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circuits
SUBJECT: semiconductors components TITLE: Semiconductors
and devices components
TRAINING AIMS:
� Draw semiconductors schematic and symbol
� Locate specifications from data-sheet
� Implement semiconductors in different circuits
� Test semiconductors components ( diode, LED,...)
� Test bipolar transistor (NPN, PNP)
� Analyze operating characteristic
DESCRIPTION OF TASKS:
Introduction :
Semiconductors materials such as silicon (Si), germanium (Ge) and gallium arsenide
(GaAs), have electrical properties somewhere in the middle, between those of a
"conductor" and an "insulator". They are not good conductors nor good insulators (hence
their name "semi"-conductors).
1). Semiconductors contain two types of mobile charge carriers, Holes and Electrons
Electrons.
2). The holes are positively charged while the electrons negatively charged.
3). A semiconductor may be doped with donor impurities such as Antimony (N-type
doping), so that it contains mobile charges which are primarily electrons.
4). A semiconductor may be doped with acceptor impurities such as Boron (P-type
doping), so that it contains mobile charges which are mainly holes.
5). The junction region itself has no charge carriers and is known as the depletion
region.
6). The junction (depletion) region has a physical thickness that varies with the applied
voltage.
7).When a diode is Zero Biased no external energy source is applied and a natural
Potential Barrier is developed across a depletion layer which is approximately 0.5 to
0.7v for silicon diodes and approximately 0.3 of a volt for germanium diodes.
8). When a junction diode is Forward Biased the thickness of the depletion region
reduces and the diode acts like a short circuit allowing full current to flow.
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9). When a junction diode is Reverse Biased the thickness of the depletion region
increases and the diode acts like an open circuit blocking any current flow, (only a very
small leakage current).
The PN junction
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Applications 1 : Power Diode Rectifier
3- Comment :
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Applications 2 : Full Wave Rectifier
3- Comment :
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The Zener diode
The Zener diode is the simplest types of voltage regulator and the point at which a
Zener diode breaks down or conducts is called the "Zener Voltage" ( Vz ).
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Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
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Bipolar Transistor Basics
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Testing BJT
Use a multimeter switched to a range suitable for testing transistor junctions .Follow the
numbered sequence of tests in Figure to find out if the transistor is good or faulty.
Before you begin these tests, make sure you know which of your meter leads is positive
and which is negative. Remember that analogue meters may have the polarity of their
red and black meter leads reversed when measuring resistance.
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Test reverse resistance of base−emitter and base
base− −collector junctions.
base−
5. Now connect the negative lead of your meter to the base and the positive lead to
another pin as shown at 5 in Figure above.
6. Finally connect the positive probe to the other untested pin as shown at 6 in Figure
above.
In tests 5 and 6 both junctions should read infinity. If all of these six tests are OK you
have a good transistor. If one or more of the tests has failed, so has the transistor!
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2- The Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit
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The NPN Transistor Configuration
Example 1
Example 2
An NPN Transistor has a DC base bias voltage, Vb of 10v and an input base
resistor, Rb of 100kΩ. What will be the value of the base current into the transistor.
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The PNP Transistor Configuration
We saw in the first tutorial of this transistors section, that transistors are basically made
up of two Diodes connected together back-to-back. We can use this analogy to
determine whether a transistor is of the PNP type or NPN type by testing
its Resistance between the three different leads, Emitter, Base and Collector. By
testing each pair of transistor leads in both directions with a multimeter will result in six
tests in total with the expected resistance values in Ohm's given below.
1. Emitter-Base Terminals - The Emitter to Base should act like a normal diode and
conduct one way only.
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The Transistor as a Switch
Operating Regions
The pink shaded area at the bottom of the curves represents the "Cut-off" region while
the blue area to the left represents the "Saturation" region of the transistor. Both these
transistor regions are defined as:
1. Cut-off Region
Here the operating conditions of the transistor are zero input base current ( IB ), zero
output collector current ( IC ) and maximum collector voltage ( VCE ) which results in a
large depletion layer and no current flowing through the device. Therefore the transistor
is switched "Fully-OFF".
Cut-off Characteristics
hen we can define the "cut-off region" or "OFF mode" when using a bipolar transistor as
a switch as being, both junctions reverse biased, VB < 0.7v and IC = 0. For a PNP
transistor, the Emitter potential must be negative with respect to the Base.
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The input and Base are grounded ( 0v )
Base-Emitter voltage VBE < 0.7v
Base-Emitter junction is reverse biased
Base-Collector junction is reverse biased
Transistor is "fully-OFF" ( Cut-off region )
No Collector current flows ( IC = 0 )
VOUT = VCE = VCC
Transistor operates as an "open switch"
2. Saturation Region
Here the transistor will be biased so that the maximum amount of base current is
applied, resulting in maximum collector current resulting in the minimum collector
emitter voltage drop which results in the depletion layer being as small as possible
and maximum current flowing through the transistor. Therefore the transistor is
switched "Fully-ON".
Saturation Characteristics
Then we can define the "saturation region" or "ON mode" when using a bipolar
transistor as a switch as being, both junctions forward
biased, VB > 0.7v and IC = Maximum. For a PNP transistor, the Emitter potential must
be positive with respect to the Base.
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Basic NPN Transistor Switching Circuit
Circuit Notes
This circuit is a modified Hartley oscillator with a couple of extra components included.
The transformer is a small audio transformer, type LT700. The primary is center tapped
with an impedance of 1Kohms at 1KHz . The secondary has an impedance of 8 ohms.
The inclusion of R1 and C1 give this oscillator its characteristic "chirp". As the 100u
capacitor charges via the 4.7K resistor, R1 the bias for the transistor is cut off. This
causes the oscillation to stop, the capacitor discharges through the base emitter circuit
of the transistor and oscillations start again. Altering these components alters the
frequency of the chirp. The chirp is also voltage dependent. When the push button
switch is operated the 100u capacitor is charged. When its released, the oscillation
decays and the chirp becomes faster.
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Application :
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COURSE TITLE: Basic electronics and COURSE CODE: EECIM02
circuits
SUBJECT: Work on AC-DC/DC-AC power TITLE: Power supplies
supplies
TRAINING AIMS:
� Draw schematic diagram of common types of power supply
� Test components
� Construct and build power supply circuit 12VDC
� Analyze the function of each section
� Draw waveform of each section
� Diagnose abnormal function
� Replace defective component
� Repair defective connection
� Check circuit worked before applying power
DESCRIPTION OF TASKS:
Power supplies in recent times have greatly improved in reliability but, because they have to
handle considerably higher voltages and currents than any or most of the circuitry they supply,
they are often the most susceptible to failure of any part of an electronic system.
Modern power supplies have also increased greatly in their complexity, and can supply very
stable output voltages controlled by feedback systems. Many power supply circuits also
to prevent dangerous over voltage or over current automatic safety circuitscontain
situations.
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Warning
Safety Information
If you are considering building or repairing a power supply, especially one that is powered from
mains (line) voltages the power supply modules on this site will help you understand how many
commonly encountered circuits work. However you must realize that the voltages and currents
present in many power supplies are, at best dangerous, and can be present even when the
power supply is switched off! At worst, the high voltages present in power supplies can, and from
time to time do KILL.
TP4
TP2 TP3
TP1
L1 = Step down transformer with i/p of 230 AC 50 Hz and output of (XX ) - 0- (XX)) volts(rms).
XX = Required DC output voltage.
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Here is the table for different voltages
Components
� Waveform on TP1 :
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� Waveform on TP2 :
� Waveform on TP3 :
� Waveform on TP4
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5V/9V/12V fixed power supply (Negative)
L1 = Step down transformer with i/p of 230 AC 50 Hz and output of (XX ) - 0- (XX)) volts(rms).
XX = Required DC output voltages.
We use the same components value as previous circuit, only the regulator change
Additional note: It's safer to put one heat sink to 78XXX and 79XX IC for safeguarding the IC
from overheating
In case you are using both the power supplies the ground connection of both positive and
negative power supplies can be shorted.
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The Rectifier Stage
� With diodes
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Power Supply Basics Quiz
1.
• a) Rectifier.
• b) Reservoir Capacitor.
• c) Low Pass Filter.
• d) Regulator
2.
Refer to Fig 1.3.1. What is the function of block A ?
• a) Transformer.
• b) Full Wave Rectifier
• c) Bridge Rectifier
• d) Reservoir Capacitor
3.
Refer to Fig 1.3.1. What will be the approximate value of the DC component of the waveform at the output of
block A?
a) VPK x 0.318
b) VPK x 0.5
c) VPK x 0.637
d) VPK x 0.707
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4.
Refer to Fig 1.3.2. If input B is more positive than input A, which diodes will be conducting?
• a) D1 and D2
• b) D2 and D3
• c) D1 and D4
• d) D3 and D4
5.
Refer to Fig 1.3.2. If D4 were to go short circuit, what would be the effect on the operation of the circuit?
6.
What is the action of the reservoir capacitor in a basic power supply circuit?
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7.
Which of the following is an advantage of using a L C low pass filter rather than a RC low pass filter in a power
supply?
• a) The reactance of L will be much lower than the resistance of R at mains frequency.
• b) The reactance of L will be much higher than the resistance of R at mains frequency.
• c) An inductor can dissipate more power than a resistor.
• d) LC filters are less expensive than RC filters.
8.
• a) 5W
• b) 2W
• c) 500mW
• d) 50mW
9.
Refer to Fig 1.3.3. What will be the approximate value of DC across C1?
• a) 3.8V
• b) 7.6V
• c) 10.8V
• d) 14.5V
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Voltage Regulators
Table 1
5.0V,
6.2V,
VOUT +
LM78Lxx 8.2V, 100mA 35V
1.7V
9.0V, 12V,
15V
5.0V,
5.2V,
6.0V,
8.0V,
35 or 40V
8.5V, VOUT +
LM78xx 1A dependent on
9.0V, 2.5V
type
12.0V,
15.0V,
18.0V,
24.0V
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Protection Diode Used With 7805 & Large Capacitors
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Application : multiple output power supply
Circuit Notes
This circuit uses a single DC input (nominally 12 Volt) and converts to four
simultaneous output voltages of 12, 9, 6, 5 Volt . The output voltages are controlled by
common 78xx series regulators, offering 12,9, 6 and 5 Volt DC outputs.
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Variable DC Power Supply
• R5 1R 5W Resistor
Notes:
•
P1 sets the maximum output current you want to be delivered by the power supply
at a given output voltage.
•
P2 sets the output voltage and must be a logarithmic taper type, in order to obtain
a more linear scale voltage indication.
•
You can choose the Transformer on the grounds of maximum voltage and current
output needed.
• Best choices are: 36, 40 or 48V center-tapped and 50, 75, 80 or 100VA.
•
Capacitor C1 can be 2200 to 6800µF, 35 to 50V.
•
Q4 must be mounted on a good heat-sink in order to withstand sustained output
short-circuit.
•
In some cases the rear panel of the metal box in which you will enclose the circuit
can do the job.
•
The 2N3055 transistor (Q4) can be replaced with the slightly less powerful
TIP3055 type.
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COURSE TITLE: Basic electronics and COURSE CODE: EECIM02
circuits
SUBJECT: Work on fundamental electronic TITLE: Fundamental electronic
circuits circuit
TRAINING AIMS:
• Draw semiconductors schematic and symbol
• Locate specifications from data-sheet
• Implement semiconductors in different circuits
• Test semiconductors components
• Analyze operating characteristic
DESCRIPTION OF TASKS:
Transistor as an amplifier
1- DC mode
Voltage Gain
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2- The Common Emitter Amplifier Circuit
Current gain
Current Gain
Example
An NPN Transistor has a DC current gain, (Beta) value of 200. Calculate the base
current Ib required to switch a resistive load of 4mA.
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How to test a transistor :
Example 1
An NPN Transistor has a DC base bias voltage, Vb of 10v and an input base resistor,
Rb of 100kΩ. What will be the value of the base current into the transistor.
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Application 1 :
Use ECG manuals, or transistor data-book, to locate data sheet for
C9013
C1061
2N3906
2N2222
Application 2 :
Use data-book, to locate data sheet for
IC 7805
IC 7809
LM 381
Darlington Transistors simply contain two individual bipolar NPN or PNP type
transistors connected together so that the current gain of the first transistor is
multiplied with that of the current gain of the second transistor to produce a device
which acts like a single transistor with a very high current gain for a much smaller
Base current. The overall current gain Beta (β) or Hfe value of a Darlington device is
the product of the two individual gains of the transistors and is given as
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Application :
1- Calculate all labeled currents in this Darlington pair circuit (shown in this
schematic in conventional flow notation), assuming a typical forward base-emitter
junction voltage drop of 0.7 volts for each transistor:
2- Complete the table of output voltages for several given values of input voltage in
this common-collector amplifier circuit. Assume that the transistor is a standard
silicon NPN unit, with a nominal base-emitter junction forward voltage of 0.7 volts:
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AC mode :
Transistor as a switch
1- Cut-off Characteristics
we can define the "cut-off region" or "OFF mode" when using a bipolar transistor as
a switch as being, both junctions reverse biased, VB < 0.7v and IC = 0. For a PNP
transistor, the Emitter potential must be negative with respect to the Base.
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2. Saturation
( We can chose the capacitors value : C1 = 10 nF, C2 = 47nF ) Place LEDs in the output
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Fundamental circuit
Light/dark detector
You want do a dark sensor with a LDR, one transistor and one LED and you don't
know how to do it? In this small tutorial I will explain to you how you can do that even
if you know only the basics of electronic.
1 Breadboard;
1 Power source of 12v;
1 Transistor (in this case we use the BC547);
1 Resistor of 330 Ω ( LED protection);
1 Resistor of 100K Ω (or potentiometer)
1 LED (in this case blue);
1 LDR:
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Application : LED flasher
• Replace the capacitors , did the flash timing still the same ?
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COURSE TITLE: Basic electronics and COURSE CODE: EECIM02
circuits
SUBJECT: Troubleshoot and repair TITLE: Troubleshoot and repair
electronic circuits
TRAINING AIMS:
� Operate and test electronics devices
� Adjust the controls for normal operation
� Identify common troubles
� Observe symptoms
� Replace damaged components
� Analyze default and determine the root cause
� Check and recheck the circuit
DESCRIPTION OF TASKS:
Application 1:
Transistor Amplifier
This simple amplifier that can be used for a variety of different things. Because the
8ohm speakers are very quiet, it wasn't worth connecting a 1/4 in. connect it to a very
simple transistor amplifier.
Materials:
-small audio transformer (too big makes it sound fuzzy)
-0.1µf ceramic disk capacitor (104)
-2n3904 NPN transistor
-two 8ohm speakers
-3.5 mm male audio jack
-wire
-SPST switch
-10k potentiometer
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Application 2:
NOTE
Signal In
This is the input signal and should not really be greater than about 100mV (0.1v), otherwise the
output could be distorted
C1 decouples the input from any DC signal. It should be removed if the circuit you are connecting to
also has a decoupling capacitor on its output.
Signal Out
The output will be an amplified version of the input and inverted (ie. when the input goes positive,
the output will go negative - and vice versa).
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4- Change the value of resistance R2, what happen ?
5- Change the transistor by another, how the hfe of transistor affect on the output signal ?
Application 3 :
Circuit diagram of low power transistor amplifier.
Notes.
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