Conjunctions
2. Subordinating Conjunctions
3. Correlative Conjunctions

 Types of Conjunction
A conjunction is a word that joins words, clauses, phrases or sentences. e.g. but, and, or, nor, yet for, so, although, since,
because, unless, when, where, while, etc.
There are three major types of conjunctions:

1. Coordinating Conjunction
2. Subordinating Conjunction
3. Correlative Conjunction
1. Coordinating Conjunctions
A coordinating conjunction joins words, phrases or clauses having similar grammatical structure.
A coordinating conjunction is also called a coordinator, which are ‘but, and, or, so, nor, yet, for’.
It joins the following:

 Word + Word
 Phrase + Phrase
 Clause + Clause
Read the following example, the underlined parts are the words, phrases and clauses joined by the coordinating
conjunction such as ‘and, or, but’
Examples:
 He bought a book and a pen. (two words)
 I forgot to bring my laptop and camera. (two word)
 You may meet me at my home or at my office. (two phrases)
 He always sits in the library or in the classroom. (two phrases)
 I waited for him but he didn’t come. (two clauses)
 She requested him for help but he didn’t help her. (two clauses)
It can be seen in the above examples, the words, phrases and clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions, in each
sentence, are of similar grammatical nature.
2. Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate (dependent) clause to a main (independent) clause.
A subordinating conjunction is also called subordinator, which are ‘although, because, before, if, how, since, once, till,
until, where, when ,whenever, whether, after, while, no matter how, provided that, as soon as, even if’

 Main Clause + Subordinate Clause
 Subordinate Clause + Main Clause.
A main clause is a group of words having a subject and a verb. A main clause can stand alone as a sentence because it
can give complete meaning. On the other hand, the subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence as it does not
give complete meaning. It depends on main clause to give complete meaning.
The subordinate clause starts with subordinating conjunctions as shown by the underlined words in the following
examples.
The parts of following sentences in red color are main clauses. The part of sentence in blue color are subordinate
clauses.
Examples:
 You will succeed in life provided that you think optimistically.

 We went to zoo where we saw an elephant.
 I will help whenever you need my help.
 All the shops were closed because it was late.
 It makes me happy when you laugh.
 I will not tell him the secret even if he insists a lot.
 Although It is raining, it is too hot today.
 As far as I know, he is a very nice person.
 If you avoid sugary foods, you will lose your weight.
3. Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are paired words. It joins words, phrases or clauses having reciprocal or complementary
relationship.
The common correlative conjunctions are as follows:
 Either ..... or
 Neither .… nor
 Whether.… or
 Both ..... and
 Not only .… but also

Examples:
 He may buy either a laptop or a camera.
 She likes neither tea nor coffee.
 Both the pink and the blue are nice colors.
 She is interested not only in singing but also in games.
 You will find him either in the library or in the classroom.

 Interjection
Interjection is a part of speech in English language.
An interjection is a word that expresses a strong emotion.
It expresses emotion of joy, sorrow, excitement, wonder surprise, pain, sadness, happiness, and so on.
e.g. Oh, Wow, Hurrah, Alas, Ouch, Oops, Aha, Yahoo, Eww, e.t.c.
Examples:
 Hurrah! We won the game! (Emotion of joy)

 Alas! I failed the exam! (Emotion of sorrow)
 Wow! What a beautiful car! (Emotion of surprise)
 Oh! I forgot to bring my purse! (Emotion of sorrow)
 Ouch! It hurts! (Emotion of pain)
 Eww! It tastes so bad! (Emotion of disliking)
 Yahoo! I got a job! (Emotion of joy)
 Huh! I don’t care! (Emotion of scorn)
Interjections are usually specific words such as ‘Hurrah, Wow, Oh, Ouch, Huh’. Apart from these specific words, some
nouns and adjectives are also sometimes used as interjections.
Adjectives used as Interjections

Examples:
 Great! You helped the poor!
 Nice! You played very well!
 Good! We can use it.
 Sweet! It looks so cute.
Nouns used as Interjections

Examples:
 Congratulations! You got a job!
 Hello! How are you?
 Man! Where were you?

 High Frequency Words In English
High frequency words are those words which are repeatedly used in written and spoken English. These are the common
words as highly used in our lessons, essays, letters and newspapers. In order to enhance writing and speaking skills in
English language, these words must be learnt. These words are also asked in various exams.
Assure Align Betrayal Constitute

Assume Ailment Betray Conspire
Avenue Agitate Betray Conspiracy
Autonomy Aggravate Bestow Console
Authentic Aggravate Bereavement Conscious
Aura Agglomerate Benevolent Conscience
Assess Affluent Beneficial Connote
Assert Affirmation Belly Connotation
Assault Affinity Befitting Confront
Assail Adore Banish Conformity
Articulate Adopt Cynical Conform
Arsenal Adolescent Curious Confess
Astonish Adolescence Curb Confer
Arrogance Adhere Culprit Concrete
Aristocracy Adequate Culpable Conclude
Apt Adapt Culminate Concern
Approve Acquisition Crucial Conceive
Apprise Acquire Criticize Concede
Apprehension Acquiescence Critical Comply,
Apprehend Acquiesce Critic Compliance
Appoint Acquaint Criterion Complementary
Appeasement Abuse Crisis Competence
Appealing Abstain Crippled Compel
Apathy Absolutism Cripple Communism
Antithesis Absolution Creed Commodity
Anticipate Absolute Creak Commission
Anomaly Abrupt Crackle Commence
Annul Abolish Counsel Collaboration
Annihilate Bureaucrat Cordial Collaborate
Animus Bureaucracy Cope Cohabit
Ample Brink Coordinate Cognitive
Amicability Breed Conviction Coerce
Ameliorate Breed Convict Clue
Ambiguity Bramble Convention Climax
Ambassador Boast Convene Climate
Amalgamated Blush Convalescence Clamorous
Alternative Blur Contrary Civilian

Ally Blaze Contingency Chronological
Allude Bizarre Contiguous Chore
Allied Bilateral Contempt Certainty
Alleviate Bifurcate Contemplate Certain,
Allegiance Bewitching Contaminate Censorship
Alleged Beware Constraint Cease
Allegation Betterment Constitution Casual
Caliph Despotism Exemplify Egalitarian
Cabinet Designate Executive Fuzzy
Duck (v) Designate Execute Furnish
Dualistic Desert Exclusive Full-fledged
Dual Descent Exception Frustrate
Drastic Deregulation Exalt Frown
Dramatic Derange Exaggerate Fraught
Dote Depute Exacerbate Frailty
Doom Deputation Evidence Frail
Doodle Deprive Evaluation Fragrance
Dominion Deploy Evaluate Forsake
Domineer Deplore Esthetic Forecast
Dominate Deplete Establish Foliage
Doctrine Depict Essence Fluctuate
Divisive Depart Erupt Flock
Divine Demolition Eradicate Flinch
Divergent Demeanour Equity Flick
Ditch Demarcate Equitable Flaunt
Distress Delusion Envisage Flap
Distinction Delinquent Deliberate Enunciate Flabbergast
Distinct Delegation Enumerate Fidelity
Dissemination Delegation Entwine Feudalism
Disrupt Deject Ensure Enfranchisement Fervent
Disrupt Defecate Enforce Ferocious
Dispose Deem Enfeebling Ferment
Dispatch Declare Endure Feeble Federation
Disgust Declaration Encumbered Fascism
Discriminate Deceptive Encroach Fascinating
Discretion Decency Enchant Fascinate
Discrete Decay Empowerment Fancy
Discrepancy Debate Empower False dawn
Discernible Dearth Emphasize Fallacy
Disaster Deadlock Emphasis Faint
Disarmament Dart poke Eminent Fade
Dire Dare Embroidery Factual
Dignity Damsel Embody Facsimile
Diction Damp Embitter Facilitate
Devotion Exploit Embarrass Fabulous
Deviate Exploit Embark Grudge
Determine Explicit Embark Groping

Deteriorate Explicit Emanate Groan
Deter Expel Elusive Grip
Destruction Exotic Eliminate Grant
Destitute Exhaustion Elaborate Grab
Goofy Infuse Lust Emphasis
Glory Infra-structure Lure Eminent
Gasp Influence Lurch Embroidery
Hype Inflict Luminous Embody
Hymn Infirm Loft, lofty Embitter
Humility Inferior Loathsome Embarrass
Humiliate Infer Liverpool Embark
Hue Infant Likely Embark
Hostility Infancy Liberty Emanate
Hostile Inevitable Liberate Elusive
Hitherto Ineffable Liberal Eliminate
Hierarchal Indispensable Lethal Elaborate
Heritage Indigent Lest Egalitarian
Heinous Indigenous Legitimate Fuzzy
Haunt Indigenous Legislation Furnish
Harp Inculcate Lean Full-fledged
Harbinger Incredible Launch Frustrate
Harass Inclusive Lapse Frown
Hang ups Incline Lamentation Fraught
Hackneyed Inclination Labyrinth Frailty
Itch Improvise Mutter Frail
Isolate Impracticable Multifaceted Fragrance
Invigorate Impotence Morbid Forsake
Investigate Impose Mop Forecast
Inventiveness Imply Monopoly Foliage
Intrinsic Implicit Monologue Fluctuate
Intimate Implication Monarchy Flock
Intimacy Implement Moan Flinch
Intervention Intervene Impetus Metaphor Flick
Interpret Imperious Merge Flaunt
Intend Impel Mention Flap
Integrate Impart Impact Mellifluous Flabbergast
Insulate Immense Mediocrity Fidelity
Instinct Imbroglio Mediocre Feudalism
Instigate Imbibe Maxim Enfranchisement Fervent
Insolence Illustration Enforce Ferocious
Insist Illusive Enfeebling Ferment
Insinuate Illusion Endure Feeble Federation
Insight Integration Encumbered Fascism
Insight Juvenile Encroach Fascinating
Innovative Jurisprudence Enchant Fascinate
Initiate Jolt Empowerment Fancy
Inherent Jeopardize Empower False dawn

Ingenuity Knuckle Emphasize Fallacy
Faint Maintain Prevail Puzzle
Fade Maiden Preservative Pursuit
Factual Magnificent Predict Purgation
Facsimile Novelty Precedent Queer
Facilitate Nostalgia Preamble Ruthless
Fabulous Nominate Preach Rut
Grudge Nevertheless Pragmatic Rock
Groping Negotiate Pragmatic Rivalry
Groan Negate Pound (v) Rival
Grip Navigation Potency Righteous
Grant Overwhelming Portray Revolt
Grab Overturn Portentous Revive
Goofy Overlook Pompous Revert
Glory Originate Poise Reveal
Gasp Orient Plight Retrenchment
Hype Ordain Pledge Retain
Hymn Opulent Plea Restraint
Humility Optimistic Plaintive Resort
Humiliate Opt Placid Resonance
Hue Oppression Pivotal Resolve
Hostility Oppress Pivot Resolution
Hostile Oppose Piety Resign
Hitherto Opine Petition Repulse
Hierarchal Operate Petite Repudiation
Heritage Onslaught Pessimistic Repatriate
Heinous Omniscient Pervert Render
Haunt Omnipotent Pervasive Renaissance
Harp Obsessive Perturb Remedy
Harbinger Obscure Personnel Remedy
Harass Obligatory Perquisites Rely
Hang ups Obligation Perquisite Relish
Hackneyed Obligate Perpetuation Relieve
Itch Provoke Perpetuate Relic
Isolate Provision Perish Relentlessly
Invigorate Protest Perceive Rehabilitate
Investigate Promote Penetrate Regime
Inventiveness Prominent Pedigree Reduce
Intrinsic Prolong Pattern Redemption
Intimate Proliferation Patron Rectify
Intimacy Profound Paramount Rectification
Marvelous Profess Pang Reconciliation
Maple Privilege Pamphlet Reconcile
Malfunction Prime Palliative Recommend
Maintenance Prime Pact Rebuke

Rebelliousness Stance Tyranny
Rebellious Stake Turmoil
Rebel Stagnation Trivial
Rear Spurn Tremendous
Realm Sponsor Treacheries
Rational Splendid Transient
Rapport Splash Trance
Raid Sphere Trait
Radical Spatial Tragic
Rabid Spade Toss
Synchronize Sovereignty Tonic
Symposium Sovereign Toil
Swirl Sordid Tiresome
Sustenance Solitude Tilt
Sustainable Solidarity Throb
Sustain Solely Terrify
Suspect Sole Terminate
Surrender Solace Tentative
Suppress Sneer Tenet
Supervision Snap (v) Tempt
Supervise Slogan Tariff
Superior Slightly Tag
Superb Slight Tackle
Suffocate Sleek Utter
Suffer Slaughter Unprecedented
Suburb Slaughter Undue
Subtle Slang Undermine
Substitute Sigh Underlie
Substantial Sibling Uncertainty
Subsidize Shrew Unbiased
Subsidies Sheer Vigorous
Subservience Shamble Vigor
Subordinate Shamanistic Vigilance
Sublime Sentiment Vigil
Subjugate Scold Vest
Sturdy Scenario Verge
Stun Scarcity Venerate
Stringent Scaffold Veil
Strengthen Savior Vanish
Strategy Satire Vague
Stipend Sanctimonious
Stereotype Salute
Statutory Salutary
Statute Salient

‫ونسٹوریغہیکرضورتوہوتآپامہریاسٹیئرپکمینٹ‬،‫رپیپز‬،‫ارگآوکپیسکیھباتکب‬
‫رکںیایںیمہایلیمرکںی۔امہراسیف ک ُبرگوپوجانئرکںیایامہراسیفکبجیپالکیئ‬
‫رکںی۔‬
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1. Understanding the Types and Usage of articles

Indefinite Articles: “a or an”

The indefinite article “a / an” is used for common (non-specific) nouns.

Example: She bought a shirt.

Example: He won the competition.

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4. For a name of some profession. e.g. He wants to become an engineer. He is a doctor.

5. For expression of quantities. e.g. a few, a dozen, a couple, a lot.

6. For expression of numbers. e.g. a million, a thousand, a hundred.

8. Article cannot be used before uncountable nouns. e.g. milk, water.

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1. Before proper nouns which are particular and thought to be particular.

3. For such a noun that has become specific in a phrase or a clause

5. For a phrase which is combination of a common and proper noun,

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Example: I ate an apple.

Here are examples:

1. She is singing a song.

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 She is singing a song.

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He bought a new laptop.

 How are you?

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 Turn off the light. (command)

 Hurrah! We won the race! (emotions of joy)

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 I wrote him a letter but he didn’t reply me.

 I saw a man who was wearing a white shirt.

 It is quite hot today although it is raining.

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 Difference between Phrase and Clause

A clause is a group of words that consists of a subject and a verb.

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Understanding the conceptual difference in clause and phrase

 I waited for him but he didn’t come. (two clause)

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 She is standing on the roof.

Read the following examples:

 She wrote an interesting story. (as a noun: object)

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Noun Phrase = noun + modifiers (or determiners)

 They hired a huge beautiful home. (as noun: object)

A sentence can also consist of more than one noun phrase.

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 The kids were laughing at the joker.

 A kid on the roof is looking at the sky. (modifies noun: kid)

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 He drives a car in a very high speed. (modifies verb: drive)

 She is writing a letter

 I enjoy to drive a car. (As noun)

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 I enjoy listening to the music. (As noun/as object)

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Read the following simple examples of a clause:

The above examples reveal that a clause can be a simple sentence.

 She is crying. (one clause)

 They are laughing at a joker.

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