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Walk the walk and talk the talk:
1) A/lswet the question (TR-Task Response).
2) Put your response In sentences and organized paragraphs (CC-Coherence and Coheslo~). .
3) use English vocabulary (LR-Lextcal Resource) and try to punctuate the thing property with capital
tetterS to start a sentence (no t like this but a T llke this) and tun stops to finish a sen~ (ltke this. Not
like this,) and watch yolJ' speUing. Use some idioms if they are not old hat or lnappropnate.
4) Try to write in reasonable grammar with subject and verb agreement and the right tense and the right
preposltk>ns, etc (GRA-Grammatk:al Range and Accuracy).
If you dO thlS, you wlll TR, cc, LR and GRA your way to paradlSe, wen, to some place that pays you
better for your skills.

Don't write long complicated paragraphs. They are hard to grade and harder to read and Examiners get
nose bleeds. J.deally So-60 words per paragraph and a few sentences each paragraph. It is easier to read,
it is less Ukely to have the grammar mangled and your purpose is to pass. You will pass if you respond to
the task well.

Leave any_ ~mples~ - ~r own-~ ~ that you wish to use to support your ~~-

The last paragraph I write (you will see) is usually my shortest It is a wrap. Brief and to the point

1. Some people believe that school molds the intellect and skills and not the virtues and
attitudes of its students. Do you agree or disagree? Give examples based on your own
knoWledge and experience.

A. Answer 1 (Compare the contrary response in Answer 2)

I totally disagree with the notion that schools have no effect on the virtues and beliefs of students but
that they instead simply shape the intellectual and skill sets of people. To adopt such a position flies in
the face of the reality of the cultures that shape us and in which schools function.

A student who enters the educational system in this country is almost inevitably going to be shaped by
the traditional and conservative c.atholic beliefs that are so dominant here. This is true, particularly at
primary and semndary school. Furthermore, even if studying at a non-sectarian public university after
this lndocbination and value-formation period, beliefs and attitudes are largely well- formed by then and
carried into the tertiary system. These values are simply reinforced and hardened by sectarian
universities and private institutions that are overwhelmingly Catholic.

Moroover, even granted that schools are, in theory, focused on the development of intellect and skills,
critical, creative thinking skills, although supposedly at the center of learning, are sadly lacking or entirely
absent when issues of religion or morality are discussed. Dissent is punished and conformity is rewarded.
In this way, the attitudes of society are at war with and supersede, the need to encourage the intellect.
Schools then act as a kind of lobotomizing agent, crushing free thinking and initiative.

In my own experience I have witnessed the opposition of the church to reproductive health and the right
of women to control this. Although I accept that the church has the right to obj«t, I find their opposition
within the education system and their attempts to brow- beat students, objectionably, given the
separation of Church and State under the 1987 Constitution. I believe it is a woman's right to choose and
I defend my right to think so.

21P a g e
~=~s:.:,:~ ~='rs: (RIIIIIEII E.lS DAIIINllQ w~!YD
; ~ oompletely and unequ1vocai;;-;;; the Idea that values and attitudes are not Influenced at
sctl()()I and that Intellect and sk\11 Is the all that Is passed on. On the contrary, I believe that value
tormatiOO trumps skills and we must be conscious of this fact.

WMf count-346
a. Answer 2(compare the opposite response In Answer 1)
Some people believe that school molds the intellect and skills and not the virtues and
attitUdes of its students. Do you agree or disagree? Give examples based on your own
knCJWledge and experience.

1totally agree with the notion that schools have minima! effect on the virtues and beliefs of students. I
belieVe they instead simply shape the intellectual and skill sets of people. Schools, after all, are focused
on academic excellence or the practical skills one might acquire in a trade or apprenticeship of some
type.

A student who enters the educational system in this country expects either to receive training in math,
science and humanities or to learn a skill that might earn him or her a livelihood. Some oourses,
naturally, offer both. Nursing would be a classic example of this, requiring the student to be academically
competent in the theory of their occupation as well as capable of applying this in the real world of the
hospital or community. Furthermore, even if studying at a sectarian university, the primary focus is
academic excellence and skills formation. Any values or virtues are secondary and ancillary to this central
concern. The parents are interested in their children excelling in numeracy and literacy skills, the mastery
of calo.llus, algebra, statistics, together with the ability to handle the natural and physical sciences.

Moreover, although many parents value the reinforcement of family and religious virtues and values,
most would consider that value-formation is more a family responsibility. A. school's function is first and
foremost to pass on intellectual capital and marketable skills for the future.

In my own experience I have witnessed the joy of parents and family when they attend their children's
graduations at each level of school. Each is a step further in their child's evolution into an educated adult
and the family photos on walls attest to this pride and delight.

I therefore oompletely and unequivocally reject the idea that values and attitudes are the major influence
at school . It is intellect and skill that is passed on. This is what families expect and this, by and large, is
what the education system attempts to deliver.

Wont Count-325

2. Some people say that modern technology has made life too complicated and the solution
is for everyone to live a simpler life and avoid using the tec:h"'!'°9Y• Do you agree or
disagree? Give examples from your own knowledge and expenence.

A. first sample answer {against modern technology)

I completely agree that modem technok>gy has complicated _life. A simpler' less com.,:~~tiOO at the
I wologyulde;~~~:~ human beings
unencumbered by the latest technology' is definitely the optiOechn
moment tends to make humanity the servant or slave of the t no
harnessing this technology to enhance human happiness and fulfilment.

3\Pag e
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------·;;-Ive use and dependeneetendonto distance
IBLD ~
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latest technology, people are Isolating
the
~ , b ~ real wortd expertences. They themselves from the people that should
tt,emsei:5 thel1l In the actual, physical wortds of flesh and blood. People oosessed with Face book and
matter onen ignore family and focus on the virtual world on-line.
Twitter
people who are dominated by technology become psychological dependent on It and
fo~'w1th acquiring the very latest versions of whatever the market Is offering. This creates not
~ - ital divide t,etween families but a constant feeling of frustration If one cannot afford these
only ~IQUke the latest tablet or cell phone. In addition to that, when the access to this technology_!~
prodvailable ror any reason, individuals denied access are often at a loss what to do, unable or unwtlhng
una their ttme Jn more productive ways like Interacting with family and friends or perhaps just reading
to use
a bOOk or exercising.
m own experience I have seen even impoverished ghetto children electing to spend hours developing
10F'1,ek1:X>k persona in an internet cafe rather than studying or trying to develop useful real world skills to
~nge their lives. They would rather spend the little they have embellishing a fictional self on-line than
eat.
be\ieVe that life was better before the latest technology invaded our lives. People ate together, mingled
1
and conversed more. All generations interacted and unique cultural ways were transmitted. New
teehnol09Y is threatening to replace this simpler, more natural life with a wor1d of artificial, technology -
driVefl complexity. I am of the opinion that this outcome is an unmitigated disaster.

watt eount-328
a. Second sample answer {for modern technology}
Some people say that modem technology has made life too complicated and the solution is
for everyone to live a simpler life and avoid using the technology. Do you agree or disagree?
Give examples from your own knowledge and experience

I disagree with the notion that modern technology has complicated life and with calls to return to a
simpler life. Thi_s is l~ke expecting Ki~g c.a~ute to stop the tide coming in. Toe idea Is absurd. Technology
has been evolving since before the mvention of the wheel precisely to make life easier.
Moreover,_modem technology has not complicated life. It has simplified it. We now have the ability to
connect with loved ones and the wider world by voice, visually and by text Wtth smart phones. This can
be done virtually for free with the applications one may download. Toe days of outrageous phone bills
and cultural isolation, if living abroad, are gone.

In addition to that, it is possible to greatly expand our ability to educate ourselves on-line, without having
to leave our homes if we so choose or to supplement face -to -face education with web- based
~nforcement. Now we can check to see if politicians, lawyers or doctors are telling us the truth by using
internet facilities. Expertise is no longer compartmentalized. Its acx-.ess has been greatly simplified.
~urthermore, modem technology may be used to simplify banking and medical pro<Edures by simple on-
hne access. Farmers or fishermen, even in remote areas, may be able to seek advice on expected
weather patterns or primary produce price trends or markets. The possibilities are seemingly endless.

In my own experience, my grandfather was able to undergo a far less invasiVe heart surgery proced~re
thanks to new laser technology. This was done by a specialist giving advice to the local surgeon on-line,
making a long, expensive, painful and traumatic confinement totally unnecessary•

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-----~~;;;~em technology ensures simplicity and ls an outcome of human in~ligenc:e.
= t 1s hamessed for the betterment of humanity, It shOuld be embraeed as within Its increasing
compleXitv lieS increasing simplicity and ease of use.

Wad Cotnt-310

. Some people say that children ~ave too much freedom nowadays.
3
To what extent do you agree or dasagree?
Give your opinions based on your knowledge and experiences.

A, first sample answer (supporting the view that children have too much freedom)

There are certain individuals that hold the view that children do not have too much ~ -. '!hese
people belleVe that the greater the freedom children are entrusted with, the greater their ab1hty to grow,
ieam and be creative.
Moreover, these people believe that by limiting a child's freedom, the child becomes far too dependent on
the immediate family and incapable of developing the socialization skills needed for any child to cope in
the larger world outside the family . This will result in a shy, introverted individual, limited in his or her
ability to explore and respond positively to changing circumstances. In addition, they believe that cultures
that entrust their children with freedom are OJltures which are healthy, productive and highly creative
cultures that tend to lead the world in educational outcomes, technok)gy innovation and artistic genius.
The outcome of freedom is extremely positive for the individual child and society.

However, I disagree with view. I believe that children these days are given far too much freedom and
that this has disastrous consequences for the child and society. Children become ill-disciplined and
unruly, tiny Hitlers or tyrants in a world lacking respect or connection.Furthermore, children who do not
have a clear familial strocture where boundaries involving who they mix with, when and where, tend to
feel lost and unloved. Children need directions and fundamental rules so that freedom is not abused.

In my own experience, I witnessed my niece, given almost unfettered freedom, become virtually
uncontrollable and rejecting any discipline or direction from her family. This is the complete opposite to
our traditional values of respect towards older people. The consequences were disastrous for her with an
early pregnancy and unwanted early motherhood.

I therefore believe that children given too much freedom will tend to abuse it. Often this freedom is really
parental neglect disguised as freedom. Children need structure and order or they tend to suffer.
Freedom granted must be earned and based on proof they can be trusted and not an automatic right.

Word Count-309

B. Second sample answer (opposing the view that children have too much freedom)

Some people hold the view that children these days are given far too much freedom and that this has
disastrous consequences for the child and socety. Children become ill-disciplined and unruly, tiny Hitlers
or tyrants in a world lacking respect or connection.

Furthermore, they believe that children who do not have a clear familial structure where boundaries
involving who they mix with, when and where, are made clear, will tend to feel lost and unloved.
Children, they feel, need directions and fundamental rules so that freedom is not abused.

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More::>ver they think that children given too much freedom will tend to abuse it. Often this freedom is
really parental neglect disguised as fi"eedom. Children need structure and order or they tend to suffer•
Freedom granted must be earned and based on proof they can be trusted and not an automatic right.

On the other hand, I hold the opposite view. 1 am strongly In favor of maximizing freedom for children.
They are not animals and should not be caged. 1 believe that the greater the freedom children are
entrusted with, the greater their ability to grow, learn and be creative. I also think that by limiting a
child's freedom, the child beoomes far too dependent on the Immediate family and Incapable of
deYek>ping the socialization skills needed for any child to cope in the larger world outside the family. This
will result In a shy, introverted individual, limited In his or her ability to explore and respond positively to
changing circumstances.

In addition, I believe that cultures that entrust their children with freedom are cultures which are healthy,
productive and highly creative cultures that tend to lead the world in educatlonal outoomes, technology
innovatk>n and artistic genius. The outcome of freedom is extremely posittVe for the individual child and
society. In my own experience, my niece was entrusted with a great deal of freedom by her parents and
she excelled in her studies all through grade school, high school and college. They trusted her to have
the intelligence to use this freedom constructively and she repaid their trust a thousand fold.

I therefore believe that freedom is a basic right of childhood, If enjoyed within a loving family, it will
produce sane, healthy and balanced children able to cope in a rapidly changing wor1d.

Warf CJJunt- 358 ttal1s

4. Nowadays, people Piefer to shop In supermartcets rather than local stores.

What are the reasons behind it? Is It a negative or positive development?

A. First sample answer (against supermarkets)

It is my belief that most people prefer to shop in supermarkets rather than to patronize local stores
because <X the convenience of purchasing their household needs in one place. Once in a supermarket
there is little need to go elsewhere to buy the products one might wish to buy.

Furthermore, given that supermarkets are often owned by large corporations, the range and price rJ
merchandise is often cheaper than that one might purchase from smaller, local stores which do not have
the leverage to demand lower costs from their suppliers. Bulk purchase by supermarkets should translate
to lower retail prices to consumers. Moreover, supermarkets are usually air-oonditloned, clean, well lit
and with produce easily found in shelving that is dearly labeled and in aisles accessible by trolleys
provided in the supermarket. This Is a huge plus in hot countries like the Philippines and for shoppers
who often have to mind children while shopping.

In addition to that, supermarkets have an extensive range of products other than food. They usually
stock toys, electrical goods, toiletries, cookware and the like, thereby adding to the convenience for their
dlentete. I believe that this development Is largely negative In this country. The overwhelming preference
of consumers to flock to supermarkets has destroyed countless small businesses all through this nation
while making a tiny few Immensely wealthy. Furthermore, the sense of local community na~ rally
encouraged by small owner operated stores is lost when the shopping experience is turned into a mass of
strangers wandering around huge stores and being served by strangers. Something intangible but
precious is saofflced in this anonymous setting.

In my own experienee, I have seen once thriving local stores being swallowed up by the massive SMncr
supermarket stores that have proliferated here. They are like black holes that swallow an the surrou ing
light.

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1 tt,ererore belleve, In essence, that large supermarket growth has compromised our humanity. It has
(leStrOY'ed our cultural uniqueness and threateled the futures of many just to enrich a few.
wait eount: 333 wc:m's
s. 5eeond sample answer (for supermarkets)
It is my belief that most people prefer to shop in supermarkets rather than to patronize local stores
t,eeause of the convenience of purchasing their household needs in one place. Once in a supermarket
tt,ere ts lltt1e need to go elsewhere to buy the products one might wish to buy.

furtnerm()l'e, given that supermarkets are often owned by large corporations, the range and price of
merchandise is often cheaper than that one might purchase from smaller, local stores which do not have
the leverage to demand lower costs from their suppliers. Bulk purchase by supennarkets should translate
to 1ower retail prices to consumers. Moreover, supermarkets are usually alrconditioned, clean, well lit and
with produce easily found in shetving that is clearly labeled and in aisles accessible by trolleys provided in
the supermarket. This is a huge plus in hot countries like the Phlllpplnes and for shoppers who often have
to mind children while shopping. In addition to that, supermarkets have an extensive range of products
other than food. 11ley usually stock toys, electrical goods, toiletries, cookware and the like, thereby
adding to the convenience for their clientele.

I believe that the growth of supermarkets is a very positive development in this country. It ensures the
primacy of ronvenient shopping and saves the tremendous inoonvenience of shopping around. It also
allows consumers tremendous choice in the food products and brands they might prefer, unlike the very
small range on offer at local stores. This element of choice is a huge plus for customers who enjoy
exercising the right to buy or patronize the brands they like rather than simply what is on offer.

In my own experience I have suffered the health consequences of purchasing meat and vegetable
products from local wet markets, stored and handled in unsanitary conditions. Supermarket products
tend to be more hygie1e and free of pathogens even if more expensive.

I therefore believe that supermarket growth is largely a positive development. Convenience and efficiency
trumps any misplaced nostalgia for the old shopping ways.
Wmt Count: 336 words

5. Why is mass media important? Is it primarily a positive or negative influence?

Give your opinion based on your own knowledge or experience.

A. First sample answer (a positive influence)

Mass media is important because it is a means for people in society to be informed on the many issues
that impact their lives from the more mundane to the profound. Without mass media many of us would
be living in a virtual information vacuum dependent for information on face to face contacts.

Furthermore, now that the more traditional mass media like radio, television, printed newspapers ha~e
been augmented by the newer forms the internet offers, accessibility has greatly improved. InformatiOn
flows may be streamed onto hand held devices at great speed and low oost in a wireless free
environment. In addition to that, the mass media, in whatever form, allows people to be more deeply
Informed on political issues, health issues, weather patterns, anrent events of every type incl~ing
births, marriage and deaths. Local, national and internationally significant occurrences are available to

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- ~ has the requisite device. Moreover, ,.,;~-~tall sertou~~;~~
C~;;;~~-~~-~ -
e n ~ t of sport., music, movies, theatre, comedy and O!lebrtty gazing. The mass media satisfies this
cuttural craving as wel from the subltme to the ridk:ulous.

I t>eleYe that mass media is, in balance, a Vf!Sy PQSltiYe Influence. It enriches the dally life of countless
mlllOOS In ~undreds of d~~ l a ~ . Television alone, provides a heady mix of the lighthearted
and the senous, both enterta,nmg and llfonnlng al segments of society. The new mass media has had a
protound effect on the education of many and eased the ability to communicate with family and extend
friendship patterns beyond the narrow confines of one's Immediate circle. Face book and Twitter played a
majOr role In the overttvow of Arab dk:tatorshlps by revealing the truth of ordinary peoples' ltves and
their oourage In ttlis Arab Sprtng.

In my own experie ,ce, I have deloht in the ability to read twenty newspapers throughout the world on a
daily baSis from my room or in a cafe, educating myself about the latest Impeachment trial here of a
Chief Justice . Attemativety, I c.an leap abroad and read about the Republican Primary oontest for the US
PreSideflCY or the relief that a Jon Stewart comedy video dip offers me on the Hufflngton Post.
I the efore think the mass media is a basic part of a healthy democracy. Used positively it empowers and
enlightens.

went eount-358.
a. Second sample answer (a negative influence)
Mass media ts important because it is a means for people in society to be Informed on the many Issues
that impact their lives from the more mundane to the profound. Without mass media many of us would
be living In a virtual Information vacuum dependent for information on face to face contacts.

FurthermOre, now that the more traditional mass media like radio, television and printed newspapers,
have been augmessted by the newer forms the Internet offers, accessibility has greatly Improved.
Information flows may be streamed onto hand held devices at great speed and low cost In a wireless free
environment. In addition to that, the mass media, in whatever form, allows people to be more deeply
informed on political issues, health issues, weather patterns, rurrent events of every type including
births, marriage and deaths, LoaJI, national and Internationally significant occurrences are available to
anyone who has the devkE needed. Moreover, life Is not all serious business. Cultural life Includes the
enjoyment of sport, music, movies, theatre, comedy and celebrity gazing. The mass media satisfies this
culb.Jral craving as well, from the sublime to the ridiculous.

I believe that mass media is, largely a Verf negative Influence. It destroys the minds of count1ess
millions in hundreds of different languages. Television alone, basically lobotomizes people addicted to
totally mindless entertainment like soap operas and games shows. Very few bother to watch programs
that may actuaUy educate. Those who do use the Internet end up addicted to Fac:ebook and polnttess
chatting. The mass media is also largely oontrolled by media moguls whose only Interest Is profit. Much
of what pretends to be news is actually just infomercials with some catastrophe or ottler wrap~ lation
around commercials for toothpaste, skin whitener or hair shampoo. The mass media Is pure man pu
by the wealthy few.
pie who are experts In the latest gossip or scandal about a
In my own experience, I know many pee tiv tters llke judicial or polltieal corruption. Mass
celebrity but completely ignorant about more substan ~ ectucatiOn or social invoivement to
media, traditional or new, has done precisely nothing to ance
improve society,

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I therefore think the mass media Is a basic part of an extremely sick society. It largely demeans and
undermines democracy and encourages stupidity, pornography and mindlessness.

Wont C.ount 357.

6. The Internet has made traditional libraries unnecessary.

To what extent do you agree or disagree? Discuss giving examples from your own
knowledge and experience.

A. First sample answer (supporting this Idea)

Some people think that the Internet will never replace the libraries often found in high schools, oolleges
and in the community. Libraries of bricks and mortar, full of books arranged by subject and readily
accessible by finding the desired book cataloged there, In their view, will always be a fundamental part of
society.

Furthermore they believe that libraries are natural meeting places where people of au ages can mingle
and enjoy the presence c:l others in the relative peace and quiet that libraries offer. There is a kind of
tranquility in libraries rarely experienced anywhere else in the hurly-burly of life. Others also are of the
opinion that the touch and feel of information on paper and bound In books has a special quality that
may never be replaced by digitally accessed material. It may be hard to deflne this aspect of reading and
learning but many would acknowledge It as Important and worth preserving.

However, I believe that traditional libraries are bound for the trash bin of life. The internet has made
books Irrelevant. The internet has made the destruction of forests unnecessary as a paper1ess future is
promised. Moreover, traditional libraries are expensive to build, maintain and staff. The/ are often
inconveniently located, particularly in busy cities where roads are poor1y maintained or heavy with traffic.
One may avoid all this by doing any required reading on the internet. In addition, research sites like
Wikipedia or even now, Encyclopedia Britannica are available on-line and Instantly updatable by the
researchers that contribute to them. One need not rely on outdated, printed materials anymcre.

In my own experience, I have completed a further degree in Second language learning entirety on-line.
Skype and Viber enabled both face to face video conferencing to augment email wonc and
communication. lnere were no bricks or mortar anywhere.

I therefore believe that the internet has killed traditional libraries stone dead. They will be e-1entJJally
consigned to history, perhaps missed nostalgically but replaced by superior technology.

Went Count -330 words

B. Second sample answer ( opposing this Idea)

There are people who believe that traditional libraries are bound for the trash bin of life. Toe internet, in
their opinion, has made books irrelevant.

Moreover traditional libraries In their view are expensive to build, maintain and staff. Toey a": oftenffic
I I I I ta. ed heavy With tra
inconvenlentty located, particularly in busy cities where road~ are poorty ma~. '" or rch resources lik~
One may avoid all this by doing any required reading on the internet. In addition,,= that contribute to
Encyclopedia Britannica are available on-line and instantly updatable by the rese.a to librarieS to access
them. One need not rely on outdated printed materials anymore or the need to go
research materials.

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However, I believe that the Internet will never replace the libraries often found In high schools, colleges
and In the community. Ubrartes of bricks and mortar, full of books arranged by subject and readily
accesslble by finding the desired book cataloged there will always be a fundamental part of society.
Furthermore, libraries are natural meeting places whe:e people of all ages can mingle and enjoy the
presence of others In the relatlve peace and quiet that libraries offer. There Is a kind of tranquility in
UbrarieS rarely experienced anywhere else In the hurly-burly of life. I also feel that the touch and feel of
lnfomlatlon on paper and bound In books has a special quality that may never be replaced by digitally
accessed material. It may be hard to define this aspect of reading and teaming but many would
acknOWledQe It as Important and worth preserving.

In my own experience I have seen traditional llbrartes not only embraee the new technology but provide
free Internet access for the poorer members of society. The libraries thus cater to those who prefer the
prtnted form and the digital form In a safe environment.

Therefore I believe that traditional libraries are not in conflict with the digital age. They have simply
adapted to the new technology and allow the community to share this, preventing the dreadful isolatiOn
threatened by billions accessing the Internet alone in their rooms.

W(nf ColH1t-343

7. In the future, the younger generation will have nothing to learn from their parents or
grandparents. Do you agree or disagree? Discuss, giving examples from your own
knowledge and experience.

A. First sample answer (for the position that the notion is true)

I believe that the young will have nothing, or very little, to learn from their elders in the future.
Technology has made the immediate family and the traditional transmission of knowledge almost
unnecessary.

Moreover, apart from the earliest years of nurturing, parents and grandparents tend to be largely or
rompletely ignorant about how to aa:ess the almost limitless information available on-line. Teachers,
without any parental Input, may transmit the basics on how to use the evolving tools necessary to tap
into the web-based courses in numeracy and literacy. Furthermore, younger people display far greater
dexterity and mental acumen than their elders in the simple mechanics of the utilization of these new
tools. Youthful minds, not set In outmoded habits and prejudices, are better placed to exploit the
Information on the web with far better learning outcomes than their elders are capable of and at much
greater speed.
In addition to that, the future will present problems that require solutions of creative, adaptive minds
freed from the limits of outmoded theory and practice. Toe older generations are a barrier to this
intellectual and mental freedom. Only educated youth can drive the future in positive ways. Otherwise
they are limited by the straightjacket of the past.

In my own experience I have seen grade school children here at well funded schools using laptops in a
paper1ess dassrOOm teaching themselves numeracy skills from programs streamed at levels appropriate
to each student's competency level. Their parents are not needed In this educational and learning
process. This gap will only grow with time.

I therefore am of the opinion that the younger ~ration have left the traditional :,vomb of the family.
The great bulk of all their learning experiences will occur apart from those generations that preceded
them.

10 IP a g e