Electrical Engineering Materials Sheraj Sir All in One

Electrical Engineering
Materials
EE 3219
Dr. Md. Sherajul Islam

Associate Professor
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Khulna University of Engineering & Technology
Khulna, Bangladesh
LECTURE - 1
Elementary Materials Science Concepts
UNIVERSE STRONG
WEAK
HYPERBOLIC ELECTROMAGNET
EUCLIDEAN SPACE ENERGY GRAVITY
SPHERICAL
nD + t
PARTICLES FIELDS
METAL
ATOMIC NON-ATOMIC
SEMI-METAL BAND STRUCTURE
SEMI-CONDUCTOR
INSULATOR STATE / VISCOSITY
LIQUID
GAS SOLID LIQUID CRYSTALS
STRUCTURE
AMORPHOUS QUASICRYSTALS RATIONAL CRYSTALS

APPROXIMANTS
SIZE
NANO-QUASICRYSTALS NANOCRYSTALS
Solids
• Solids consist of atoms or molecules undergoing

thermal motion about their equilibrium positions,
which are at fixed points in space.
STRUCTURE OF SOLIDS
 Types of solids based on structure

 Types of solids based on bonding
Bonding and Types of Solids
Bonding Energies and Forces
repulsion
Potential Energy, E
0
attraction
equilibrium
Typical potential between two atoms
Repulsion when they are brought close together

Related to Pauli principle
(As electron clouds overlap energy increases)
Attractive part: at large distances

(Depends on type of bonding)
• This typical curve has a
minimum at equilibrium
distance R0 V(R)
• R > R0 ;
– the potential increases
gradually, approaching Repulsive
0 as R∞
– the force is attractive 0 R0
• R < R0; R
– the potential increases Attractive
very rapidly,
approaching ∞ at small R
r
separation.
– the force is repulsive
Force between the atoms is the negative of the slope of this curve.
At equlibrium, repulsive force becomes equals to the attractive part.
The potential energy of either atom will be given by:
V= decrease in potential energy+increase in potential energy

(due to attraction) (due to repulsion)
or simply:
−a b
V (=
r) m
+ n
r r
V(r): the net potential energy of interaction as function of r
r: the distance between atoms, ions, or molecules
a,b: proportionality constant of attraction and repulsion,

respectively
m, n: constant characteristics of each type of bond and type

of structure
•Primary Bonds
Ionic
Covalent
Metallic
•Secondary Bonding
Van der Waals
Hydrogen bond
•Molecules and Molecular Solids

1 - IONIC BONDING
 Ionic bonding is the electrostatic force of attraction

between positively and negatively charged ions
(between non-metals and metals).
 These ions have been produced as a result of a transfer
of electrons between two atoms with a large difference
in electro negativities.
 All ionic compounds are crystalline solids at room
temperature.
 NaCl is a typical example of ionic bonding.

• The metallic elements have only up to the valence
electrons in their outer shell will lose their electrons
and become positive ions, whereas electronegative
elements tend to acquire additional electrons to
complete their octed and become negative ions, or
anions.
Na Cl
NaCl
• Notice that when sodium loses its one valence electron it gets
smaller in size, while chlorine grows larger when it gains an
additional valance electron. After the reaction takes place, the
charged Na+ and Cl- ions are held together by electrostatic
forces, thus forming an ionic bond.
• When the Na+ and Cl- ions approach each other
closely enough so that the orbits of the electron in the
ions begin the overlap each other, then the electron
begins to repel each other by virtue of the repulsive
electrostatic coulomb force. Of course the closer
together the ions are, the grater the repulsive force.
• Pauli exclusion principle has an important role in

repulsive force. To prevent a violation of the exclusion
principle, the potential energy of the system increases
very rapidly.
Property Explanation
The melting and boiling points of ionic compounds
Melting point are high because a large amount of thermal
and boiling point energy is required to separate the ions which are
bound by strong electrical forces.
Solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity
when a potential is applied because there are no
Electrical
mobile charged particles.
conductivity
No free electrons causes the ions to be firmly
bound and cannot carry charge by moving.
Most ionic compounds are hard; the surfaces of
their crystals are not easily scratches. This is
Hardness
because the ions are bound strongly to the lattice
and aren't easily displaced.
Most ionic compounds are brittle; a crystal will
shatter if we try to distort it. This happens because
Brittleness
distortion cause ions of like charges to come close
together then sharply repel.
2 - COVALENT BONDING
• Covalent bonding takes place between atoms with small
differences in electronegativity which are close to each
other in periodic table (between non-metals and non-
metals).
• The covalent bonding is formed by sharing of outer shell
electrons (i.e., s and p electrons) between atoms rather
than by electron transfer.
• This bonding can be attained if the two atoms each
share one of the other’s electrons.
• So the noble gas electron configuration can be attained.
• Each electron in a shared pair is attracted to both nuclei
involved in the bond. The approach, electron overlap, and
attraction can be visualized as shown in the following
figure representing the nuclei and electrons in a hydrogen
molecule.
e
Property Explanation
Very high melting points because each atom is
bound by strong covalent bonds. Many covalent
Melting point
bonds must be broken if the solid is to be melted
and boiling point
and a large amount of thermal energy is required
for this.
Poor conductors because electrons are held either

Electrical
conductivity on the atoms or within covalent bonds. They
cannot move through the lattice.
They are hard because the atoms are strongly

Hardness
bound in the lattice, and are not easily displaced.
Covalent network substances are brittle.If sufficient

force is applied to a crystal, covalent bond are
Brittleness broken as the lattice is distorted. Shattering occurs
rather than deformation of a shape.
Comparison of Ionic and
Covalent Bonding
3 - METALLIC BONDING
• Metallic bonding is the type of

bonding found in metal
elements. This is the
electrostatic force of attraction
between positively charged ions
and delocalized outer electrons.
• The metallic bond is weaker

than the ionic and the covalent
bonds.
Metallic bonding is the force of attraction between valence electrons and the
metal ions. It is the sharing of many detached electrons between many positive
ions, where the electrons act as a "glue" giving the substance a definite structure.
METALLIC BONDING
• Metallic structures are typically rather empty (having
large internuclear spacings) and prefer lattice
arrangements in which each atom has many nearest
neighbors.
• The weakness of the individual bonding actions in a

metal is due to the enlargement of the internuclear
spacing.
 Valance electrons are relatively bound to the nucleus and
therefore they move freely through the metal and they are
spread out among the atoms in the form of a low-density
electron cloud.
A metallic bond result from the

sharing of a variable number of + + +
electrons by a variable number of

atoms. A metal may be described
+ + +
as a cloud of free electrons.
 Therefore, metals have high + + +

electrical and thermal conductivity.
• All valence electrons in a metal combine to form a “sea” of
electrons that move freely between the atom cores. The
more electrons, the stronger the attraction. This means the
melting and boiling points are higher, and the metal is
stronger and harder.
• The positively charged cores are held together by these
negatively charged electrons.
• The free electrons act as the bond (or as a “glue”) between
the positively charged ions.
• This type of bonding is nondirectional and is rather
insensitive to structure.
• As a result we have a high ductility of metals - the “bonds”
do not “break” when atoms are rearranged – metals can
experience a significant degree of plastic deformation.
4 - VAN DER WAALS BONDING
• It is a weak bond, with a typical strength of 0.2 eV/atom.

• It occurs between neutral atoms and molecules.
• The explanation of these weak forces of attraction is that
there are natural fluctuation in the electron density of all
molecules and these cause small temporary dipoles
within the molecules. It is these temporary dipoles that
attract one molecule to another. They are called van der
Waals' forces.
• The bigger a molecule is, the easier it is to polarise (to

form a dipole), and so the van der Waal's forces get
stronger, so bigger molecules exist as liquids or solids
rather than gases.
• The shape of a molecule influences its ability to form
temporary dipoles. Long thin molecules can pack closer to
each other than molecules that are more spherical. The
bigger the 'surface area' of a molecule, the greater the van
der Waal's forces will be and the higher the melting and
boiling points of the compound will be.
• Van der Waal's forces are of the order of 1% of the strength
of a covalent bond.
Homonuclear molecules,
such as iodine, develop Heteronuclear molecules,
temporary dipoles due to such as H-Cl have permanent
natural fluctuations of electron dipoles that attract the opposite
density within the molecule pole in other molecules.
The dipoles can be formed as a result of unbalanced distribution
of electrons in asymettrical molecules. This is caused by the
instantaneous location of a few more electrons on one side of the
nucleus than on the other.
symmetric asymmetric
Therefore atoms or molecules containing dipoles are attracted
to each other by electrostatic forces.
Display a marked
No attraction is produced
attractive forces
• These forces are due to the electrostatic attraction
between the nucleus of one atom and the electrons of
the other.
 Van der waals interaction occurs generally between

atoms which have noble gas configuration.
van der waals

bonding
5 – HYDROGEN BONDING
• A hydrogen atom, having one electron, can be covalently
bonded to only one atom. However, the hydrogen atom
can involve itself in an additional electrostatic bond with a
second atom of highly electronegative character such as
fluorine or oxygen. This second bond permits a hydrogen
bond between two atoms or strucures.
• The strength of hydrogen bonding varies from 0.1 to 0.5
ev/atom.
 Hydrogen bonds connect water
molecules in ordinary ice.
Hydrogen bonding is also very
important in proteins and
nucleic acids and therefore in
life processes.
Periodic Arrays of Atoms
Experimental Evidence of periodic
structures.
(See Kittel, Fig. 1.)
The external appearance of crystals gives some clues to this.
Fig. 1 shows that when a crystal is cleaved, we can see that it
is built up of identical “building blocks”. Further, the early
crystallographers noted that the index numbers that define plane
orientations are exact integers.
Cleaving a
Crystal
Elementary Crystallography
Solid Material
Types
Crystalline Polycrystalline Amorphous
Single
Crystals
Crystalline Solids
• A Crystalline Solid is the solid form of a substance in

which the atoms or molecules are arranged in a definite,
repeating pattern in three dimensions.
• Single Crystals, ideally have a high degree of order, or regular
geometric periodicity, throughout the entire volume of the
material.
• A Single Crystal has an atomic structure that
repeats periodically across its whole volume. Even
at infinite length scales, each atom is related to
every other equivalent atom in the structure by
translational symmetry.
Single Pyrite Crystal Amorphous Solid
Single Crystals
Polycrystalline Solids
• A Polycrystalline Solid is made up of an aggregate of
many small single crystals (crystallites or grains).
Polycrystalline materials have a high degree of order over
many atomic or molecular dimensions. These ordered
regions, or single crystal regions, vary in size & orientation
with respect to one another. These regions are called grains (or
domains) & are separated from one another by grain
boundaries.
• The atomic order can vary from one domain to the next.
The grains are usually 100 nm - 100 microns in diameter.
Polycrystals with grains that are < 10 nm in diameter are called
nanocrystallites.
Polycrystalline
Pyrite Grain
Amorphous Solids
• Amorphous (Non-crystalline) Solids are
composed of
randomly orientated atoms, ions, or molecules
that do not form defined patterns or lattice
structures. Amorphous materials have order only
within a few atomic or molecular dimensions. They
do not have any long-range order, but they have
varying degrees of short-range order. Examples of
amorphous material include amorphous silicon,
plastics, & glasses.
Departures From the “Perfect Crystal”
• A “Perfect Crystal” is an idealization that does not

exist in nature. In some ways, even a crystal surface
is an imperfection, because the periodicity is
interrupted there.
• Each atom undergoes thermal vibrations around their
equilibrium positions for temperatures T > 0K. These
can also be viewed as “imperfections”.
• Real Crystals always have foreign
atoms (impurities), missing atoms
(vacancies), & atoms in between
lattice sites (interstitials) where
they should not be. Each of these
spoils the perfect crystal structure.
Crystal Lattice
A lattice is a collection of points, which are arranged in a

periodic pattern so that the surroundings of each point are
identical.
Platinum Surface Crystal Lattice

(Scanning Tunneling
Platinum Microscope) Structure of Platinum
Crystal Lattice
Mathematically 2 Dimensional Example

↓
A Lattice is Defined as ↓
an Infinite Array of y
Points in Space
B C
in which each point has b α
D E
identical surroundings
to all others. The points O a A x
are arranged exactly

in a periodic manner.
Crystal Basis
A group of one or more atoms located in a

particular way with respect to each other
and associated with each lattice point is
known as the basis or motif
.
The simplest structural unit for a given
solid is called the BASIS
Crystal Structure ≡ Lattice +
Basis
Crystalline Periodicity
• In a crystalline material, the equilibrium

positions of all the atoms form a crystal
Crystal Structure ≡ Lattice + Basis
Lattice →
2 Atom Basis →

Crystal →
Structure

For another example, see the figure.
Crystal
Structure
Lattice
↓ Basis
↓
↓

For another example, see the figure.
Basis Crystal
↓ Structure
↓
Lattice →
A Two-Dimensional (Bravais) Lattice
with Different Choices for the Basis
The atoms do not necessarily lie at lattice
points!!
Crystal Structure = Lattice + Basis
Basis
↓
Crystal →
Structure
Bravais Lattice
An infinite array of discrete points with an
arrangement and orientation that appears
exactly the same, from any of the points the
array is viewed from.
Only one way to arrange points in one dimension
such that each point has identical surroundings
Five distinct ways to arrange points in two dimensions
such that each point has identical surroundings
Fourteen unique ways to arrange points in three dimensions
All the credit to Auguste Bravais

(1811–1863) French crystallographer
Bravais Lattice
The fourteen Bravais lattices are grouped into seven crystal systems
Cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic, rhombohedral (also

known as trigonal), hexagonal, monoclinic, and triclinic
Simple cubic (SC), face-centered cubic (FCC), and body-centered cubic (BCC)
These names describe the arrangement of

lattice points in the unit cell
Fourteen Bravais Lattices
Unit cell
How the atoms are arranged in space?
A hypothetical two-dimensional crystal that consists of atoms all of the same type
Note that for each unit cell, there is only one quarter of an atom at
each corner in two dimensions.
1/4 atom corner *4 corners = 1 atom per unit cell

Lattice Parameters and Interaxial Angles
The lattice parameters are the axial lengths or

dimensions of the unit cell and are denoted by
convention as a, b, and c.
The angles between the axial lengths, known as the interaxial angles, are denoted by the Greek letters
α,β, and γ . By convention, α is the angle between the lengths b and c, β is the angle between a and c,
and γ is the angle between a and b
Directions in the Unit Cell
Miller indices for directions are the shorthand notation used to describe
these directions.
Procedure for finding the Miller indices :
1. Using a right-handed coordinate system, determine the coordinates of two points

that lie on the direction.
2. Subtract the coordinates of the “tail” point from the coordinates of the “head” point
to obtain the number of lattice parameters traveled in the direction of each axis of
the coordinate system.
3. Clear fractions and or reduce the results obtained from the subtraction to
lowest integers.
4. Enclose the numbers in square brackets [ ]. If a negative sign is produced,

represent the negative sign with a bar over the number.
Directions in the Unit Cell
Significance of Crystallographic Directions
It is much easier to magnetize iron in the [100] direction compared to the [111]
or [110] directions. This is why the grains in Fe-Si steels used in magnetic
applications (e.g., transformer cores) are oriented in the [100] or equivalent
directions
Planes in the Unit Cell
Certain planes of atoms in a crystal also carry particular significance. For example,
metals deform along planes of atoms that are most tightly packed together. The surface
energy of different faces of a crystal depends upon the particular crystallographic
planes. This becomes important in crystal growth. In thin film growth of certain
electronic materials (e.g., Si or GaAs), we need to be sure the substrate is oriented in
such a way that the thin film can grow on a particular crystallographic plane
Miller indices are used as a shorthand notation to identify these

important planes, as described in the following procedure
1. Identify the points at which the plane intercepts the x, y, and z coordinates in
terms of the number of lattice parameters. If the plane passes through the origin,
the origin of the coordinate system must be moved to that of an adjacent unit cell.
2. Take reciprocals of these intercepts.
3. Clear fractions but do not reduce to lowest integers.
4. Enclose the resulting numbers in parentheses (). Again, negative numbers should
be written with a bar over the number.
Crystalline Defects
Point Defects: Vacancies and Impurities
vacancy concentration
Point defects are localized

disruptions in otherwise perfect
atomic or ionic arrangements in a
crystal structure
A vacancy is produced when an

atom or an ion is missing from Temperature greater than room temperature
its normal site in the crystal
structure
Vacancies play an important

role in determining the rate at
which atoms or ions move
around or diffuse in a solid
material, especially in pure
metals
Impurities
Impurities are
elements or
compounds that are
present from raw
materials or
processing.
A substitutional defect
is introduced when one
atom or ion is replaced
by a different type of
atom or ion
An interstitial defect is
formed when an extra
atom or ion is inserted
into the crystal structure
at a normally
unoccupied position
Crystalline Defects
Interstitial atoms such as hydrogen are often present as impurities
Carbon atoms are intentionally added to iron to produce steel. For

small concentrations, carbon atoms occupy interstitial sites in the
iron crystal structure, introducing a stress in the localized region of
the crystal in their vicinity.
the introduction of interstitial atoms is one important way of

increasing the strength of metallic material
Point defects in ionic crystals
The missing of cation-

anion pair in an ionic When a host ion is displaced
crystal, is called a into an interstitial position,
Schottky defect. (which leaving a vacancy at its
may have migrated to the original site known as Frenkel
surface), so the neutrality defect,
is maintained
substitutional point defect

Schottky defects are
occurs when an ion of one
responsible for
charge
the major optical and
replaces an ion of a
electrical properties of
different charge.
alkali halide crystals
Line Defects: Edge and screw dislocations
A line defect is formed in a

crystal when an atomic plane
terminates within the crystal
instead of passing all the way to
the end of the crystal
Line Defects: Edge and screw dislocations
Screw dislocation, which is essentially a

shearing of one portion of the crystal
with respect to another, by one atomic
distance
Dislocations increase the resistivity

of materials, cause significant
leakage current in a pn junction, and
give rise to unwanted noise in
various semiconductor devices.
Planar Defects: Grain boundaries
For electrical engineers, the

grain boundaries become
important when designing
electronic devices based on
polysilicon or any
polycrystalline semiconductor.
For example, in highly
polycrystalline materials,
particularly thin-film
semiconductors
(e.g., polysilicon), the resistivity
is invariably determined by
polycrystallinity, or grain
size, of the material.
Materials
EE 3219

Associate Professor

Khulna, Bangladesh
LECTURE - 2
Electrical and thermal conduction in solids
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
In terms of electrical properties, the materials can be divided into three groups
(1) conductors (2) semi conductors and (3) dielectrics (or) insulators.
Electric current
The rate of flow of charge through a conductor is
known as the current. If a charge ‘dq’ flows through the
conductor for ‘dt’ second then
dq
Electric current (I)=
dt
Ohm’s law
At constant temperature, the potential difference

between the two ends of a conductor is directly proportional to
the current that passes through it. where R = resistance of the
conductor
Vα I (or) V = IR
Resistance of a conductor
The resistance (R) of a conductor is the ratio of the
potential difference (V) applied to the conductor to the
current (I) that passes through it.
V
Resistance ( R ) =
I
The specific resistance (or) resistivity of a conductor

The resistance (R) of conductor depends upon its
length (L) and cross sectional area (A) i.e.,
L L
Rα or R=ρ
A A
where ρ is a proportional constant and is known as the
specific resistance (or ) resistivity of the material.
The electrical conductivity is also defined as” the

charge that flows in unit time per unit area of cross section
of the conductor per unit potential gradient”. The resistivity
and conductivity of materials are pictured as shown below,
Resistivity ( ohm metre )
15 12 9 6 3 −3 −6
10 10 10 10 10 1 10 10
Insulators Semiconductors Metals
−15 −12 −9 −6 −3 3 6
10 10 10 10 10 1 10 10
( ohm − 1 metre −1
)
Conductivities and resistivities of materials

Conductors
The materials that conduct electricity when an
electrical potential difference is applied across them are
conductors.
A
ρ=R ohm metre
L
The resistivity of the material of a conductor is defined as

the resistance of the material having unit length and unit
cross sectional area.
The electrical conductivity (σ) of a conductor

The reciprocal of the electrical resistivity is known as
electrical conductivity (σ) and is expressed in ohm−1 metre−1.
The conductivity (σ)
1 1 L
σ= = =
ρ (
RA
L
) RA
We Know that, R = V/I
Q 
 t 
= 
L I
∴σ =
I
=
( ) ( ) ( )
V A V A V
L L
A
Free Electron Theory
The electron theory explain the structure and properties of

solids through their electronic structure.
It explains the binding in solids, behaviour of conductors

and insulators, ferromagnetism, electrical and thermal
conductivities of solids, elasticity, cohesive and repulsive
forces in solids etc.
Development of Free Electron Theory

The classical free electron theory [Drude and Lorentz]
It is a macroscopic theory, through which free electrons in
lattice and it obeys the laws of classical mechanics. Here the
electrons are assumed to move in a constant potential.
Free Electron Theory
The quantum free electron theory [Sommerfeld Theory]

It is a microscopic theory, according to this theory the electrons
in lattice moves in a constant potential and it obeys law of
quantum mechanics.
Brillouin Zone Theory [Band Theory]

Bloch developed this theory in which the electrons move in a
periodic potential provided by periodicity of crystal lattice.It
explains the mechanisms of conductivity, semiconductivity on
the basis of energy bands and hence band theory.
The Classical Free Electron Theory

According to kinetic theory of gases in a metal ,Drude
assumed free electrons are as a gas of electrons.
The Classical Free Electron Theory
• Kinetic theory treats the molecules of a gas as identical

solid spheres, which move in straight lines until they collide
with one another.
• The time taken for single collision is assumed to be

negligible, and except for the forces coming momentarily
into play each collision, no other forces are assumed to act
between the particles.
• Here is only one kind of particle present in the simplest

gases. However, in a metal, there must be at least two types
of particles, for the electrons are negatively charged and the
metal is electrically neutral.
Drude Model
Drude’s Assumptions
1. Matter consists of light negatively charged electrons which are mobile,

& heavy, static, positively charged ions.
2. The only interactions are electron-ion collisions, which take place in a

very short time t.
The neglect of the electron-electron interactions is

The Independent Electron Approximation.
The neglect of the electron-ion interactions is

The Free Electron Approximation.
11
Drude’s Assumptions Continued
3. Electron-ion collisions are assumed to dominate. These will

abruptly alter the electron velocity & maintain thermal equilibrium
4. The probability of an electron suffering a collision in a

short time dt is dt/τ, where
1/τ ≡ The Electron Scattering Rate.
Electrons emerge from each collision with both the direction &
magnitude of their velocity changed; the magnitude is changed
due to the local temperature at the collision point. 1/τ is often an
adjustable parameter. See the figure.
Ion The mean time between
collisions is τ.
Trajectory of a mobile electron 12

Drude Model
Drude Model
Drude Model
Success of classical free electron theory
It is used to verify ohm’s law.
It is used to explain the electrical and thermal

conductivities of metals.
It is used to explain the optical properties of metals.
Ductility and malleability of metals can be explained by this

model.
Drawbacks of classical free electron theory
From the classical free electron theory the value of

specific heat of metals is given by 4.5R, where ‘R’ is called
the universal gas constant. But the experimental value of
specific heat is nearly equal to 3R.
With help of this model we can’t explain the electrical

conductivity of semiconductors or insulators.
The theoretical value of paramagnetic susceptibility is

greater than the experimental value.
Ferromagnetism cannot be explained by this theory.

Materials
EE 3219

Associate Professor

Khulna, Bangladesh
LECTURE - 3
Electrical and thermal conduction in solids
Resistivity of non pure metals
Potential energy of the electron changes as it approaches the impurity

Matthiessen's Rule
An empirical rule which states that the total resistivity of a

crystalline metallic specimen is the sum of the resistivity due to
thermal agitation of the metal ions of the lattice and the resistivity
due to the presence of imperfections in the crystal.
There may also be electrons scattering from dislocations
and other crystal defects,as well as from grain boundaries
Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conduction in a metal involves transferring energy from the hot

region to the cold region by conduction electrons. More energetic electrons
(shown with longer velocity vectors) from the hotter regions arrive at cooler
regions, collide with lattice vibrations, and transfer their energy. Lengths of
Heat flow in a metal rod heated at one end . Consider

the rate of heat flow, dQ/dt, cross a thin section δx of
the rod. The rate of heat flow is proportional to the
temperature gradient δT/ δx and the cross-sectional
area A.
Fourier's law. The law of heat conduction, also known as Fourier's law,
states that the time rate of heat transfer through a material is
proportional to the negative gradient in the temperature and to the area,
at right angles to that gradient, through which the heat flows.
Wiedemann-Franz-Lorenz law
Thermal Resistance
Materials
EE 3219

Associate Professor

Khulna, Bangladesh
LECTURE - 4
Elementary quantum physics
Visible Light spectrum
Visible Light spectrum
The classical description of light
Properties of Light
Properties of Light
How electromagnetic radiation produce?
The explanation of classical physics: Light is an electromagnetic

wave that is produced when an electric charge vibrates.
“Vibrates" means any change in how the charge moves --- speeding up, slowing down,
or changing direction
Failures of classical physics I

Failures of classical physics I
Failures of classical physics II
Failures of Classical mechanics
Black Body Radiation:
WHAT IS BLACK BODY ?

A black body is a theoretical object that absorbs 100% of the radiation that
hits it. Therefore it reflects no radiation and appears perfectly black.
It is also a perfect emitter of radiation. At a particular temperature the black

body would emit the maximum amount of energy possible for that temperature.
Any object with a temperature above absolute zero emits light at all
wavelengths. If the object is perfectly black (so it doesn't reflect any
light), then the light that comes from it is called blackbody radiation.
An opaque object emits electromagnetic radiation
according to its temperature
Red stars are relatively

cool. A yellow star, such
as our own sun, is hotter.
A blue star is very hot.
Black body
radiation
• Rayleigh-Jeans law
works for low
frequencies, it
diverges at high
Now recall that heat is just the kinetic energy of random motion. In a hot object, electrons
vibrate in random directions and produce light as a result. A hotter object means more energetic
vibrations and so more light is emitted by a hotter object --- it glows brighter. So far, so good.
But classical physics could not explain the shape of the blackbody spectrum.
The electrons in a hot object can vibrate with a range of frequencies, ranging from very few
vibrations per second to a huge number of vibrations per second. In fact, there is no limit to
how great the frequency can be. Classical physics said that each frequency of vibration should
have the same energy. Since there is no limit to how great the frequency can be, there is no
limit to the energy of the vibrating electrons at high frequencies. This means that, according to
classical physics, there should be no limit to the energy of the light produced by the electrons
vibrating at high frequencies. WRONG!!Experimentally, the blackbody spectrum always
becomes small at the left-hand side (short wavelength, high frequency).
Planck’s Theory
Planck said that energy is not shared equally by electrons that vibrate with
different frequencies. Planck said that energy comes in clumps. He called a
clump of energy a quantum
energy of a quantum = (a calibration constant) x (frequency of vibration)
E = hf
where h,=6 x 10-34, very tiny!
Planck won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918
Beginning of quantum era……………

The photoelectric effect
Failures of classical physics III
Electrons trapped in metal (attracted to
positive nuclei)
Can free them if we provide enough

energy
Energy carried by light can be transferred

to electrons
BUT: we only see the effect for certain colors!?

The photoelectric effect
Using the idea that light is a wave with the energy distributed evenly throughout the wave,
classical physicists expected that when using very dim light, it would take some time for
enough light energy to build up to eject an electron from a metallic surface. WRONG!!
Experiments show that if light of a certain frequency can eject electrons from a metal, it
makes no difference how dim the light is. There is never a time delay.
Einstein to the Rescue
Light must consist of a stream of clumps of energy. Each clump of

light energy is called a photon
Energy of light is not evenly distributed along the wave, but is
concentrated in the photons. A dimmer light means fewer photons, but
simply turning down the light (without changing its frequency) does not
alter the energy of an individual photon
WAVES OR PARTICLES? BOTH!
Young’s Double Slit experiment
A diffraction pattern of alternating dark and bright fringes

WAVES OR PARTICLES? BOTH!
Light acts like a wave if you want to know how it propagates,

how it travels from one place to another.
Light acts like particles (photons) if you want to know how

light interacts with matter.
We say that light exhibits a wave-particle duality. It can

behave like either waves or particles (but not both at the
same time), depending on the situation.
Wave-Particle Duality: Light
Does light consist of particles or waves? When one focuses upon the different
types of phenomena observed with light, a strong case can be built for a wave
picture:
Can be explained in terms of
Phenomenon Can be explained in terms of particles.
waves.
Reflection
Refraction
Interference
Diffraction
Polarization
Photoelectric effect
Compton scattering
Most commonly observed phenomena with light can be explained by waves.

But the photoelectric effect and the Compton scatering suggested a particle
nature for light. Then electrons too were found to exhibit dual natures.
Wave Nature of Electron
As a young student at the University of Paris, Louis DeBroglie had been
impacted by relativity and the photoelectric effect, both of which had been
introduced in his lifetime. The photoelectric effect pointed to the particle
properties of light, which had been considered to be a wave phenomenon. He
wondered if electons and other "particles" might exhibit wave properties. The
application of these two new ideas to light pointed to an interesting possibility:
Confirmation of the DeBroglie hypothesis came in the Davisson- Germer

experiment which showed interference patterns – in agreement with
DeBroglie wavelength – for the scattering of electrons on nickel crystals.
DeBroglie Wavelengths
The de Broglie wavelength λ for macroscopic particles are negligibly small
This effect is extremely important for light particles, like electrons.

Wave or Particle (Size ??)
• Objects that are large in the absolute
sense have the property that the
wavelengths associated with them are
completely negligible compared to their
size. Therefore, large particles only
manifest their particle nature, they never
manifest their wave nature.
Electro-magnetic waves may behave sometimes like particles
(photons).
Particles may behave sometimes like waves (de Broglie waves with λ
= h/p).
The energy of waves is quantised in such a way that E = hf
The extremely small size of Planck’s constant = h = 6.626 × 10−34 J.s

sets the scale for quantum effects
Wavefunction
The question is, how do we proceed to construct a dynamical equation
for quantum objects which are represented by wave functions ?
The wave that in quantum mechanics replaces the

classical concept of particle trajectory is called a
wavefunction, ψ (“psi”).
Because Schrodinger’s wave equation determines the

mechanical behavior of quantum particles, the new
physics that results is known as Quantum Mechanics.
Wavefunctions
• A particle trajectory is a classical concept.
• In Quantum Mechanics, a “particle” (e.g. an electron) does not
follow a definite trajectory {r(t),p(t)}, but rather it is best described
as being distributed through space like a wave.
3.1 Definitions
• Wavefunction (ψ) – a wave representing the spatial distribution of a

“particle”.
• e.g. electrons in an atom are described by a wavefunction centred
on the nucleus.
• ψ is a function of the coordinates defining the position of the
classical particle:
– 1-D ψ(x)
– 3-D ψ(x,y,z) = ψ(r) = ψ(r,θ,φ) (e.g. atoms)
• ψ may be time dependent – e.g. ψ(x,y,z,t)
The Importance of ψ
• ψ completely defines the system (e.g. electron in an atom or
molecule).
• If ψ is known, we can determine any observable property (e.g.
energy, vibrational frequencies, …) of the system.
• QM provides the tools to determine ψ computationally, to
interpret ψ and to use ψ to determine properties of the system.
1-D System
• If the wavefunction at point x is ψ(x), the probability of finding
the particle in the infinitesimally small region (dx) between x and
x+dx is:
P(x) ∝ |ψ(x)|2 dx
probability density
• |ψ(x)| – the magnitude of ψ at point x.
Why write |ψ|2 instead of ψ2 ?

• Because ψ may be imaginary or complex ⇒ ψ2 would be
negative or complex.
• BUT: probability must be real and positive (0 ≤ P ≤ 1).
• For the general case, where ψ is complex (ψ = a + ib) then:
|ψ|2 = ψ*ψ where ψ* is the complex conjugate of ψ.
(ψ* = a – ib) (NB i = − 1 )
Quantization of the Wavefunction
The Born interpretation of ψ places restrictions

on the form of the wavefunction:
(a) ψ must be continuous (no breaks);
(b) The gradient of ψ (dψ/dx) must be

continuous (no kinks);
(c) ψ must have a single value at any point in

space;
(d) ψ must be finite everywhere;
(e) ψ cannot be zero everywhere.
• Other restrictions (boundary conditions) depend on the exact system.

• These restrictions on ψ mean that only certain wavefunctions and ∴ only
certain energies of the system are allowed.
∴ Quantization of ψ ⇒ Quantization of E
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
To measure something, we have to interact with it somehow (Suppose we

use photons to probe the electrons position and momentum)
If we use a very energetic photon, i.e., one that has lots of momentum, it is
possible to get a very good estimate of the electron's position because the
photon's direction will be relatively unaltered by scattering off of the
electron. However, it will give it an abrupt kick and vastly disturb our
knowledge of its momentum.
On the other hand, a low energy, or low momentum photon, will not
disturb the electrons momentum very much, but because of its low
momentum, it will also have a long wavelength, and this will make it bend
around the electron so that the electron's position will be poorly known.
This is how it works.
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
The uncertainty principle states that the position and velocity cannot both
be measured, exactly, at the same time (actually pairs of position, energy
and time
Materials
EE 3219

Associate Professor

Khulna, Bangladesh
LECTURE - 5
Modern Theory of Solids
Time-independent Schrödinger equation
Infinite Square-Well Potential
• The simplest such system is that of a particle trapped in a box with

infinitely hard walls that the particle cannot penetrate. This potential
is called an infinite square well and is given by
• Clearly the wave function must be zero where the potential is

infinite.
• Where the potential is zero inside the box, the Schrödinger wave
equation becomes where .
• The general solution is .

 2 d 2ψ
− 2
+ V ( x)ψ =
Eψ
2m dx
Finite Square-Well Potential
• The finite square-well potential is
• The Schrödinger equation outside the finite well in regions I and III is
or using
yields . The solution to this differential has exponentials of

the form eαx and e-αx. In the region x > L, we reject the positive
exponential and in the region x < L, we reject the negative
exponential.
Finite Square-Well Solution
• Inside the square well, where the potential V is zero, the wave equation
becomes where
• Instead of a sinusoidal solution we have
• The boundary conditions require that
and the wave function must be smooth where the regions meet.
• Note that the

wave function is
nonzero outside
of the box.
Band structure of Solids
The energy spectrum gradually changes

as atoms are assembled to form the solid
Band Theory of Solids
Molecular orbital formation
Two ways: both same

direction (+)
Or
opposite direction (-)
The bonding orbital shows a local minimum in the wavefunction but the
function does not go to zero. Thus there is a finite probability of finding the
electron between the 2 atoms. The anti-bonding orbital wavefuntion goes to
zero hence the probability of finding the electron between the 2 atoms is zero.
This is called a node.
Figure 1.3: (a) Energy vs. bond length plot for 2 H atoms. (b) The schematic
representation of the formation of the H2 molecule. Both electrons go to the
bonding orbital while the anti-bonding orbital is empty.
Figure 1.4: MOs formed when 3 H atoms come together. The number of nodes
increases while the stability decreases. The configuration with the lowest number of
nodes is most stable.
Figure 1.6: Energy vs. bond length diagram for N Li atoms. There are a total of 2N
energy states (including spin) out of which N are occupied, half full. This makes Li
a metal
Figure 1.7: Energy vs. bond length
diagram for large values of N showing
a continuous band formation. The
overlap between the 2s, 2p, and 3s
levels are also shown
The separation between the filled The energy required to remove an

states and the empty states is electron from the Fermi level to vacuum
called the Fermi energy and is level (where the electron is free of the
denoted by EF influence of the metal) is called the work
function.
The band formed by the empty 2p shell

as the conduction band.
Figure 1.8: Fermi energy and work function in Li. By convention the vacuum level is
taken as zero and energy levels within the metal are shown as negative. If the lowest
energy level in the valence band is used as reference all these energy levels become
positive
Figure 2.4: Formation of energy bands in Si. (a) Si atom with 4 electrons in outer shell
form (b) 4 sp3 hybrid orbitals. (c) The hybrid orbitals form σ and σ ∗ orbitals. (d) These
orbitals overlap in a solid to form the valence and conduction band.
Properties of Electron in a Band
Properties of Electron in a Band
Electron Effective Mass
Electron Effective Mass
E-K Diagram
E
Calculation of Effective mass from E-K Diagram
What is the significance of E-K Diagram ??

Density of states in an Energy Band
The density of states (DOS)

of a system describes the
number of available states per
unit energy per unit volume
Detail derivation of DOS from Book

Boltzman Classical Statistics
In statistical mechanics, Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics describes the
average distribution of non-interacting material particles over various
energy states in thermal equilibrium, and is applicable when the
temperature is high enough or the particle density is low enough to render
quantum effects negligible.
Boltzman Classical Statistics
Fermi-Dirac Statistics
In quantum statistics, a branch of

physics, Fermi–Diracstatistics describe a
distribution of particles over energy states
in systems consisting of many identical
particles that obey the Pauli exclusion
principle.
Materials
EE 3219

Associate Professor

Khulna, Bangladesh
LECTURE - 6
Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials
Nanotechnology
The art and science of manipulating and
rearranging individual atoms and molecules
to create useful materials, devices, and
systems
The design, characterization, and application of structures, devices, and

systems by controlled manipulation of size and shape of materials at
the nanometer scale (atomic, molecular, and macromolecular scale)
Nanoscale?
A sheet of paper is about 100,000 nanometers thick, a human hair is
around 80,000- 100,000 nanometers wide
1.1.2- What is nanomaterial?
• Is defined as any material that has unique or novel

properties, due to the nanoscale ( nano metre-
scale) structuring.
• These are formed by incorporation or structuring
of nanoparticles.
• They are subdivided into nanocrystals,
nanopowders, and nanotubes: A sequence
of nanoscale of C60 atoms arranged in a long thin
cylindrical structure.
carbon nanotubes
Noble metal nanocrystals with cyclic
penta-twinned structures
Naonpowder
Types of nanomaterials
• Nanomaterials can…
• occur naturally
• be produced by human activity either
as a product of another activity
• on purpose (engineered)
• Our focus: engineered nanomaterials as
these are designed and integrated into
products because of the specific
characteristics of the nanomaterial
Date, location
Classes of nanomaterials
Date, location
NanoZnO – One Chemistry, Many Shapes
Courtesy of Prof. Z.L. Wang, Georgia Tech

Why are nanomaterials used?
• At nano-scale,
• the material properties change - melting
point, fluorescence, electrical
conductivity, and chemical reactivity
• Surface size is larger so a greater
amount of the material comes into
contact with surrounding materials and
increases reactivity
• Nanomaterial properties can be ‘tuned’ by
varying the size of the particle (e.g. changing
the fluorescence colour so a particle can be
identified)
• Their complexity offers a variety of functions
to products
Examples of nanomaterials in products
Examples:
– Amorphous silica fume (nano-silica) in Ultra High
Performance Concrete – this silica is normally
thought to have the same human risk factors as
non‐nano non‐toxic silica dust
– Nano platinum or palladium in vehicle catalytic
converters - higher surface area to volume of
particle gives increased reactivity and therefore
increased efficiency
– Crystalline silica fume is used as an additive in
paints or coatings, giving e.g. self-cleaning
characteristics – it has a needle-like structure and
sharp edges so is very toxic and is known to
cause silicosis upon occupational exposure
Nanotechnology spans many Areas
Information Mechanical Biotechnology

Technology Engineering
Eng. & /
Robotics
Transportation
Advance
Materials &
Textiles NANOTECHNOLOGY National
Security &
Defense
Energy &
Environment
Food and
Aerospace Medicine Agriculture
/
Health
2- Applications of Nanotechnology:
2.1 General Applications
Application Examples
Medicine Diagnostics, Drug delivery, Tissue engineering,

Cryonics
Information and communication Memory storage, Novel semiconductor devices,

Novel optoelectronic devices, Displays,
Quantum computers
Heavy Industry Aerospace, Catalysis, Catalysis, Construction

Vehicle manufacturers
Consumer goods Foods, Household, Optics, Textiles, Cosmetics,

Sports
Environment
2.2- Environmental Applications
Check http://www.nanowerk.com/products/product.php?id=160 for more details
Application Examples
Carbon capture Photocatalyst consisting of silica Nanosprings

coated with a combination of titanium dioxide
Sensors Pollutants sensors that able to detect lower limits

with low cost
Remediation (decontamination, oil spill Heavy metal decontaminant removes heavy metals
management) such as lead, cadmium, nickel, zinc, copper,
manganese and cobalt in a neutral pH environment
without using any form of sulphur .
Wastewater treatment Veolia Water Solutions & Technologies' ceramic

membrane modules, utilizing the CeraMem
technology platform, can be supplied with a variety
of inorganic microfiltration and ultrafiltration
membranes.
Energy Heat distribution e.g. ceramic-like

materials that provide sufficient reliability and
durability of the entire structure
Drinking water purification

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Electrical Engineering

Dr. Md. Sherajul Islam

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

AMORPHOUS QUASICRYSTALS RATIONAL CRYSTALS

• Solids consist of atoms or molecules undergoing

 Types of solids based on structure

Repulsion when they are brought close together

Attractive part: at large distances

V= decrease in potential energy+increase in potential energy

r: the distance between atoms, ions, or molecules

a,b: proportionality constant of attraction and repulsion,

m, n: constant characteristics of each type of bond and type

•Molecules and Molecular Solids

 Ionic bonding is the electrostatic force of attraction

 NaCl is a typical example of ionic bonding.

• Pauli exclusion principle has an important role in

Poor conductors because electrons are held either

They are hard because the atoms are strongly

Covalent network substances are brittle.If sufficient

• Metallic bonding is the type of

• The metallic bond is weaker

• The weakness of the individual bonding actions in a

A metallic bond result from the

 Therefore, metals have high + + +

• It is a weak bond, with a typical strength of 0.2 eV/atom.

• The bigger a molecule is, the easier it is to polarise (to

 Van der waals interaction occurs generally between

van der waals

Crystalline Polycrystalline Amorphous

• A Crystalline Solid is the solid form of a substance in

Single Pyrite Crystal Amorphous Solid

• A “Perfect Crystal” is an idealization that does not

A lattice is a collection of points, which are arranged in a

Platinum Surface Crystal Lattice

Mathematically 2 Dimensional Example

are arranged exactly

A group of one or more atoms located in a

• In a crystalline material, the equilibrium

2 Atom Basis →

Crystal Structure ≡ Lattice + Basis

Crystal Structure ≡ Lattice + Basis

All the credit to Auguste Bravais

Cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic, rhombohedral (also

These names describe the arrangement of

1/4 atom corner *4 corners = 1 atom per unit cell

The lattice parameters are the axial lengths or

Procedure for finding the Miller indices :

1. Using a right-handed coordinate system, determine the coordinates of two points

4. Enclose the numbers in square brackets [ ]. If a negative sign is produced,

Miller indices are used as a shorthand notation to identify these

2. Take reciprocals of these intercepts.

3. Clear fractions but do not reduce to lowest integers.

Point defects are localized

A vacancy is produced when an

Vacancies play an important

Interstitial atoms such as hydrogen are often present as impurities

Carbon atoms are intentionally added to iron to produce steel. For

the introduction of interstitial atoms is one important way of

The missing of cation-

substitutional point defect

A line defect is formed in a

Screw dislocation, which is essentially a

Dislocations increase the resistivity

For electrical engineers, the