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DCS-02
Block
Data Communication
and Networking
1
INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION AND
NETWORKING
Unit – 1
Unit – 2
Unit – 3
DIPLOMA IN CYBER
SECURITY
Course Writer:
Chandrakant Mallick
Consultant (Academic)
School of Computer and Information Science
Odisha State Open University
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Data & Information
1.3 Data Communication
1.3.1 Characteristics of Data Communication
1.3.2 Components of Data Communication
1.4 Data Representation
1.4.1 Types of data
1.4.2 Analog and digital data
1.5. Data Transmission Modes
1.6 Computer Networks
1.6.1 Need of Computer Networks
1.6.2 Components of computer networks
1.6.3 Network performance criteria
1.7 Network topology
1.7.1 Types of network topology
1.7.2 Comparison of network topologies
1.8 Categories of a networks
1.8.1 Local Area Networks
1.8.2 Wide Area Networks
1.8.3 Metropolitan Area Networks
1.8.4 Performance comparisons of LAN and WAN
1.9 Protocols
1.9.1 Elements of a Protocol
1.10 Standards in networking
1.10.1 Concept of Standard
1.10.2 Standard Organizations in field of
Networking
1.11 Key terms & Concepts
1.12 Self-Assessment Questions
1.13 References and Suggested Readings
1.1 Objectives
After completion of the unit, you should be able to:
Data refers to a collection of raw facts and figures that can be stored and
transmitted. Data can become information after being processed.
Information enables us to take decisions. In the context of data
communication we refer data that is transmitted in the form of message.
The message can be in the form of text, images, audio, video etc. These
data are encoded in to electromagnetic signals for transmission over a
physical medium.
Two devices are said to be communicating with each other if they are
able to send and receive data. Each device can act as a sender as well as a
receiver. The data flow between the two devices can be in simplex, half
duplex and full duplex modes.
1. Simplex
In Simplex, communication is unidirectional. Only one of the devices sends
the data and the other one only receives the data. Example: A CPU sends
data while a monitor only receives data.
2. Half Duplex
In half duplex both the stations can transmit as well as receive but not at the
same time.
When one device is sending other can only receive and vice-versa (as shown
in figure above.)
Example: A walkie-talkie.
Reliability
Security
Network Securityissues include protecting data from unauthorized
access, virus and different types of attacks to access network
resources.The network protocols provide security mechanisms to ensure
protection of data from unauthorized access. A good network is protected
from virus by specifically designed hardware and software.
Bus Topology
Advantages
Initial set-up of a linear bus is easy.
Easy to connect a computer or peripheral devices.
More reliable from hardware point of view.
Easy to extend since new nodes can be easily connected as the
workload grows.
Star Topology
Disadvantages
Requires more cable than the bus topology.
If the central controller fails the entire network fails.
Limited number of nodes can be installed in the network.
More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost
of the hubs or concentrator.
Ring Topology
4. Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, each computer is connected to every other
computer by dedicated point-to point link. A fully connected
mesh network has n× (n-1) cable links to connect n devices. So
each node or device must have (n-1) connection points.
Advantages
Use of dedicated link eliminates the traffic problem
Easy to detect fault and isolate fault
Mesh Topology
Disadvantages
This configuration provides redundant paths throughout the
network
These networks are expensive to install because they use a lot of
cabling.
Number of input/output port is too high.
1.7.3 Comparison of network topologies
1.9 Protocols
A Protocol is defined as a set of rules that governs data communications.
It is one of the important components of a data communications system.
A network protocol defines what is to be communicated, how it is to be
communicated and when it is to be communicated. It include
mechanisms for devices to identify and make connections with each
other as well as the rules that specify how data are packaged in to
messages sent and received.
When the sender sends a message it may consist of text, number, images,
etc. which are converted into bits and grouped into blocks to be
transmitted and often certain additional information called control
information is also added to help the receiver interpret the data.
1.9.1 Elements of a Protocol
There are three key elements of a protocol:
1. Syntax
It means the structure or format of the data.
It is the arrangement of data in a particular order.
2. Semantics
It tells the meaning of each section of bits and indicates the interpretation
of each section.
It also tells what action/decision is to be taken based on the
interpretation.
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Network Model
2.2.1 Layered Architecture of Network Models
2.3 OSI Reference Model
2.3.1 Seven Layers of OSI Model
2.3.2 Communication & Interfaces
2.3.3 Encapsulation of Data
2.3.4 Functions and Responsibilities of seven Layers
2.3.5 Summary of layer functions
2.4 TCP/IP Model
2.4.1 Functions of each layer of TCP/IP
2.5 Addressing in TCP/IP
2.6 Key terms & Concepts
2.7 Self-Assessment Questions
2.8 References and Suggested Readings
2.1 Objectives
Analogies All
Peculiar people
Seriously Seem
Take To
Not Need
Do Data
Please Processing
1. Physical Layer
The physical layer coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream
over a physical medium. It also defines the procedures and functions that
physical devices and interfaces have to perform for transmission occur. The
physical layer is concerned with the following functions:
Physical characteristics of interfaces and media: The physical layer
defines the characteristics of the interface between devices and the
transmission media, including its type.
Data rate: The physical layer defines the transmission rate, the number
of bits sent each
Representation of the bits: The physical layer data consist of a stream
of bits without any interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be
encoded into signals –electrical or optical-. The physical layer defines
the type of encoding.
Flow Control: If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the
receiver is less than the rate produced in the sender, the data link
layer imposes a flow control mechanism to prevent overwhelming the
receiver.
Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical
layer by adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost
frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailer to the end
of the frame.
Access Control. When two or more devices are connected to the
same link, data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which
device has control over the link at any time.
The main responsibility of the data link layer is hop
to hop transmission of frames.
4. Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the
entire message. The network layer oversees host-to-destination delivery
of individual packets; it does not recognize any relationship between
those packets.
7. Application Layer
The application layer enables the user to access the network services. It
provides user interfaces and support for network services such as:
Electronic email
Remote login using TELNET
File transfer through FTP
Web services through WWW
Directory services and so on.
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Transmission Media
3.3 Categories of Transmission Media
3.4 Guided Transmission Media
3.4.1 Twisted Pair Cable
3.4.1.1 Unshielded & Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
3.4.2 Co-axial Cable
3.4.3 Fiber Optic Cable
3.5 Comparison between Twisted Pair Cable, Co-Axial Cable and
Optical Fiber
3.6 Unguided (wireless) Transmission Medium
3.6.1 Propagation Method of wireless signals
3.6.2 Types of wireless transmission
3.6.2.1 Radio waves
3.6.2.2 Microwaves
3.6.2.3 Infrared
3.7 Comparison between Guided and Unguided Media
3.8 Network Devices
3.8.1 Hub
3.8.2 Switch
3.8.3 Bridge
3.8.4 Repeater
3.8.5 Router
3.8.6 Modem
3.8.7 Gateway
3.9 Key terms & Concepts
3.10 Self-Assessment Questions
3.11 References and Suggested Readings
3.1 Objective
After learning this unit you will be able to:
Define a Transmission Medium
Know the structure and features, merits and demerits of different types
of guided and unguided transmission media.
Identify different types of cables and their connectivity
Different ways in which wireless signals are transmitted.
Identify different types of network devices and their usages
Twisted-pair cable
Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally affected by external
noise. The unwanted signals are mostly canceled out. The number of twists
per unit of length has some effect on the quality of the cable.
3.4.1.1 Unshielded vs Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is Unshielded
Twisted-Pair cable.
Shielded twisted-pair cable has a metal shield or braided-mesh covering that
encases each pair of insulated conductors. The figure shows the difference
between Unshielded and Shielded Twisted-Pair.
Applications
1. Used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels.
2. The local loop –the line connecting the subscriber to the central
telephone office- commonly consists of UTP cables.
3. DSL lines are also UTP cables.
4. LANs such as, 10Base-T and 100Base-T use UTP cables.
Coaxial Cable
The term coaxial comes from the inner conductor and the outer shield, sharing
the same geometric axis.
3.4.2.1 Coaxial Cable Connectors
Coaxial connectors are needed to connect coaxial cable to devices. The most
common type of connector used today is the Bayone-Neil-Concelman, in
short, BNC connector.
The three popular types of connectors are: the BNC connector, the BNC T
connector, and the BNC terminator. The BNC connector is used to connect the
end of the cable to a device, such as a TV set.
Applications
1. Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks, and later
with digital telephone networks.
2. Cable TV networks use coaxial cables (RG-59) at the network
boundaries. However, coaxial cable has largely been replaced today
with fiber-optic cable due to its higher attenuation.
3. Traditional Ethernet LAN
– 10Base-2, or thin Ethernet, uses RG-58 coax cable with BNC
connectors.
– 10Base-5, or thick Ethernet, uses RG-11 coax cable with specialized
connectors.
Advantages
Higher bandwidth (400 to 600Mhz) can carry up to 10,800 voice
conversations
Can be tapped easily (pros and cons)
Much less susceptible to interference than twisted pair
Disadvantages
High attenuation rate makes it expensive over long distance
3.4.3 Fiber optic Cable
Instead of using electric signals to send data, fiber optics cable uses light. It
works on the principle of total internal reflection.
The cables are made of glass fibers, each thinner than a human hair, that can
guide light beams for very long distances. An optical fiber consists of an
extremely thin cylinder of glass, called the core, surrounded by another layer
of glass, known as the cladding. The fibers are sometimes made of plastic.
The Subscriber Channel Connector is used for cable TV. It uses a push /pulls
locking system. The Straight – Tip Connector is used for connecting cable to
networking devices. It uses a bayonet locking system and is more reliable than
Subscriber Channel Connector. MT – RJ is a connector that is the same size as
RJ45.
Application
1. Often used as backbone networks (like SONET) because its wide
bandwidth is cost-effective.
2. Some cable TV companies use a hybrid network: combination of
optical-fiber and coaxial cable.
3. LAN such as 100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet) and 1000Base-X.
Advantages
High bandwidth capacity (many gigabits per second).
Longer distances between devices (from 2 to over 60 kilometers).
Immunity to electromagnetic interferences
It can also send and receive very high frequencies at one time.
Less signal attenuation
Light weight
Greater immunity to tapping.
Unguided media transport data without using a physical conductor. This type
of communication is often referred to as wireless communication. It uses
wireless electromagnetic signals to send data. There are three types of
Unguided Media
1. Radio waves
2. Micro waves
3. Infrared
Sky-wave propagation
Line-of-sight propagation
Guided media and unguided media differ from each other in the following
ways.
GuidedMedia Unguided Media
The signal energy is The signal energy
contained and guided propagates in the form
within a solid medium of unguided
electromagnetic waves.
The examples of wired Microwaves, radio
media are twisted- pair waves and infrared
wires, coaxial cable, lights are the examples
optical fiber cables. of wireless media.
Used for point to point Used for radio
communication broadcasting in all
direction
Wired media lead to Wireless media leads to
discrete network continuous network
topology topology
Additional transmission It is not possible
capacity can be procured procure additional
by adding more wire capacity.
Installation is costly and Installation needs less
time consuming time and money
Attenuation depends Attenuation is
exponentially on the proportional to square
distance. of the distance.
Local Area Networks are connected to one another using connecting devices.
Connecting devices can operate in different layers of the Internet model.
Connecting devices are divided into five different categories based on the
layer in which they operate in a network. The five categories contain devices
which can be categorized as:
1. Those which operate below the Physical Layer such as a Passive Hub.
2. Those which operate at the Physical Layer like a Repeater or an Active
Hub.
3. Those which operate at the Physical and Data Link Layers such as a
Bridge or a two-layer switch
Hub
There are two types of hubs, namely, passive hubs and active hubs. Passive
hubs act just as a connector. It connects the wires coming from different
branches. In a star-topology Ethernet LAN, a passive hub is just a point where
the signals coming from different stations collide. The passive hub is the
collision point. This type of a hub is part of the transmission media. Its
location in the Internet model is below the physical layer.
Active hubs, also amplify the signal before transmitting it to the other
computers. Active hub is actually a Multiport Repeater which operates in the
physical layer of the Internet model. It is normally used to create connections
between stations in a physical star topology.
3.8.2 Switches
A switch is a network device that selects a path or circuit for sending a signal
between source and destination. It determines what adjacent network point,
the data should be sent to.
Switch
Odisha State Open University Page 52
There are two types of switch, namely, two- layer switch and three- layer
switch. The two-layer switch performs at the physical and data link layers.
Two-layer switch is a bridge with many ports to connect few LANs together
and has better performance. A three-layer switch is used at the network layer
as a router. It routes packets based on their logical addresses.
In smaller networks, switch is not required. It is required in large internet
works, where there can be many possible ways of transmitting a message from
a sender to destination. The purpose of the switch is to select the best possible
path so as to manage the bandwidth on a large network.
3.8.3 Bridges
A bridge operates in both the physical and the data link layer. As a physical
layer device, it regenerates the signal it receives. As a data link layer device,
the bridge can check the physical addresses, i.e. MAC addresses of source and
destination contained in the frame. MAC stands for Media Access Control.