0000 Unit II 2016-17 Sent CVC PDF

Design of Machine Elements I: Unit II 1
Unit II:
Design for Fatigue Strength:
Introduction
Stress concentration – Definition and Explanation
S-N Diagram
Low cycle Fatigue
High cycle Fatigue
Endurance limit
Modifying factors, size effect, surface effect, stress concentration effects
Fluctuating stress
Fatigue strength under fluctuating stresses
Goodman and Soderberg relationship
Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

Design for Fatigue Strength: Introduction:

Static loads are rarely observed in machines. But the fatigue failure refers to the sudden
separation of a part into two or more pieces, as a result of fluctuating loads,, at stresses much
lower than the yield stress of ductile and ultimate stress of brittle materials.
σu
Mild steel
σe
σu
Cast Fig. 1 Stress and strain
curve for engineering
Stress σu materials
Concret
Approximate point of fatigue failure
Strain
The failure takes place by the initiation and propagation of crack which is difficult to detect, and
therefore failure may occur with little or no warning. Even in the ductile materials, the failure
occurs without plastic deformations.
Fig. 2 Initiation and propagation of crack

Few examples off parts subjected to cyclic of fluctuating loads are Cam shaft, shaft carrying
gears, parts of reciprocating machines, sprockets, pulleys, gear teeth etc.,
Fig. 3 Cam shaft, shaft carrying gears
Department of Mechanical Engineering,

ngineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara
Thus understanding the phenomenon of fatigue failure is a must for design of parts to have a
better dependability, Life and Performance.
Stress Concentration
Three fundamental equations are used in design of machine elements

, = ; , = ℎ , =

These equations are called ‘Elementary Equations’ and are based on a number of assumptions.
One of the assumptions is that there are no discontinuities in the cross-section of the component.
However, in practice, discontinuities and abrupt changes in cross-section are unavoidable due
to certain features of the component such as oil holes and grooves, keyways and splines, screw
threads and shoulder. Therefore, it cannot be assumed that the cross-section of the machine
component is uniform. Under these circumstances, the ‘elementary equations’ do not give correct
results.
σo σo
σmax
Fig. 4 stress Concentration region

Stress concentration is defined as “the localization of high stresses due to the irregularities
present in the component and abrupt changes of the cross-sections”. In order to consider the effect
of stress concentration and find out localized stresses, a factor called ‘stress concentration factor’
is considered. It is defined by Kt and mathematically it is defined as,
ℎℎ ! "
=
# $ % %" $ " & ! $$$ −
()* ()*
= =
+ ,
-ℎ , + , ℎ $ %" $ " &
()* ()* . ℎ .

Causes of stress concentration:

1. Variation in Properties of materials:
a. Internal cracks and flaws like blow holes
b. Cavities in welds
c. Air holes in steel components and
d. Non-metallic or foreign inclusions
These variations act as discontinuities in the component and cause stress concentration.
2. Load Application: Machine components subjected to forces act either at a point or over
a small area of the component. Since, the area is small; the pressure at these points is
excessive and results in stress concentration. Examples are as follows: Contact between
a. The meshing teeth of the driving and the driven gear
b. The cam and the follower
c. The balls and the races of the rings
d. The rail and the wheel and
e. The crane hook and the chain
3. Abrupt changes in section: In order to mount gears, sprockets, pulleys and ball bearings
on transmission shaft, steps are cut on the shaft and shoulders are provided from
assemble point of view. This leads to change of cross-section of the shaft and results in
stress concentration.
4. Discontinuities in the component: Certain features like oil holes, oil grooves, keyways
and splines, and screw threads result in discontinuities in the cross-section of the
components give raise to stress concentration.
5. Machining Scratches: Machining scratches, stamp mark or inspection mark are surface
irregularities, which cause stress concentration.
Stress Concentration Charts:
[DDHB Fig. (2.12), (2.13), (2.14), (2.15), (2.16), (2.17), (2.18), (2.20), (2.22), (2.23), (2.25),
(2.27) and (2.28)]
The stress concentration charts are based on either the photo-elastic analysis of the epoxy models
using circular polariscope or theoretical or finite element analysis of mathematical model. That is
why this factor is called theoretical stress concentration factor (Kt).

The model is made of different material than the actual material of the component. The ductility
or brittleness of the material has pronounced effect on its response to stress concentration.
Therefore, there is a difference between stress concentration factor indicated by theoretical
means and the actual stress concentration in the component. The designer should consider the
following guidelines while choosing stress concentration factor:
a. Ductile material under static load:
Under static load, ductile materials are not affected by stress concentration to the extent that
photo-elastic analysis might indicate. When the stress in the vicinity of the discontinuity reaches
the yield point, there is plastic deformation, resulting in a redistribution of stresses. This plastic
deformation of yielding is local and restricted to very small area in the component. There is
perceptible damage to the part as a whole. Therefore, it is common practice to ignore the
theoretical stress concentration factor components that are made of ductile materials and
subjected to static load.
b. Ductile material under Fluctuating load:
However, when the load is fluctuating in nature, the stress at the discontinuities may exceed the
endurance limit and in that case, the component may fail by fatigue. Therefore, endurance limit
of the components made of ductile material is greatly reduced due to stress concentration. This
accounts for the use of SCF for ductile component.
However, some materials are more sensitive than others to stress raising notches under
fluctuating load.
To account for this effect, a parameter called notch sensitivity factor is found for each material.
The notch sensitivity factor is used to modify theoretical SCF.
c. Brittle Materials:
The effect of stress concentration is more severe in case of brittle materials, due to their inability
to plastic deformation.
Brittle materials do not yield locally and there is no re-adjustment of stresses at the
discontinuities. Once the local stress at the discontinuity reached the fracture strength, a crack is
formed. This reduces the material available to resist external load and also increases the stress
concentration at the crack. The component then quickly fails.
Therefore, SCF are used for components made of brittle materials subjected to both static load as
well as fluctuating load.

Reduction of Stress Concentration:

Although, it is not possible to completely eliminate the effect of stress concentration, there are
methods to reduce stress concentration. This is achieved by providing specific geometric shape
to the component.
Fig. 5 Force Flow Analogy

(a) Force flow around sharp corner and (b) Force flow around rounded corner
In order to know what happens at the abrupt change of cross-section or at the discontinuity and
reduce the stress concentration, understanding of flow analogy is useful.
There is similarity between velocity distribution in fluid flow in a channel and the stress
distribution in an axially loaded plate.
The equation of flow potential in fluid mechanics and stress potential is solid mechanics are
same. Therefore, it is perfectly logical to use fluid analogy to understand the phenomenon of
stress concentration.
Methods to achieve reduction of stress concentration
I. Additional Notches and Holes in Tension Member:
A flat plate with a V-notch subjected to tensile force is shown in Figure 6.
It is observed that a single notch results in a high degree of stress concentration. The severity of
tress concentration is reduced by three methods:
a. Use of multiple notches
b. Drilling additional holes and
c. Removal of undesired material

Fig. 6 Reduction of stress concentration due to V-notch

(a). Original notch, (b). Multiple notches, (c). Drilled holes and (d). Undesirable material
The method of removing undesired material is called the principle of minimization of the
material. In these three methods, the sharp bending of force flow line is reduced and it follows a
smooth curve.
II. Fillet Radius, undercutting and notch for member in Bending:
A bar of circular cross-section with a shoulder and subjected to bending moment is shown in
Figure 7 (a). Ball bearings, gears or pulleys are seated against this shoulder. The shoulder creates
a change in cross-section of the shaft, which results in stress concentration.
Fig. 7 Reduction of stress concentration due to abrupt change in cross-section at the shoulder
(a). Original component, (b). Fillet radius, (c). Under cutting and (d). Addition of notch
There are three methods to reduce the stress concentration at the base of the shoulder, viz.,
a. Providing a fillet radius,
b. Providing under cutting at the base and
c. Creating an additional notch on the circumference of the shaft as shown above.

III. Drilling additional holes for shaft:

A power transmission shaft with a keyway is shown in Figure 8(a). The keyway is a
discontinuity and results in stress concentration at the corner of the keyway and reduces torsional
shear strength of the shaft. In such cases, the stress concentration can be reduced by two
methods, viz.,
a. Providing symmetrical drilled holes on either side of the key way as shown in Fig. 8(b) and
b. Providing a small fillet at points n1 and n2 inside the keyway as shown in Fig. 8(c).
Fig. 8 Reduction of stress concentration in shaft with keyway

IV. Reduction of stress concentration in Threaded Members:
A threaded component is shown in Fig. 9 (a). It is observed that the force flow line is bent as it
passes from the shank portion to threaded portion of the component, which results in stress
concentration in the transition plane. A small undercut is taken between the shank and the
threaded portion of the component and a fillet radius is provided for this undercut, as shown in
Fig. 9 (b). This reduces bending of the force flow line and consequently reduces stress
concentration.
Fig. 9 Reduction of stress concentration in threaded components

An ideal method to reduce the stress concentration is shown in Figure (c), where the shank
diameter is reduced and made equal to the core diameter of the thread. In this case, the force flow
line is almost straight and there is no stress concentration.
Many discontinuities found in machine components cannot be avoided. Therefore, stress
concentration cannot be totally eliminated. However, it can be greatly reduced by selecting the
correct geometric shape by the designer. Many difficult problems involving stress concentration
have been solved by removing material instead of adding it. Additional notches, holes and
undercuts are the simple means to achieve significant reduction in stress concentration.
The nominal stresses in the basic fundamental equations are
Tensile stress:
41
+ =
2 3
Bending stress:
32
+ = = − ! ℎ!
2 6
Torsional shear stress:

16
+ = = − ! ℎ!
2 6

Problem 1:
Determine the maximum stress induced in a plate of breadth 60 mm, length 80 mm and thickness
10 mm, with a hole of 12 mm diameter at the centre of the plate is subjected to a tensile load of
12 kN as shown in Figure 10. Consider the stress concentration factor (SCF) into account.
Solution:
φ 12
SCF, Kt
12 kN 12 kN
60
2.55
10
80 0.2 a/B
Fig. 10 (a) Fig. 10 (b)
Fig. 10(a) shows the plate with dimension and Fig. 10(b) indicates the SCF graph for the given
problem. These two Figures are drawn as a part of the solutions
Tensile load, F = 12 kN = 12 x 103 N

Breadth of the plate, B = 60 mm
Thickness of the plate, t = 10 mm
Diameter of the hole, a = 12 mm
Effective breadth of the plate, b= (B - a) = 48 mm
Referring to DDHB, Fig. 2.12 (Page No. 36), we have

12
= = 0.2 = % = 48 × 10 = 480 $$3
60
And
Theoretical Stress concentration factor, SCF, Kt = 2.55
Nominal stress induced in the minimum area of cross-section is given by,
12 × 106
< = = = 25 #/$$3
480
Therefore, the maximum stress induced in the plate,
?@AB = < × = 25 × 2.55 = CD. EF G/@@H

Problem 2:
10 mm, with a hole of 10 mm diameter at the centre of the plate is subjected to a transverse
bending moment of 25 Nm as shown in Figure 11. Consider the stress concentration factor (SCF)
into account.
Solution:
φ 10 a/t = 1
SCF, Kt
60
2
80 0.167 a/B
10
25 Nm 25 Nm
Fig. 11 (a) Fig. 11 (b)
Bending Moment, M = 25 N m = 25 x 103 N mm


10 10 % 3 50 × 103
= = 1, = = 0.167 = = = 833.33 $$6
10 60 6 6
Theoretical Stress concentration factor, SCF, Kt = 2
Nominal bending stress induced in the minimum area of cross-section is given by,
25 × 106
< = = = 30 #/$$3
833.33
Therefore, the maximum bending stress induced in the plate,
?@AB = < × = 25 × 2 = CJ G/@@H

Problem 3: (Ignore this problem- Wrong problem statement)

bending moment of 25 Nm as shown in Figure 12. Consider the stress concentration factor
(SCF) into account.
Solution:
10
φ 10 a/t = 1
SCF, Kt
60
2
25 Nm 25 Nm
80 0.167 a/B
Fig. 12 (a) Fig. 12 (b)
Bending Moment, M = 25 N m = 25 x 103 N mm

10 10 % 3 10 × 503
= = 1, = = 0.167 = = = 4,166.67 $$6
10 60 6 6
Theoretical Stress concentration factor, SCF, Kt = 2
Nominal bending stress induced in the minimum area of cross-section is given by,
25 × 106
< = = = 6 #/$$3
4166.67
Therefore, the maximum bending stress induced in the plate,
?@AB = < × = 6 × 2 = KH G/@@H

Problem 4:
10 mm, with a notch of 10 mm radius is subjected to a tensile load of 12 kN as shown in Figure
13. Consider the stress concentration factor (SCF) into account.
Solution:
r10
B/b = 1.5
12 kN SCF, Kt
12 kN
60
r10 2.15
10
80 0.25 r/b
Fig. 13 (a) Fig. 13 (b)

Tensile load, F = 12 kN = 12 x 103 N

radius of the notch, r = 10 mm
Effective breadth of the plate, b= (B - 2r) = 40 mm
60 10
= = 1.5, = = 0.25 = % = 10 × 40 = 400 $$3
% 40 % 40
And
12 × 106
< = = = 30 #/$$3
400
?@AB = < × = 30 × 2.15 = CL. F G/@@H

Problem 5:
10 mm, with a notch of 10 mm radius is subjected to a transverse bending moment of 25 Nm as
shown in Figure 14. Consider the stress concentration factor (SCF) into account.
Solution:
r10
B/b = 1.5
SCF, Kt
60
r10 1.55
80 0.25 r/b
10
Fig. 14 (b)
25 Nm 25 Nm
Fig. 14 (a)
Bending Moment, M = 25 Nm = 25 x 103 N-mm
60 10 % 3 40 × 103
= = 1.5, = = 0.25 = = = 666.67 $$6
% 40 % 40 6 6
And
25 × 106
< = = = 37.5 #/$$3
666.67
?@AB = < × = 37.5 × 1.55 = FM. KH G/@@H

Problem 6: (Ignore this problem- Wrong problem statement)

bending moment of 25 Nm as shown in Figure 15. Consider the stress concentration factor (SCF)
into account.
Solution:
r10 10
B/b = 1.5
SCF, Kt
60
r10 1.55
25 Nm 25 Nm
80 0.25 r/b
Fig. 15 (b)
Fig. 15 (a)
Bending Moment, M = 25 Nm = 25 x 103 N-mm
60 10 % 3 10 × 403
= = 1.5, = = 0.25 = = = 2666.67 $$6
% 40 % 40 6 6
And
25 × 106
< = = = 9.38 #/$$3
2666.67
?@AB = < × = 9.38 × 1.55 = KL. FL G/@@H

Problem 7:
Find the value of maximum stress induced in the fillet as shown in Figure 16, if the stress
concentration factor for the filleted flat bar is considered and having a B/b ratio of 1.2. Also
determine the factor of safety if the flat bar is made of steel having a yield stress of 640 N/mm2.
The thickness of the bar is 25 mm.
r10
120 kN
25
Fig. 16 (a) Fig. 16 (b)
Axial tensile Load, F = 120 kN = 120 x 103 N
ratio, B/b = 1.2 radius of the fillet, r = 10 mm
Thickness of the plate, t = 25 mm Yield stress, σe = 640 N/mm2

-O. , P − %Q = 2 = 2 × 10 = 20 $$ P1Q

= 1.2, ∴ = 1.2% P2Q
%
∴ S&. P1Q, % $ , P1.2% − %Q = 0.2% = 20 $$ TU % = 100 $$
10
∴ = = 0.1; = % = 25 × 100 = 2,500 $$3
% 100
120 × 106
< = = = 48 #/$$3
2,500
∴ ?@AB = < × = 48 × 1.55 = MC. L G/@@H
?Y CLJ
∴ VWX = = = E. LK
?@AB MC. L

Problem 8:
A plate of rectangular cross section is subjected to an axial pull of 100 kN, as shown in Figure
17. Assuming the stress in the plate is limited to 200 MPa, determine the thickness of the plate.
A B r20 r10
C
100 kN 160 φ20

100 kN
A B C
Fig. 17 (a)
Axial tensile load, F = 100 kN = 100 x 103 N
Thickness of the plate, t = ?
radius of the fillet, r = 10 mm SCF, Kt
Consider the section A-A: 2.7
20
= = 0.125, = P − Q = P160 − 20Q = P140Q $$3
160
0.125 a/B
Theoretical Stress concentration factor, SCF, Kt = 2.7 Fig. 17 (b)
100 × 106 714.29
< = = = #/$$3
140
714.29 1928.58
()* = < × = × 2.7 = #⁄$$3 P1Q

Equate the Eqn. (1) with limiting value of stress in the plate,
1928.58
= 200 TU ∴ [ = \. CLH\ @@


Consider the section B-B:

S!! % ℎ ! ℎ ], % = P − 2 Q = P160 − 2 × 20Q = 120$$
20 160
= = 0.167, = = 1.33 = % = P120Q $$3
% 120 % 120
100 × 106 833.33
< = = = #/$$3
120 SCF, Kt B/b=1.33
Therefore, the maximum stress induced in the plate, 2.2
833.33 1833.33
()* = < × = × 2.2 = #⁄$$3 P1Q

0.167 r/b
1833.33
= 200 TU ∴ [ = \. KCE @@

Consider the section C-C:

S!! % ℎ ! ℎ ], % = P − 2 Q = P160 − 2 × 10Q = 140$$
20 160
= = 0.143, = = 1.14 = % = P140Q $$3
% 140 % 140
100 × 106 714.29
< = = = #/$$3
140 SCF, Kt B/b=1.14
Therefore, the maximum stress induced in the plate, 1.6

714.29 1142.86
()* = < × = × 1.6 = #⁄$$3 P1Q

0.143 r/b
1142.86
= 200 TU ∴ [ = F. EK @@

(Adopt the higher value – rounding off to higher integer value)

Problem 9:
A grooved shaft shown in Figure 18 is to transmit 5 kW at 120 rpm. Determine the diameter of
the shaft at the groove if it is made of C15 steel and take FOS 2.
T T
D = 1.4d d
r = 0.1d
1 = 5 O^
Solution: Fig. 18
= 120 ]$
T = 2
3 = 235 #/$$3
From DDHB, for C15 steel Appendix I, Page No. 463, we get
/ = 0.1/ = 0.1 _/ = 1.4/ = 1.4

Referring to DDHB, Fig. 2.22, we have,
O = 1.55 P]] `$"Q
9.55 × 10a P1Q 9.55 × 10a P5Q

From DDHB, Eqn.3.3 (a), Page No. 50, we have,
= =
120
= 3, 97,916.67 # − $$
σ)bb+c)bd = σd /T = 235/2

Allowable stress,
∴ σ)bb+c)bd = 117.5 #/$$3
σ)bb+c)bd 117.5
Allowable shear stress,
τ)bb+c)bd = =
2 2
∴ τ)bb+c)bd = 58.75#/$$3
τ)bb+c)bd = τ()*
But,
58.75 = τ<+e()b × O
OR
no.pn
τ<+e()b = fgghifjgk = q.nn
τ
l m
∴ τ<+e()b = 39.16 #/$$3
Now, using the relation,
16
τ<+e()b =
2 6
16 × 3, 97,916.67
39.16 =
2 6
∴ = 37.26 $$ " 38 $$

Problem 10:
A stepped shaft shown in Figure 19 is subjected to a transverse load. The shaft is made of FeE
400 steel. Determine the diameter ‘d’ of the shaft based on the factor of safety 2. Consider the
stress concentration into account.
F = 8 kN
d/5
A B
d 2d d
RA d/10 RB
250 100 125 25
Fig. 19 [Note: Not to scale]

Solution:
From DDHB, Table 1.7, for FeE 400 Wrought steel we have,
d = 400 #/$$3
Taking moment about point A:
Ur × 500 = P8 × 106 Q × 350
∴ Ur = 5,600 #
%, Us + Ur = 8,000 #
∴ Us = 2,400 #
Consider the right fillet:
Bending moment at right fillet,
r = Ur × 25 = 5,600 × 25
∴ r = 140 × 106 # − $$ SCF, Kt D/d=2
/5 _ 2 2 6
= = 0.2; = = 2 =
1.44
32
From DDHB, Fig. 2.25,
! , = 1.44 0.2 r/d
uv qx, ×q,y ×63
Nominal bending stress, < = =
w z{y
Maximum bending stress at the right fillet,
qx, ×q,y ×63
()*.r = < × = | × 1.44} #/$$3 P1Q
z{y
Maximum allowable stress,
= 200 #⁄$$3
~ x,,
)bb+c)bd =
k
= P2Q
3
Equating Eqn. (1) and (2), we get,

140 × 106 × 32
× 1.44 = 200
2 6
∴ = HK. ED @@
Consider the left fillet:
Bending moment at right fillet,
s = Us × 25 = 2,400 × 250
∴ r = 600 × 106 # − $$
SCF, Kt D/d=2
/10 _ 2 2 6
= = 0.1; = = 2 =
1.74
32
! , = 1.74 0.1 r/d
uv a,, ×q,y ×63
Nominal bending stress, < = =
w z{y
Maximum bending stress at the right fillet,
a,, ×q,y ×63
()*.r = < × = | × 1.74} #/$$3 P3Q
z{y
Maximum allowable stress,
= 200 #⁄$$3
~ x,,
)bb+c)bd =
k
= 3
P4Q
Equating Eqn. (3) and (4), we get,
600 × 106 × 32
× 1.74 = 200
2 6
∴ = DE. CJ @@
Choose the higher value and round it off to the nearest higher side integer
∴ = DM @@

Problem 11:
A flat plate subjected to a tensile force of 5 kN is shown in Figure 20. The plate material is grey
cast iron FG 200 and the factor of safety is 2.5. Determine the thickness of the plate.
Fig. 20
Solutions:
The stresses are critical at two sections – the fillet section and section across the hole. From
DDHB, Table I.3, page No. 459
For FG200 we have, σu = 200 N/mm2
At the fillet section:
5000
From DDHB, Figure 2.16 we have,
+ = =
% 30
45 5
= = 1.5 = = 0.167
% 30 % 30
∴ = 1.8
5000
∴ ()* = < = 1.8
30
300
()* = #/$$3

Section at the hole:
5000 5000
From DDHB, Figure 2.12 we have,
< = = =
P − Q P30 − 15Q 15
15
= = 0.5,
30
∴ = 2.18
5000
∴ ()* = < = 2.16
15
720
()* = #/$$3

Comparing the above, we have the maximum stress is induced at the hole section. Therefore,
720 200
equating it with permissible stress, we get
= =
T 2.5
∴ [ = \@@

Problem 12:
Determine the maximum stress induced in the semi-circular grooved shaft shown in Figure 21, if
it is subjected to:
(i). An axial load of 40 kN [Ans: 44.30 N/mm2]
(ii). A bending moment of 400Nm and [Ans: 61.30 N/mm2]
(iii). A twisting moment of 500 Nm [Ans: 29.85 N/mm2]
Take the stress concentration into account.
T T
φ 60
r = 5mm
Fig. 21

Fluctuating stresses:
Introduction:
In the previous sections, the external forces acting on a machine component are assumed to be
static. Many of the machine parts such as axles, shafts, crankshafts, connecting rods, springs,
pinion teeth etc, are subjected to variable or alternating o r fluctuating or fatigue loads which
are vary in magnitude with respect to time.
The stresses induced due to fluctuating forces are called fluctuating stresses. It is observed that
about 80% of failures of mechanical components are due to ‘fatigue failure’ resulting from
fluctuating stresses.
In practice, the pattern of stress variation is irregular and unpredictable. For the purpose of
design analysis, simple models for stress-time relationships are used. The most popular model
for stress-time relationship is the sine curve.
Consider a rotating beam of circular cross-section and carrying a load W shown in Figure 22
A
B
Fig. 22 Reversed or cyclic stresses
This load induces stresses in the beam which are cyclic in nature. The upper fibres of the beam
(i.e.at point A) are under compressive stress and the lower fibres (i.e.at point B) are under tensile
stress. After half a revolution, the point B occupies the position of point A and the point A
occupies the position of point B. Thus the point B is now under compressive stress and the
point A under tensile stress. The speed of variation of these stresses depends upon the speed
of the beam. In each revolution of the beam, the stresses are reversed from compressive to
tensile.
There are three types of mathematical models for cyclic stresses viz.,
1. Fluctuating or Alternating Stresses
2. Repeated Stresses and
3. Completely Reversed Stresses (Cyclic stresses)
All these stresses are assumed to be varies in a sinusoidal manner with respect to time for design
analysis.

1. Fluctuating or Alternating
lternating Stresses:
In this case the stress fluctuates between two limits – maximum and minimum stress. The stress
can be tensile or compressive or partly tensile and partly ccompressive,
ompressive, as shown in Figure 23.
23
σa
σa
Fig. 23 Fluctuating Stress

2. Repeated Stresses:
The stresses which vary from zero to a certain maximum value are called repeated
stresses as shown in Fig. 24
24.. The minimum stress is zero in this case and therefore,
amplitude and mean stress are equal in this case.
σa
σa
Fig. 24 Repeated Stresses

3. Completely Reversed or Cyclic Stresses
Stresses:
The stresses which vary from one value of compressive to the same value of tensile or
vice versa, are known as completely reversed or cyclic stresses as shown in Figure
Fig 25.
In this case mean stress is zero.
σa
σa
Fig. 25 Completely reversed or cyclic stresses
Department of Mechanical Engineering,

ngineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara
In the analysis of fluctuating stresses, tensile stress is considered as positive and while
compressive stress is negative. The following relation holds good for all the types of
fluctuating stresses.
P()* + (< Q
$ , ( =
2
P()* − (< Q
$] , ) =
2
Fatigue and Fatigue Failure:

It has been found experimentally that materials fail under fluctuating stresses at a stress
magnitude which is lower than the ultimate or yield stresses. Further, it has been found that the
magnitude of the stress causing fatigue failure decreases as the number of stress cycles
increase. This phenomenon of decreased resistance of the materials to fluctuating stresses is the
main characteristic of fatigue failure. Fatigue failure is defined as time delayed fracture under
cyclic loading. Examples of parts in which fatigue failures are common are transmission shafts,
connecting rods, gears, vehicle suspension springs and ball bearings.
In case of failure under static load, there is sufficient plastic deformation prior to failure, which
gives a warning well in advance. On the other hand, fatigue cracks are not visible till they
reach the surface of the component and by that time; the failure has already taken place. The
fatigue failure is sudden and total. It is relatively easy to design a component for a static load.
The fatigue failure, however, depends upon a number of factors, such as the number of cycles,
mean stress, stress amplitude, stress concentration, residual stress, corrosion and creep. This
make the design of components subjected to fluctuating stresses more complex.
Fatigue Limit or Endurance Limit:
The fatigue or endurance limit of a material is defined as the maximum amplitude of completely
reversed stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited number of cycles
without fatigue failure. Since the fatigue test cannot be conducted for unlimited or infinite
number of cycles, 106 cycles is considered as a sufficient number of cycles to define the
endurance limit. There is another term called fatigue life, which is frequently used with endurance
limit. The fatigue life is defined as the number of stress cycles that the standard specimen can
complete during the test before the appearance of the first fatigue crack.

The dimensions of the standard test specimen (in mm) are shown in Figure 26. The specimen is
carefully machined and polished. The final polishing is done in axial direction in order to avoid
circumferential scratches.
85
Mb Mb
7.5φ
250 R
Fig. 26 specimen for Fatigue Test
In the laboratory, the endurance limit is determined by means of a rotating beam machine
developed by R R Moore, as shown in Figure 27. A beam of circular cross-section is subjected to
bending moment Mb. Under the action of bending moment, tensile stresses are induced in the
upper half of the beam and compressive stresses in the lower half of equal magnitude. Changing
the moment by addition or deletion of weights can vary the stress amplitude. The amplitude of
stress induced is calculated by,

= =

2 x
-ℎ , = =
2 64
The specimen is rotated by an electric motor and the number of revolutions before the
appearance of the first fatigue crack is recorded on a revolution counter.
Fig. 27 Rotating Beam Fatigue Testing Machine

In each test, two readings viz., stress amplitude (σa) and number of stress cycles (N) are taken.
These reading are used as tow coordinates for plotting a point on the S-N diagram. Here, ‘S’
stands for stress amplitude (σa). This point is called failure points as indicated by ‘+’ sign on the
S-N diagram. To determine the endurance limit of a material, a number of tests are to be carried
out.
log10σ
Failure points
+
++
+
+
++
++ + + +
log10σe
Endurance
Limit Stress
3 4 5 6 7 8
log10N
Fig. 28 S-N curve for steel
The results of these tests are plotted by means of an S-N curve as shown in Figure 28 (drawn
from 103 cycles onward). The S-N curve is the graphical representation of stress amplitude (σa)
versus the number of stress cycles (N) before the fatigue failure on a log-log graph paper. Each
test on the fatigue testing machine gives one failure point on the S-N diagram. In practice, the
points are scattered in the figure and an average curve is drawn through them. The S-N diagram
is also known as Wӧhler diagram, after August Wӧhler, a German Engineer who published his
fatigue research in 1870. The S-N diagram is standard method of presenting fatigue data. The
magnitude of the stress amplitude at approximately 106 cycles represents the endurance limit of
the material, especially ferrous materials like steel. For non-ferrous materials like aluminum
alloys, S-N curve slopes gradually even after 106 cycles. These materials do not exhibit a distinct
value of the endurance limit in a true sense. For these materials, endurance limit stress is
sometime expressed as a function of the number of stress cycles.
Note: The endurance limit, in a true sense, is not exactly a property of material like ultimate or
yield strength. It is affected by many factors such as the size and shape of the component,
temperature and the notch sensitivity of the material.

Low Cycle Fatigue and High Cycle Fatigue:
An S-N curve from 100 cycles to 108 cycles for a ferrous material is shown in Figure 29. It
distinguishes two regions on the curve as Low-cycle fatigue and High-cycle fatigue.
log10σ
Low Cycle Fatigue High Cycle Fatigue
log10σu + + + +: Failure points

+ + + + +
+ +
+ ++
+
+ +
++
++ + + +
log10σe
Endurance
Limit Stress
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
log10N
Fig. 29 Low and High cycle Fatigue
Any fatigue failure when the number of stress cycles are less than 1000 (103), is called low-cycle
fatigue. Failure of studs on truck wheels, failure of sets screws for locating gears on shafts or
failures of short-lived devices such as missiles are the examples of low-cycle fatigue. In many
applications, the designers simply ignore the fatigue effect under low-cycle fatigue and consider
a greater factor of safety for designing.
Any fatigue failure when the number of stress cycles are more than 1000 (103), is called High-
cycle fatigue. The failure of machine components such as springs, ball bearings or gears that are
subjected to fluctuating stresses are the examples of High-cycle fatigue. In these cases the
components are designed on the basis of endurance limit stress. The S-N curves, Soderberg lines,
Gerber lines or Goodman diagrams are used in the design of such components.

Goodman and Soderberg relationship:

When a component is subjected to fluctuating stresses, there is mean stress (σm) as well as stress
amplitude (σa). It has been observed that the mean stress component has an effect on fatigue
failure when it is present in combination with an alternating component.
σy Failure Points
Yield Line
σe
Gerber Line
Stress
Amplitude
(σ
σ a) Goodman Line
Soderberg Line
0,0 σy σu
Mean Stress (σ
σm)
Fig. 30 Soderberg and Goodman Lines

The fatigue diagram for this general case is shown in Figure 30. In this diagram, the mean stress
is plotted on abscissa (x-axis) and stress amplitude is plotted on the ordinate (y-axis). The
magnitudes of (σm) and (σa) are depend on the magnitudes of maximum and minimum forces
acting the component. When stress amplitude (σa) is zero, the load is purely static and the
criterion of failure is (σu) or (σy). These limits are plotted on the x-axis. When the mean stress
(σm) is zero, the stress is completely reversing and the criterion of failure is endurance limit (σe)
that is plotted on the y-axis. When the component is subjected to both components of stress i.e.,
(σm) and (σa) the actual failure occurs at different scattered points shown in Figure. There exists
a border, which divides safe region from unsafe region for various combinations of (σm) and
(σa). Different criterions are proposed to construct the borderline dividing safe zone and failure
zone. They include Gerber line, Soderberg line and Goodman line.
Gerber Line is a parabolic curve joining (σe) on the y-axis to (σu) on the x-axis.

Soderberg Line is a straight line joining (σe) on the y-axis to (σy) on the x-axis and Soderberg
approach is used for ductile material based on the yield strength.
Goodman Line is straight line joining (σe) on the y-axis to (σu) on the x-axis and Goodman’s
approach is used for brittle material based on ultimate strength of the material.
Notch sensitivity:
It is noticed that the actual reduction in the endurance limit of a material due to stress
concentration is less than the amount indicated by the theoretical stress concentration factor Kt.
Therefore, two separate notations, Kt and Ktf are used for stress concentration factor.
Kt is the theoretical stress concentration factor, which is applicable for ideal materials that are
homogeneous, isotropic and elastic.
Ktf is the endurance or fatigue stress concentration factor, which is defined as follows:
S $ ! ℎ ℎ ! ]$
=
S $ ! ℎ ℎ ]$
This factor Ktf is applicable to actual material and depends upon the grain size of the material. It
is noticed that there is a greater reduction in the endurance limit of fine-grained materials as
compared to coarse-grained materials, due to stress concentration.
Notch sensitivity is defined as the susceptibility of a material to succumb to the damaging effects
of stress raising notches in fatigue loading. The notch sensitivity factor q is defined as,
! $
&=
! ℎ $
+ − +
∴&=
P + − + Q
− 1
∴&=
P − 1Q
d<
= = &P − 1Q + 1
d<
[DDHB, equation No. 2.12 (a), Page No. 23]
For relation between tensile strength and endurance limit, refer DDHB, equations No. 2.13 (a),
(b) and (c).
For cyclic torsion endurance limit in terms of σen and σu, refer DDHB, equations No. 2.15 (a),
(b) and (c).

Endurance limit – Approximate estimation:

(Modifying factors for size effect, surface effect and stress concentration effects)
The laboratory method for determining the endurance limit of materials, although more precise,
is laborious and time consuming. A number of tests are required to prepare one S-N curve and
each test takes considerable time. It is, therefore, not possible to get the experimental data of
each and every materials. When the laboratory data regarding the endurance limit of the material
is not available, different modifying factors are used in practice to account for the difference for
actual components. These factors are called as ‘derating factors’. The purpose of derating factors
is to ‘derate’ or reduce the endurance limit of a rotating beam specimen to suit the actual
component. The following three correction factors are important from the subject point of view.
[Ref: DDHB, page No. 25]

A is the load correction factor
= 1.0 for reversed bending
= 0.7 to 1.0 for reversed axial loading
= 0.5 to 0.6 for reversed torsional loading
B is the size correction factor (Will be given usually)
C is the surface correction factor (refer Table 2.2)
Considering these correction factors, Goodman’s and Soderberg relationship can be established
as follows:
[Ref: DDHB, Equations No. 2.21 (a) to 2.21 (e)]
The Goodman’s relationship:

m ~f ~ q
a. For ductile materials sr ~k
+ ~
=<
m ~f ~ q
+ =<
sr ~k ~
b. For brittle materials
The Soderberg relationship:

m ~f ~ q
+ ~ = <
sr ~k
a. For ductile materials

m ~f ~ q
+ ~ = <
sr ~k
b. For brittle materials

f q
+ =<
sr ~k
c. For ductile materials in shear


Problem 13:
A steel rod of material SAE9260 oil quenched is subjected to a tensile load which varies from
120 kN to 40 kN. Design the ‘safe diameter’ of the rod using ‘Soderberg Diagram’. Adopt factor
of safety as 2, stress concentration factor as unity and notch sensitivity factor as 0.8. It is given
correction factor for load, size and surface as 0.75, 0.85 and 0.91 respectively.
Solutions:
Tensile Load,
Fmax = 120 kN = 120 x 103 N
Fmin = 40 kN = 40 x 103 N
From DDHB, Page No. 475, Table I.18, for SAE9260 oil quenched, we have
2 nd
Ultimate Strength, σu = 1090 N/mm (2 Column)
2 th
Yield Stress, σyp = 690 N/mm (4 Column)
2 th
Endurance Limit, σen = 428 N/mm (6 Column)
Soderberg relationship for ductile materials is given by Eqn. (2.21), Page No. 25
) ( 1
+ = P1Q
d<
-ℎ ,
=2
= 1
! , = 0.75
. ! , = 0.85
! ! , = 0.91
ℎ " ! , & = 0.8
To find Endurance or Fatigue concentration factor (Ktf):
From DDHB, Eqn. 2.12(a), we have
= &P − 1Q + 1 = 0.8P1 − 1Q + 1
∴ = 1
To find alternating or variable stress, (σa):
)
) =


()* − (< P120 − 40Q × 106

-ℎ , ) = = =
2 2
∴ ) = 40 × 106 #
40 × 106
∴ ) =

To find average or mean stress, (σm):
(
( =

()* + (< P120 + 40Q × 106
-ℎ , ( = = =
2 2
∴ ( = 80 × 106 #
80 × 106
∴ ( =

Substitute the above values in Eqn. (1), we get
) ( 1
+ =
d<
1 × 40 × 106 80 × 106 1
+ =
0.75 × 0.85 × 0.91 × 428 × × 690 2
= 554.05 $$3
23
= = 554.05
4
∴ = HC. FC @@ A HM @@

Problem 14:
A piston rod is subjected to a maximum reversed axial load of 110 kN. It is made of steel having
an ultimate stress of 900 N/mm2 and the surface is machined. The average endurance limit is
50% of the ultimate strength. Take the size correction factor as 0.85 and factor of safety as 1.75.
Determine the diameter of rod.
[ : = DD. M @@ A DL @@ ¢£ DC @@]
Solution:

Problem 15:
A stepped shaft of circular cross-section shown in Figure 31 is subjected to variable load which
is completely reversed with a value equal to 100 kN. It is made of SAE104 steel annealed.
Determine the diameter‘d’ and radius ‘r’, so that the maximum stress will be limited to a value
corresponding to a factor of safety of 2. Notch sensitivity index = 1, size correction factor = 0.85.
[Ans: d = 117 mm say d = 120 mm, D = 180 mm and r = 15 mm]
Solution:
r = d/8
+ 100 kN
D=1.5d
d
- 100 kN
Fig. 31

Problem 16:
Determine the maximum load for a simply supported beam cyclically loaded as shown in Figure
32. The ultimate strength is 700 MPa, the yield point in tension is 520 MPa and endurance limit
in reversed bending is 320 MPa. Use factor of safety as 1.25 and A, B and C values as 1, 0.75
and 0.9 respectively.
1W to 3W
200 mm 200 mm
φ 50 mm
Fig. 32
Solution:
Given,
Maximum bending load, ()* = P3^Q#

Minimum bending load, (< = P^Q#
Diameter of the shaft, = 50 mm
Length of the shaft, l = 400 mm
2
Ultimate Strength, σu = 700 N/mm
2
Yield Stress, σyp = 520 N/mm
2
Endurance Limit, σen = 320 N/mm
= 1.25
! , = 1.00
. ! , = 0.75
! ! , = 0.90
= 1(Uniform cross-section)
To calculate ?A A ?@ :
We know that,
32
= __¥, S&. 1.1P%Q
2 6

First calculate the ()* (< then find out ( ) (Mean and alternating bending
moments respectively, and calculate the value of ) ( :
From DDHB, for simply supported beam with point load at the centre, Table 1.4,

=
4
()* 3^ × 400
∴ ()* = = = P300^Q# − $$
4 4
Similarly,
(< ^ × 400
∴ (< = = = P100^Q# − $$
4 4
Now,
P()* + (< Q 300^ + P100^Q

( = = = P200^Q # − $$
2 2
and
P()* − (< Q P300^ − 100^Q

) = = = P100^Q# − $$
2 2
32( 32 × 200^
∴ ( = = = P0.01630 ^Q #/$$3
2 6 2 × 506
32) 32 × 100^
∴ ) = = = P0.00815 ^Q #/$$3
2 6 2 × 506
Substitute the above values in ‘Soderberg equation 2.21(c),
) ( 1
+ =
d<
1 × P0.00815 ^Q P0.01630 ^Q 1
+ =
1 × 0.75 × 0.90 × 320 520 1.25
∴ ¦ = KK, FMK G A D¦ = DL, ELD G

Problem 17:
A cantilever beam shown in Figure 33 is subjected to a load variation from (–F) N to (+3F) N.
Determine the maximum load that the member can withstand for an infinite life, suing a factor of
safety as 2. The material of the beam is SAE1025, water quenched steel, B = 0.85 and rough
machined surface. Assume Notch sensitivity factor = 1.
r
-FN
φ = 40 mm
φ = 30 mm
+ 3F N
100 mm 200 mm
Fig. 33
Solution:
Given:
Fluctuating Bending Loads are,

Fmax = 3F N
Fmin = -F N
From DDHB, Page No. 473, Table I.18, for SAE1025 Water quenched, considering the higher
values, we have
2 nd
Ultimate Strength, σu = 621 N/mm (2 Column)
2 th
Yield Stress, σyp = 400 N/mm (4 Column)
2 th
Endurance Limit, σen = 345 N/mm (6 Column)
Soderberg relationship for ductile materials is given by Eqn. (2.21), Page No. 25
) ( 1
+ = P1Q
d<
-ℎ ,
=2 Given
= ? To be calculate
! , = 1.0 For reversed Bending Load From DDHB
. ! , = 0.85 Given
! ! , = ? To be estimate
Notch sensitivity factor, q =1 Given

P_ − Q P40 − 30Q
_ = 40 $$; = 30 $$ ∴ = = = 5 $$
2 2
_ 40 5
= = 1.33 = = 0.167
30 30
∴ = 1.46 P]] `$"Q
∴ = &P − 1Q + 1 … … __¥, S&. 2.12PQ
∴ = 1P1.46 − 1Q + 1 = 1.46
From DDHB, Table 2.2, for σu = 621 N/mm2 and for rough machined surface, we have
= 0.86 P]] `$"Q
To calculate ?A A ?@ :
We know that,
32
= __¥, S&. 1.1P%Q
2 6
First calculate the ()* (< then find out ( ) (Mean and alternating bending
moments respectively, and calculate the value of ) ( :
()* = × . ] /
()* = ()* × 200 = 3 × 200 = P600Q # − $$
Similarly,
(< = (< × 200 = − × 200 = P−200Q # − $$
Now,
P()* + (< Q 600 + P−200Q

( = = = P200Q # − $$
2 2
and
P()* − (< Q 600 − P−200Q

) = = = P400Q# − $$
2 2

32( 32 × 200
∴ ( = = = P0.07545 Q #/$$3
2 6 2 × 306
32) 32 × 400
∴ ) = = = P0.1509 Q #/$$3
2 6 2 × 306
Substitute the above values in,
) ( 1
+ = P1Q
d<
1.46 × P0.1509 Q P0.07545 Q 1

+ =
1 × 0.85 × 0.86 × 345 400 2
∴ V = LEJ. EH G A DV = KLKH. KC G

Problems on stresses due to fluctuating combined load:
Problem 18:
A steel member of circular section is subjected to a torsional stress that varies from 0 to 35 MPa
and at the same time it is subjected to an axial stress that varies from -14 MPa to +28 MPa.
Neglecting stress concentration and assuming that the maximum stresses in torsion and axial
load occur at the same time, determine
a) Maximum equivalent shear stress and

b) Factor of safety based upon yield in shear.
The material has endurance limit 206 MPa and yield strength 480 MPa. Take load correction
factor =1, surface correction factor =1 and size correction factor = 1. Assume estimated fatigue
stress concentration factor for shear stress = 1
Solutions:
Given:
()* = 35 #/$$3 ; (< = 0 #/$$3 ; ()* = 28 #/$$3 ; (< = −14 #/$$3
d< = 206 #/$$3 ; = 480 #/$$3
= 1; = 1; = 1 © = 1
Considering Torsional Stress:
From DDHB, Eqn. 2.22(b), we have the equivalent shear stress,
© )
dª = ( + P1Q
d<
-ℎ ,
P()* + (< Q P35 + 0Q

( = = = 17.5 #/$$3
2 2
P()* − (< Q P35 − 0Q
) = = = 17.5 #/$$3
2 2
[Note: = 0.6 − ! ] ]
∴ = 0.6 × 480 = 288#/$$3

Substituting these values in Eqn. (1), we get
© ) 288 1 × 17.5

dª = ( + = 17.5 + = 41.966 #/$$3
d< 206 1 × 1 × 1
Considering Axial Stress:
From DDHB, Eqn. 2.22(a), we have the equivalent normal stress,
)
dª¯< = ( + P2Q
d<
-ℎ ,
P()* + (< Q P28 − 14Q

( = = = 7 #/$$3
2 2
P()* − (< Q P35 − P−14QQ
) = = = 21 #/$$3
2 2
In the problem statement, it is given that stress concentration may be neglected, it means assume
Kt = 1 and therefore = 1
) 480 1 × 21
dª¯< = ( + =7+ = 55.932 #/$$3
d< 206 1 × 1 × 1
Now, using Eqn. 2.23(a), the equivalent maximum shear stress,
1 3
1 3
² 3
²
°Y± P@ABQ = dª¯< + dª = × 55.932 + P41.966Q3 = FJ. LDG/@@H
2 2
It is the induced maximum equivalent shear stress and this must be equated to allowable shear
stress,

dª P$`Q ≤ TU dª P$`Q ≤
2

dª P$`Q ≤

480
∴ VA´[¢£ ¢µ AµY[, = =
2 × dª P$`Q 2 × 50.43
∴ = L. EC

Problem 19:
A hot rolled steel shaft is subjected to a torsional load that varies from 330 Nm (cw) to 110Nm
(ccw) and an applied bending moment at the critical section varies from + 440 Nm to - 220 Nm.
The shaft is uniform cross-section and no keyway is present at the critical section. Determine the
required shaft diameter. The material has an ultimate strength of 550 MN/m2 and yield strength
of 410 MN/m2. Factor of safety = 1.5 and size correction coefficient is 0.85. Take the endurance
limit as half the ultimate strength.
Solution:
Given
()* = +330 #$ = +330 × 106 # − $$
(< = −110 #$ = −110 × 106 # − $$
()* = +440 #$ = +440 × 106 # − $$
(< = −220 #$ = −220 × 106 # − $$
= 550 #/$3 = 550 #/$$3 ; = 410 #/$3 = 410 #/$$3
550
d< = = = 275 #/$$3
2 2
! !", = 1.5
. ! , = 0.85
From DDHB, Table 2.2, page No. 32 for hot rolled steel for = 550 #/$$3
! ! , = 0.62
The shaft is uniform cross-section and no keyway is present at the critical section.
∴ © = 1 = 1
From DDHB, for reversed torsional loading,
! , = 0.60 P¥ℎ Q
16
= __¥, S&. 1.1PQ
2 6

P()* + (< Q 330 + P−110Q × 106

( = = = 110 × 106 # − $$
2 2
P()* − (< Q 330 − P−110Q × 106

) = = = 220 × 106 # − $$
2 2
© )
dª = ( + P1Q
d<
-ℎ ,
16( 16 × 110 × 106 1760 × 106

( = = = #/$$3
2 6 2 6 2 6
16) 16 × 220 × 106 3520 × 106
) = = = #/$$3
2 6 2 6 2 6
[Note: = 0.6 − ! ] ]
∴ = 0.6 × 410 = 246 #/$$3
© ) 246 1 × 3520 106 3730.04

dª = ( + = ¶1760 + · 6= #/$$3
d< 275 0.6 × 0.62 × 0.85 2 6
Considering Bending Stress:
From DDHB, for reversed bending loading,
! , = 1.0
32
= __¥, S&. 1.1P%Q
2 6
P()* + (< Q 440 + P−220Q × 106

( = = = 110 × 106 # − $$
2 2
P()* − (< Q 440 − P−220Q × 106

) = = = 330 × 106 # − $$
2 2
)
dª¯< = ( + P2Q
d<

-ℎ ,
32( 32 × 110 × 106 3520 × 106

( = = = #/$$3
2 6 2 6 2 6
32) 32 × 330 × 106 10560 × 106
) = = = #/$$3
2 6 2 6 2 6
) 410 1 × 10560 106 10629.88 × 106

dª¯< = ( + = 3520 + = #/$$3
d< 275 1.0 × 0.62 × 0.85 26 6
1 3
106 1 3
² 3
²
dª P$`Q = dª¯< + dª = 6 × 10629.88 + P3730.04Q3
2 2
6493.21 × 106
∴ dª P$`Q =
6
stress,

2
6493.21 × 106 410
≤
6 2 × 1.5
∴ = DC. HH @@ XA = LJ @@

Problem 20:
A round rod of diameter 1.2d reduced to a diameter d with a fillet radius of 0.1d. This stepped
rod is to sustain a twisting moment that fluctuates between +2.5 kN-m and + 1.5 kN-m together
with a bending moment that fluctuates between +1 kN-m and - 1 kN-m. The rod is made of
carbon steel C40. Determine a suitable value of ‘d’. Assume factor of safety = 2 and endurance
limit as half of the ultimate stress.
Solution:
Given,
Maximum twisting moment, ()* = +2.5 × 10a #$$

Minimum twisting moment, (< = +1.5 × 10a #$$
Maximum bending moment, ()* = +1 × 10a #$$
Minimum bending moment, (< = −1 × 10a #$$
larger diameter, D = 1.2d
Reduced diameter, = d
Fillet radius, r = 0.1 d
= 1.25
. ! , = 0.75
From DDHB, Table I.8, for C40 carbon steel,

2
Ultimate Strength, σu = 570 N/mm (Consider the lower value)
2
Yield Stress, σyp = 324 N/mm
2
∴Endurance Limit, σen= σu/2 = 285 N/mm
! ! , = 0.88 (Appr.) (Assuming M/c surface)
_ = 1.2; = = 0.1
_ 1.2 0.1
= = 1.2 = = 0.1

∴ © = 1.35 P]] `$"Q

∴ © = &P© − 1Q + 1 … … __¥, S&. 2.7
[As value of q is not given, let us assume q = 1]
∴ © = 1P1.35 − 1Q + 1 = 1.35
From DDHB, for reversed torsional loading,
! , = 0.60 P¥ℎ Q
16
= __¥, S&. 1.1PQ
2 6
P()* + (< Q P2.5 + 1.5Q × 10a
( = = = 2 × 10a # − $$
2 2
P()* − (< Q P2.5 − 1.5Q × 10a
) = = = 0.5 × 10a # − $$
2 2
© )
dª = ( + P1Q
d<
-ℎ ,
16( 16 × 2 × 10a 32 × 10a

( = = = #/$$3
2 6 2 6 2 6
16) 16 × 0.5 × 10a 8 × 10a
) = = = #/$$3
2 6 2 6 2 6
[Note: = 0.6 − ! ] ]
∴ = 0.6 × 324 = 194.4 #/$$3
© ) 194.4 1.35 × 8 10a

dª = ( + = ¶32 + ·
d< 285 0.6 × 0.88 × 0.75 2 6
KC. KK × KJC
∴ °Y± = G/@@H
D

Considering Bending Stress:
_ = 1.2; = = 0.1
_ 1.2 0.1
= = 1.2 = = 0.1

∴ = 1.625 P]] `$"Q
∴ = &P − 1Q + 1 … … __¥, S&. 2.12PQ
[As value of q is not given, let us assume q = 1]
∴ = 1P1.625 − 1Q + 1 = 1.625
From DDHB, for reversed bending loading,
! , = 1.0
32
= __¥, S&. 1.1P%Q
2 6
P()* + (< Q 1 + P−1Q × 10a

( = = = 0 # − $$
2 2
P()* − (< Q 1 − P−1Q × 10a

) = = = 1 × 10a # − $$
2 2
)
dª¯< = ( + P2Q
d<
-ℎ ,
32( 32 × 0
( = = = 0 #/$$3
2 6 2 6
32) 32 × 1 × 10a 32 × 10a
) = = = #/$$3
2 6 2 6 2 6
) 324 1.625 × 32 10a 35.71 × 10a

dª¯< = ( + = 0 + ¸ ¹ = #/$$3
d< 285 1.0 × 0.62 × 0.85 26 6

1 3
10a 1 3
² 3
²
dª P$`Q = dª¯< + dª = 6 × 35.71 + P16.11Q3
2 2
HL. JF × KJC
∴ °Y± P@ABQ =
D
stress,

2
24.05 × 10a 324
=
6 2×2
∴ = CC. EK @@ XA = EJ @@

Problem 21:
A steel cantilever member shown in Figure 34 is subjected to a transverse load at its end that
varies from 45 N up to 135 N down and an axial load varies from 110 N compression to 450 N
tension. Determine the required diameter at the change of section for infinite life using a factor
of safety of 2. The strength properties of material are σu = 550 N/mm2, σyp = 470 N/mm2and
σen = 275 N/mm2. Notch sensitivity index is 1.
45 kN
200 mm
0.2d
110 kN 450 kN
2d d
125mm
135 kN
Fig. 34
[: = 12.75$$ " 14 $$]
Solution:

Problem 22:
A shaft of circular cross-section is subjected to a turning moment that fluctuates between
800 kN-m to 600 kN-m and also a bending moment that fluctuates between + 500 kN-m to - 300
kN-m. The material selected for the shaft has a shear stress value of 100MPa at endurance limit
and shear stress value of 120 MPa at the yield point. Determine the diameter of the shaft taking
the value of factor of safety as 2.5. Load factor, size factor and surface factor can be taken as 1.0,
0.85 and 0.9 respectively. Shear stress concentration factor is 1.8 and the notch sensitivity index
is 0.95.
[: = 580.665 " 600 $$]

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Design of Machine Elements I: Unit II 1

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

Design for Fatigue Strength: Introduction:

Approximate point of fatigue failure

Fig. 2 Initiation and propagation of crack

Fig. 3 Cam shaft, shaft carrying gears

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Fig. 4 stress Concentration region

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

Causes of stress concentration:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

Reduction of Stress Concentration:

Fig. 5 Force Flow Analogy

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

Fig. 6 Reduction of stress concentration due to V-notch

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

III. Drilling additional holes for shaft:

Fig. 8 Reduction of stress concentration in shaft with keyway

Fig. 9 Reduction of stress concentration in threaded components

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

Torsional shear stress:

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

Tensile load, F = 12 kN = 12 x 103 N

Referring to DDHB, Fig. 2.12 (Page No. 36), we have

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

Bending Moment, M = 25 N m = 25 x 103 N mm

Referring to DDHB, Fig. 2.13 (Page No. 37), we have

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

Problem 3: (Ignore this problem- Wrong problem statement)

Bending Moment, M = 25 N m = 25 x 103 N mm

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

Fig. 13 (a) Fig. 13 (b)

Tensile load, F = 12 kN = 12 x 103 N

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

Problem 6: (Ignore this problem- Wrong problem statement)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

Referring to DDHB, Fig. 2.16 (Page No. 38), we have

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

100 kN 160 φ20

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

Consider the section B-B:

Consider the section C-C:

Therefore, the maximum stress induced in the plate, 1.6

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

/ = 0.1/ = 0.1  _/ = 1.4/ = 1.4

O = 1.55 P]] `$"Q

9.55 × 10a P1Q 9.55 × 10a P5Q

σ)bb+c)bd = σd /T = 235/2

∴ σ)bb+c)bd = 117.5 #/$$3

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

Fig. 19 [Note: Not to scale]

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

Take the stress concentration into account.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

Department of Mechanical Engineering, PESIT, Bangalore, Dr. C V Chandrashekara

Fig. 23 Fluctuating Stress

Fig. 24 Repeated Stresses

Fig. 25 Completely reversed or cyclic stresses

Department of Mechanical Engineering,

/ = 0.1/ = 0.1 _/ = 1.4/ = 1.4

O = 1.55 P]] `$"Q

σ)bb+c)bd = σd /T = 235/2

∴ σ)bb+c)bd = 117.5 #/$$3

()* − (< P120 − 40Q × 106

[ : = DD. M @@ A DL @@ ¢£ DC @@]

Maximum bending load, ()* = P3^Q#

P()* + (< Q 300^ + P100^Q

P()* − (< Q P300^ − 100^Q

∴ ¦ = KK, FMK G A D¦ = DL, ELD G

∴ = &P − 1Q + 1 … … __¥, S&. 2.12PQ

= 0.86 P]] `$"Q

()* = × . ] /

()* = ()* × 200 = 3 × 200 = P600Q # − $$

(< = (< × 200 = − × 200 = P−200Q # − $$

P()* + (< Q 600 + P−200Q

P()* − (< Q 600 − P−200Q

1.46 × P0.1509 Q P0.07545 Q 1

∴ V = LEJ. EH G A DV = KLKH. KC G

()* = 35 #/$$3 ; (< = 0 #/$$3 ; ()* = 28 #/$$3 ; (< = −14 #/$$3

d< = 206 #/$$3 ; = 480 #/$$3

P()* + (< Q P35 + 0Q

∴ = 0.6 × 480 = 288#/$$3

© ) 288 1 × 17.5

P()* + (< Q P28 − 14Q

(< = −110 #$ = −110 × 106 # − $$

()* = +440 #$ = +440 × 106 # − $$

(< = −220 #$ = −220 × 106 # − $$