Chapter 3

Learning may be defined as a relatively permanent change in

behavior or knowledge due to experience. When a person
behaves differently from what he previously did, it can be
said that there is change in the person’s behavior. With
change there is learning.

A change in behavior happens due to any or both of the

following:

1. Learning

2. Other causes such as drugs, injury, disease and maturation.

2. OPERANT CONDITIONING

It may be defined as a type of learning where people learn to

repeat behaviors that bring them pleasurable outcomes and
to avoid behaviors that lead to uncomfortable outcomes.

Theories of Learning

1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

It may be defined as a type of learning in which a stimulus

acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally
evoked by another stimulus.

A stimulus is something that incites action.

3. SOCIAL LEARNING

It is may be defined as the process or observing the

behavior of other, recognizing its consequences, and altering
behavior as a result.

How Social Learning is Achieved

1. by observing what happens to other people

 2. by being told about something It varies in terms of brightness, color, depth, and sound, and
because of these, perception is affected.
3. through direct experience

c. Figure-ground Separation
Perception
It is a factor that may affect visual perception. The figure is
The process by which people select, organize, interpret,
the one being looked at, and the ground is the background
retrieve, and respond to information from their environment.
against which stands.

d. Size

The size of the target is also a factor that may affect

perception. Those that are smaller or larger than the average
are perceived differently.

e. Motion

In terms of motion, moving objects are perceived differently

from stationary objects.

FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION f. Repetition or novelty

Repetition affects perception. For example, when a person is

1. The Perceiver
The person who perceives the target is the perceiver. His
perception of the target is influenced by factors that are
unique to him, like the following:
repeatedly exposed to a particular music, that person gets
used to it and chances are, he becomes fond of it.
3. The Situation

a. his past experience Perception is also affected by the surrounding environment.

b. his needs or motives

c. his personality For example, a person who is enjoying a meal with tribal
people in the hinterlands may be well received even if he
d. his values and attitudes uses his bare hands. He will be perceived differently when he
does the same in the dining halls of the privilege class in the
city.
2. The Target

The person, object, or event that is perceived by another

The situational factors that affect perception:
person is the target. Perception may be modified by the
following factors which are typical characteristics of targets: a. Time

As people’s moods vary from time to time, perception also

varies depending on the time the perception is made.
a. Contrast

If during the perception process, the target is situated in a

background of contrast, perception is affected.

b. Work Setting
b. Intensity
Workplaces differ from one another. As such, perception also Selective perception happens when a person selectively
differs from workplace to workplace. interprets what he sees on the basis of his interest,
background, experience, and attitudes.

c. Social Setting

The social setting is also a factor in perception.

2. Halo Effect

Halo effect occurs when one attribute of a person or

Attribution theory is the process by which people ascribe
situation is used to develop an overall impression of the
causes to the behavior they perceive.
person or situation.

COMMON ATTRIBUTION ERRORS

3. Contrast Effects
1. The fundamental attribution errors
Contrasting situations, oftentimes, lead to inaccurate
Refers to the tendency to underestimate the influence of evaluation of a person’s character and ability.
external factors and overestimate the influence of internal or
personal factors in the behavior of others.
4. Projection

Projection is attributing one’s own thoughts, feelings, or

2. The self-serving bias
motives to another. It is likely to occur in the interpretation
It is a type of attribution error whereby people tend to stage of perception.
attribute their achievements to their good inner qualities,
whereas they attribute their failures to adverse factors within
the environment.

5. Stereotyping

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ATTRIBUTION Stereotyping refers to judging someone on the basis of one’s
perception of the group to which that person belongs.
1. Distinctiveness

The consideration is given to how consistent a person’s

behavior is across different situations is referred to as Chapter 4
distinctiveness.
VALUES, ATTITUDES, AND JOB SATISFACTION

2. Consensus
Values refer to the importance a person attaches to things or
This refers to the likelihood that all those facing the same ideas that serves as guide to action.
situation will have similar responses.

HOW PEOPLE LEARN VALUES

3. Consistency
1. MODELING
This refers to the measure of whether an individual
Parents, teachers, friends, and other people oftentimes
responds the same way across time.
become models to persons who would later exhibit good
behavior in the workplace.

SHORTCUT USED IN FORMIN IMPRESSIONS OF OTHERS

1. Selective Perception 2. COMMUNICATION OF ATTITUDES

When a person often hears form acquaintances the risk of
buying products imported from a certain country, the person
may develop negative values about that country.

3. UNSTATED BUT IMPLIED ATTITUDES

Values may also be affected by attitudes that are not stated

but are implied by way of action.

4. RELIGION

Values are also learned through religion.

TYPES OF VALUES ESPOUSED VS. ENACTED VALUES

1. Achievement

This is a value that pertains to getting things done and Espoused values
working hard to accomplish goals. are what members of the organization say they value.

2. Helping and concern for others Enacted values

This value refers to the person’s concern with other people are reflected in the actual behavior of the individual
and providing assistance to those who need help. members of the organization.

3. Honesty INSTRUMENTAL & TERMINAL VALUES

This is a value that indicates the person’s concern for telling Another classification of values may be presented as follow:
the truth and doing what he thinks is right.

Instrumental values
4. Fairness
It is refer to preferable mode of behavior or means of
This is a value that indicates the person’s concern for achieving the terminal values.
impartially and fairness for all concerned.

Terminal values
EFFECTS OF VALUE CONGRUENCE AND INCONGRUENCE
It represents the goals that a person would like to achieve in
his or her lifetime.
 MOST IMPORTANT ATTITUDES IN THE WORKPLACE

1. Job satisfaction

2. Job involvement

3. Organizational Commitment

EFFECTS OF EMPLOYEE ATTITUDES

1. Positive job attitudes

ATTITUDES
indicate job satisfaction and are useful in predicting
Attitudes are the feelings and beliefs that largely determine constructive behaviors.
how employees will perceive their environment, commit
themselves to intended actions, and ultimately behave.
2. Negative job attitudes

Attitudes reflect how one feels about something. are also useful in predicting undesirable behavior.

THE MAIN COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDES

1. COGNITIVE COMPONENT

refers to the opinion or belief segment of an attitude.

2. AFFECTIVE COMPONENT

refers to the emotional or feeling segment.

3. BEHAVIORAL COMPONENT

refers to the intention to behave in a certain way toward

someone or something.

DIFFERENCES IN PERSONAL DISPOSITION

JOB SATISFACTION & JOB DISATISFACTION

POSITIVELY AFFECTIVITY - Optimist

refers to personal characteristic of employees that inclines Job Satisfaction

them to be predisposed to be satisfied at work.
Refers to the positive feeling about one’s job resulting from
an evaluation of its characteristics.

NEGATIVITY AFFECTIVITY - Pessimist

refers to personal characteristic of employees that inclines Job Dissatisfaction

them to be predisposed to be dissatisfied at work.
When the feeling about one’s job is not positive.
 The summation score method

When people are satisfied with their job, the following Is an approach where individuals indicate their feelings
benefits become possible: regarding each key factors of their job. The factors would
normally consist of the work , supervision, current salary,
promotion opportunities, and relations with co-workers.
1. High productivity

2. A stronger tendency to achieve customer loyalty

JOB INVOLVEMENT
3. Loyalty to the company
A positive employee attitude that refers to the degree to
4. Low absenteeism and turnover which a person identifies with the job, actively participates in
it, and considers performance important to self worth.
5. Less job stress and burnout

6. Better safety performance

ORGANIZATIONAL INVOLVEMENT
7. Better life satisfaction
Refers to the degree to which an employee identifies with a
particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain
membership in the organization.
FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH JOB SATISFACTION

Organizational commitment may be categorized into three

1. Salary
dimensions:
2. Work itself
1. Affective commitment
3. Promotion opportunity
2. Continuance commitment
4. Quality of supervision
3. Normative commitment
5. Relationship with co-workers

6. Working conditions

7. Job security

WAYS OF MEASURING JOB SATISFACTION

The single global rating method

Refers to the approach where individuals are asked to

respond to a single question, “How satisfied are you with
your job?”. The respondents indicate the answers by putting
a check before any of the numbers from 5 to 1

_____1) highly satisfied

_____2) moderately satisfied

_____3) indifferent

_____4) moderately dissatisfied

_____5) highly dissatisfied