ME301A: Energy Systems – I

Introduction to Combustion

Lecture 3
Instructor: Santanu De
NL – 302, Northern Lab
Ph: 6478, Email: sde@iitk.ac.in
Office hour: F 5:30 – 6:30 p.m. or by appointment

Course Website: https://piazza.com/iitk.ac.in/firstsemester2018/me301a

 COMBUSTION FUNDAMENTALS

Thermodynamics Chemistry
• Energy Balance • Stoichiometry
• Flame Temperature • Equilibrium
• Kinetics
Combustion • Emissions and Pollutants
Technology

Fluid Mechanics
• Flame Propagation
• Laminar / Turbulent
• Diffusion
• Atomization
• Combustor Aerodynamics
• Rapid oxidation generating heat
• Slow oxidation accompanied by relatively
little heat and no light
• Combustion transforms energy stored in
chemical bonds to heat that can be utilized
in a variety of ways

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 COMBUSTION MODES AND FLAME TYPES
• Combustion can occur in flame mode
– Premixed flames
– Diffusion (non-premixed) flames
• Combustion can occur in non-flame mode

• What is a flame?
– A flame is a self-sustaining propagation of a localized combustion zone at
subsonic velocities
• Flame must be localized: flame occupies only a small portion of
combustible mixture at any one time (in contrast to a reaction which occurs
uniformly throughout a vessel)
• A discrete combustion wave that travels subsonically is called a
deflagration
• Combustion waves may be also travel at supersonic velocities, which are
called detonations
• Fundamental propagation mechanisms are different in deflagrations and
detonations
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 Diagram of flame structure

Burnout
region radiation
(pale blue) (yellow) stoichiometric
contour

flame front
(blue)

air air

Fuel. + Air
fuel
Premixed Non-premixed

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 LAMINAR PREMIXED FLAMES
• Fuel and oxidizer mixed at molecular level prior to occurrence of any significant
chemical reaction

Flame color gives indication of temperature

Not quite red: T~500-550 ºC
Dark red: T~650-750 ºC
Bright red: T~850-950 ºC
Yellowish red: T~1050-1150 ºC
Not quite white: T~1250-1350 ºC
White: T > 1450 ºC
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LAMINAR PREMIXED FLAMES

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 PREMIXED FLAMES
• Fuel and oxidizer mixed at molecular level prior to occurrence of any significant
chemical reaction

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 APPLICATION: ENGINE KNOCK
• In internal combustion engines,
compressed gasoline-air mixtures have a
Flame Mode

tendency to ignite prematurely rather than

burning smoothly
• This creates engine knock, a characteristic
rattling or pinging sound in one or more
cylinders.
• Octane number of gasoline is a measure
of its resistance to knock (or its ability to
wait for a spark to initiate a flame).
• Octane number is determined by
comparing the characteristics of a
Non-Flame Mode

gasoline to isooctane (2,2,4-

(autoignition)

trimethylpentane) and heptane.

– Isooctane is assigned an octane
number of 100. It is a highly
branched compound that burns
smoothly, with little knock.
– Heptane is given an octane rating of
zero. It is an unbranched compound
and knocks badly.

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Structure of a Premixed Flame

Vu = SL Vb
Τu, ρu Τb, ρb
T

[Fuel] [CO2]
[O2] [H2O]

Heat release rate

[radicals]

Preheat Reaction Product

zone Zone Zone

Flame
Visible part of the flame
Diffusion of heat thickness δ
and radicals 9
 DIFFUSION FLAMES
• Reactants are initially separated, and reaction occurs only at interface between fuel and
oxidizer (mixing and reaction taking place)
• Diffusion applies strictly to molecular diffusion of chemical species
• In turbulent diffusion flames, turbulent convection mixes fuel and air macroscopically,
then molecular mixing completes process so that chemical reactions can take place

Orange

Blue

Full range of φ
throughout
reaction zone
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DIFFUSION FLAME: EARTH vs. SPACE

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 REACTING JET FLAME PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION
Flame surface = locus
of points where φ =1

Air Fuel Air Figure from “An Introduction to Combustion”, by Turns 12

 PROPULSION SYSTEMS
Gas Turbine Engine for Propulsion X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle

Gas Turbine Engine for Power Generation

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DIFFUSION FLAMES

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LOOK AGAIN AT BUNSEN BURNER

Secondary diffusion flame

Results when CO and H
products from rich inner flame
encounter ambient air

Fuel-rich pre-mixed
inner flame

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 Premixed Flame

Pure non-premixed Pure premixed

flame flame

Bunsen burner Characteristics of a laminar premixed flame:

(Robert Bunsen, 1855)
 Laminar burning velocity SL
 Ignition delay time τign
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 STRUCTURE OF TURBULENT PREMIXED FLAMES
• Instantaneous superimposed contours of convoluted thin reaction zones
– Obtained using schlieren photography at different instants in time
– Large folds near top of flame
– Position of reaction zone moves rapidly in space, producing a time-averaged view that
gives appearance of a thick reaction zone, which is called turbulent flow brush
– Instantaneous view shows that actual reaction front is relatively thin, as in laminar
premixed flame
• Sometimes referred to as laminar flamelets

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 TURBULENT NON-PREMIXED (DIFFUSION) FLAMES
• Turbulent non-premixed flames are employed in most practical devices as they are easier to control
• With pollutants a major concern, this advantage can become a liability
– Less ability to control pollutant formation or ‘tailor’ flow field

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 EMISSIONS AND POLLUTANTS
• Major pollutants produced by combustion are:
– Unburned and partially burned hydrocarbons, CnHm
– Nitrogen oxides (NOx, NO and NO2)
– Carbon monoxide (CO)
– Sulfur oxides (SOx, SO2 and SO3)
• Subjected to legislated controls (smog, acid rain, global warming, ozone depletion,
health hazards, etc.)

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 EXAMPLES OF EMISSIONS (FIGURES 1.1 – 1.5)

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) and

Unburned hydrocarbons

CO emissions

Note that Clean Air Act of 1970

can be clearly seen in figures
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 EMISSIONS AND POLLUTANTS
• Aircraft deposit combustion products at high altitudes, into upper troposphere and
lower stratosphere (25,000 to 50,000 feet)
• Combustion products deposited there have long residence times, enhancing impact
• NOx suspected to contribute to toxic ozone production
– Goal: NOx emission level to no-ozone-impact levels during cruise

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 DETAILED EXAMPLE: DIFFUSION FLAMES
• Reactants are initially separated, and reaction occurs only at interface between
fuel and oxidizer (mixing and reaction taking place)

• PW4000 Fan Engine Cutaway

• Characteristics
• Fan tip diameter: 94 inches;
Length: 132.7 inches
• Take-off thrust: 52,000 -
62,000 pounds; Bypass ratio:
4.8 to 5.0
• Overall pressure ratio: 27.5 -
32.3; Fan pressure ratio: 1.65 -
1.80;
• Planes powered: Boeing 747-
400, MD-11, Airbus A300-
610, etc.
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 GAS TURBINE COMBUSTOR

Turbine
Air Primary
Zone
φ~0.3
Compressor

φ ~ 1.0
T>2000 K

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 COMBUSTOR ZONES: MORE DETAILS
1. Primary Zone
– Anchors Flame
– Provides sufficient time, mixing, temperature for “complete” oxidation of fuel
– Equivalence ratio near φ=1
2. Intermediate (Secondary Zone)
– Low altitude operation (higher pressures in combustor)
• Recover dissociation losses (primarily CO → CO2) and Soot Oxidation
• Complete burning of anything left over from primary due to poor mixing
– High altitude operation (lower pressures in combustor)
• Low pressure implies slower rate of reaction in primary zone
• Serves basically as an extension of primary zone (increased τres)
– L/D ~ 0.7
3. Dilution Zone (critical to durability of turbine)
– Mix in air to lower temperature to acceptable value for turbine
– Tailor temperature profile (low at root and tip, high in middle)
– Uses about 20-40% of total ingested core mass flow
– L/D ~ 1.5-1.8

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 COMBUSTOR LOCATION

Commercial
PW4000

Combustor

Military
F119-100

• Why is AB so much longer than primary combustor? Afterburner

– Pressure is so low in AB that they need to be very long (and heavy)
– Reaction rate ~ pn (n~2 for mixed gas collision rate)
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 COMBUSTOR REQUIREMENTS
• Complete combustion (ηb → 1)
• Low pressure loss (πb → 1)
• Reliable and stable ignition
• Wide stability limits
– Flame stays lit over wide range of p, u, F/A ratio)
• Freedom from combustion instabilities
• Tailored temperature distribution into turbine with no hot spots
• Low emissions
– Smoke (soot), unburnt hydrocarbons, NOx, SOx, CO
• Effective cooling of surfaces
• Low stressed structures, durability
• Small size and weight
• Design for minimum cost and maintenance

• Future – multiple fuel capability (?)

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