POWER AMPLIFIERS

1.1 Introduction
An Amplifier is a device that increases the power of a signal. Power amplifiers are expected to deliver large
signal power to their loads, and as such have to handle large currents. Hence, power amplifiers are those with
a high power output stage. They are sometimes called large signal amplifiers and audio amplifiers.
To obtain a large power at the output, the input signal voltage must be large. This is why, in electronic circuits,
a voltage amplifier always precedes it. During operation, a power amplifier takes power from a dc power
source and converts it into useful ac signal power.

Why power amplifiers? They are used to drive a load of high power e.g. Cell phones (require about 1W at the
antenna) and audio systems (Require tens to hundreds of watts of power). Ordinary voltage/current amplifiers
are not equipped for such applications.
Characteristics of power amplifiers
 They experience small load resistance
 They deliver large current levels
 They require large voltage swings
 They draw a lot of power from the supply
 They dissipate a large amount of power, hence they require heat sinks.

1.2 Performance Quantities of Power Amplifiers

As mentioned previously, the prime objective for a power amplifier is to obtain maximum output power. Since
a transistor, like any other electronic device has voltage, current and power dissipation limits, therefore, the
criteria for a power amplifier are: collector efficiency, distortion and power dissipation capability.

(i) Collector efficiency. The main criterion for a power amplifier is not the power gain rather it is the maximum
a.c power output. Now, an amplifier converts d.c power from supply into a.c. power output. Therefore, the
ability of a power amplifier to convert d.c power from supply into a.c. output power is a measure of its
effectiveness. This is known as collector efficiency and may be defined as under:
The ratio of a.c. output power to the zero signal power (i.e. d.c power) supplied by the battery of a power
amplifier is known as collector efficiency.
Collector efficiency means as to how well an amplifier converts d.c. power from the battery into a.c. output
power. For instance, if the d.c power supplied by the battery is 10W and a.c. output power is 2W, then collector
efficiency is 20%. The greater the collector efficiency, the larger is the a.c power output. It is obvious that for
power amplifiers, maximum collector efficiency is the desired goal.

NOTE
For comparing power amplifiers, collector efficiency is the main criterion. The greater the collector efficiency,
the better is the power amplifier.

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(ii) Distortion. The change of output wave shape from the input wave shape of an amplifier is known as
distortion.
A transistor like other electronic devices, essentially a non-linear device. Therefore, whenever a signal is
applied to the input of the transistor, the output signal is not exactly like the input signal i.e. distortion occurs.
Distortion is not a problem for small signals (i.e. voltage amplifiers) since transistor is a linear device for small
variations about the operating point. However, a power amplifier handles large signals and, therefore, the
problem of distortion immediately arises. For the comparison of two power amplifiers, the one which has the
less distortion is the better. We shall discuss the method of reducing distortion in amplifiers in the chapter of
negative feedback in amplifiers.
(iii) Power dissipation capability. The ability of a power transistor to dissipate heat is known as power
dissipation capability.
As stated before, a power transistor handles large currents and heats up during operation. As any temperature
change influences the operation of transistor, therefore, the transistor must dissipate this heat to its
surroundings. To achieve this, generally a heat sink (a metal case) is attached to a power transistor case. The
increased surface area allows heat to escape easily and keeps the case temperature of the transistor within
permissible limits.

1.3 Stages of a Practical Power Amplifier

The function of a practical power amplifier is to amplify a weak signal until sufficient power is available to
operate a loudspeaker or other output device. To achieve this goal, a power amplifier has generally three stages
viz. voltage amplification stage, driver stage and output stage. Fig. 1.1 shows the block diagram of a practical
power amplifier.

Fig 1.1 The block diagram of a practical power amplifier.

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 (i) Voltage amplification stage. The signals found in practice have extremely low voltage level (< 10
mV). Therefore, the voltage level of the weak signal is raised by two or more voltage amplifiers.
Generally, RC coupling is employed for this purpose.
(ii) Driver stage. The output from the last voltage amplification stage is fed to the driver stage. It
supplies the necessary power to the output stage. The driver stage generally employs class A
transformer coupled power amplifier. Here, concentrated effort is made to obtain maximum power
gain.
(iii) Output stage. The output power from the driver stage is fed to the output stage. It is the final stage
and feeds power directly to the speaker or other output device. The output stage is invariably
transformer coupled and employs class B amplifiers in push-pull arrangement. Here, concentrated
effort is made to obtain maximum power output.
1.3.1 Driver Stage
The stage that immediately precedes the output stage is called the driver stage. It operates as a class A power
amplifier and supplies the drive for the output stage. Fig. 1.2 shows the driver stage. Note that transformer
coupling is employed. The primary of this transformer is the collector load. The secondary is almost always
centre-tapped so as to provide equal and opposite voltages to the input of push-pull amplifier (i.e. output stage).
The driver transformer is usually a step-down transformer and facilitates impedance matching.
The output from the last voltage amplification stage forms the input to the driver stage. The driver stage renders
power amplification in the usual way. It may be added that main consideration here is the maximum power
gain. The output of the driver stage is taken from the centre-tapped secondary and is fed to the output stage.

Fig. 1.2 shows the driver stage

1.3.2 Output Stage

The output stage essentially consists of a power amplifier and its purpose is to transfer maximum power to the
output device. If a single transistor is used in the output stage, it can only be employed as class A amplifier for
faithful amplification. Unfortunately, the power efficiency of a class A amplifier is very low (approximately
35%). As transistor amplifiers are operated from batteries, which is a costly source of power, therefore, such
a low efficiency cannot be tolerated.
In order to obtain high output power at high efficiency, push pull arrangement is used in the output stage. In
this arrangement, we employ two transistors in class B operation. One transistor amplifies the positive half-
cycle of the signal while the other transistor amplifies the negative half cycle of the signal. In this way, output

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voltage is a complete sine wave. At the same time, the circuit delivers high output power to the load due to
class B operation.

1.4 Classification of Power amplifiers

Power amplifiers are classified according to the percentage of time that the collector current is nonzero i.e.
the amount the output signal varies over one cycle of operation for a full cycle of input signal.
Recall: Quiescent (Q or bias) point is the operating point of a transistor. It is a point where the dc voltage
and/or current, when applied to the device, cause it to operate in a desired fashion.
This point is shown on the load line which is plotted on the output characteristics of the transistor. The Q-
point is fixed by selecting a proper dc biasing of the transistor used.

Fig. 1.3 Output characteristics with a load line

1.4.1Class A amplifiers
The Q-point and the input signal are chosen such that the output signal is obtained for a full input cycle. This
happens when the Q-point is approximately in the middle of the load line. Therefore, the transistor remains in
the active region and never enters the cut-off and saturation regions of operation for all values of input signal.

Fig. 1.4 class A power amplifier.

Obviously, for this to happen, the power amplifier must be biased in such a way that no part of the signal is
cut off. Fig. 1.4 (i) shows circuit of class A power amplifier. Note that collector has a transformer as the load
which is most common for all classes of power amplifiers. The use of transformer permits impedance matching,
resulting in the transference of maximum power to the load e.g. loudspeaker. Fig. 1.4 (ii) shows the class A

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operation in terms of a.c. load line. The operating point Q is so selected that collector current flows at all times
throughout the full cycle of the applied signal. As the output wave shape is exactly similar to the input wave
shape, therefore, such amplifiers have least distortion. However, they have the disadvantage of low power
output and low collector efficiency (about 35%).

Fig. 1.5 Waveforms of Class A amplifier

From fig 1.5, it can be seen that for a full input cycle, a full output cycle is obtained. This means that the input
is reproduced without any distortion. However, Class A amplifiers have very low efficiency.

1.4.2 Class B Operation

The Q-point and the input signal are chosen such that the output signal is obtained only for half a cycle when
a full input cycle is applied. This means that the Q-point is shifted onto the X-axis i.e. the transistor is biased
to cut-off. Hence, the transistor remains in the active region only for half a cycle of the input signal. This is
what is reproduced at the output as summarized in fig 1.6.
In the negative half of the input signal, the transistor enters the cut-off region and no signal is produced at the
output. Therefore, the collector current flows for only 1800 (half cycle) of the input signal. This results in a
distorted output signal. However, this can be eliminated by using two transistors, each conducting for half a
cycle. Note that the efficiency of class B operation is higher than for class A.

Fig. 1.6 Waveforms of Class B amplifier

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It is easy to see that output from a class B amplifier is amplified half-wave rectification.
In a class B amplifier, the negative half-cycle of the signal is cut off and hence a severe distortion occurs.
However, class B amplifiers provide higher power output and collector efficiency (50 − 60%). Such amplifiers
are mostly used for power amplification in push-pull arrangement. In such an arrangement, 2 transistors are
used in class B operation. One transistor amplifies the positive half cycle of the signal while the other amplifies
the negative half-cycle.

1.4.3 Class C operation

For class C operation, the Q-point and the input signal are selected such that the output signal is obtainable for
less than 1800 for a full input cycle. This happens when the Q-point is below the X-axis (The transistor is biased
beyond cut off). This leads to the transistor to remain on for less that 180 0 of the input signal, which results in
a higher distortion. For the remaining cycle, the transistor is in cut-off region and hence no output signal is
produced. This is shown in fig 1.7.

Fig 1.7 Waveforms of Class C amplifier

Class C amplifiers are not suitable for audio frequency power amplifiers due to the high distortion of the input
signal. However, due to their efficiency of close to 100%, they are used in tuned circuits used in communication
areas and in RF circuits with tuned RLC loads.

1.4.4 Class AB operation

This is a compromise between class A and class B amplifier operation. The Q-point is above the X-axis but
below the midpoint of the load line. This results in the output signal to be obtained for greater that 180 0 but
less than 3600 of the input cycle as shown in fig 1.8. For this reason, the output signal in class AB is distorted.
The efficiency is higher than class A but less that class B. Class AB is important in elimination of cross-over
distortion.

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 Fig 1.8 Waveform for class AB
Note: As the Q-point moves away from the mid point of the load line towards the X-axis, the efficiency
increases.

Comparison of Amplifier Classes

1.5 DC and AC Analysis of Power Amplifiers

1.5.1 Analysis Of Class A Amplifiers
Class A amplifiers are divided into:-
Directly coupled: - the load is directly connected in the collector circuit
Transformer coupled: - The load is coupled to the collector circuit by using a transformer known as an
output transformer.

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 Fig 1.9 Series fed, directly Coupled Class A amplifier.

The dc power input is provided by the supply. With no ac input signal, the current drawn by is the collector
bias current I CQ

Note: Even if ac input signal is applied, the average current drawn from the dc supply remains the same.
Hence, DC P represents dc power input to the class A series fed amplifier.
AC Operation

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When the input ac signal is applied, the base current varies sinusoidally. Assuming non-linear distortion, I C
and V CE will vary also vary sinusoidally. The output current IC and the output voltage V CE will therefore vary around
their respective quiescent values. These deliver an a.c power to the load.

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Efficiency of the amplifier
Efficiency is the amount of ac power delivered to the load from the dc power supply i.e.

Maximum Efficiency
Assuming maximum swings as shown in fig 1.10

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Fig 1.10 Maximum voltage and current swings for a series fed, directly coupled Class A amplifier

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 Fig 1.11 Transformer Coupled Class A amplifier
For maximum power transfer to the load, impedance matching is necessary. However, it is had when the
loads have very small impedances. This, thankfully, can be eliminated by using a transformer to deliver
power to the load.
Recall:

Where n is the turns ratio of the transformer

Note: Since the transformer is to be used for impedance matching, it has to be a step down transformer.
DC Operation
Let’s assume that the output transformer is ideal i.e. has zero winding resistance. Hence, there will be no
voltage drop across the windings of the transformer.
Since = Rc=0 , the dc load line is ideally infinite (Vertically straight).
Applying KVL to the collector circuit,

AC operation
The load on the secondary is RL. Hence, the reflected load on the primary will be RL. Therefore, the ac load
line will be drawn through the operating point with a slope of -1/ RL as shown in fig 1.12.

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 Fig 1.12 Load Lines for Transformer Coupled Class A amplifier

Maximum efficiency
From fig 1.13, it can be seen that

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 Fig 1.13 Maximum voltage and current swings for Transformer Coupled Class A amplifier

Example 1:

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1.5.1.1 Important Points About Class A Power Amplifier
(i) A transformer coupled class A power amplifier has a maximum collector efficiency of 50% i.e., maximum
of 50% d.c supply power is converted into a.c. power output. In practice, the efficiency of such an amplifier is
less than 50% (about 35%) due to power losses in the output transformer, power dissipation in the transistor
etc.
(ii) The power dissipated by a transistor is given by:

Clearly, in class A operation, the transistor must dissipate less heat when signal is applied and therefore runs
cooler.
(iii) When no signal is applied to a class A power amplifier, Pac = 0.
∴ Pdis = Pdc
Thus in class A operation, maximum power dissipation in the transistor occurs under zero signal conditions.
Therefore, the power dissipation capability of a power transistor (for class A operation) must be at least equal
to the zero signal rating. For example, if the zero signal power dissipation of a transistor is 1 W, then transistor
needs a rating of at least 1W. If the power rating of the transistor is less than 1 W, it is likely to be damaged.
(iv) When a class A power amplifier is used in the final stage, it is called single ended class A power amplifier.

1.5.1.2Distortion in Amplifiers
Distortion means that the input signal is not able to be reproduced at the output. That is, there is a change in
amplitude, phase or frequency. This results into amplitude (non-linear or harmonic) distortion, phase
distortion and frequency distortion respectively.

Our interest will be amplitude distortion which results due to the non-linearity of the dynamic characteristics
of a transistor.
Harmonic Distortion
This is the presence of frequency components in the output signal that were absent in the input signal. The
component with the same frequency is called the fundamental frequency component while the rest, which
have integer multiples of the fundamental component, are called harmonic components or harmonics.
Note: As the order of harmonics increases, the amplitude reduces.

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Therefore, the total collector current wave form swings about the q-point as shown in fig 1.14.

Fig 1.14 Output wave form

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From fig 1.14

Since this method uses 3 points of the collector current wave form, it is called three point method of
determining second harmonic distortion.
Power output due to distortion
When the distortion is negligible,

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1.5.2 Analysis Of Class B Amplifiers
It has already been stated that class B amplifiers conduct for only half a cycle of the full input signal. To get
a full output cycle across the load, therefore, requires use of two transistors. Each of these transistors
conducts for an alternate half cycle of the input signal

Depending on the types of transistors used, two configurations result.

 Push Pull Class B amplifier, where both the transistors are the same type e.g. npn or pnp
 Complementary symmetry class B transistor, where the transistors are complementary to each other
i.e one is npn while the other is pnp.

1.5.2.1 Push Pull Class B Amplifier

The Push Pull Class B Amplifier circuit requires two transformers, an input transformer known as driver
transformer and one connected to the load called output transformer. Both transformers are centre tapped as
shown in the fig 1.15.

Generally, both Q1 and Q2 are npn transistors. If pnp transistors are used instead, the supply voltage would be
VCC. . Both transistors are in common emitter configuration.

Operation: With respect to the centre tap of the driver transformer, for the positive cycle of the input signal, point
A will be positive while point B will be negative. This results in the voltages in the two halves of the secondary to
be equal but opposite. Hence, the input signal applied to the bases of Q1 and Q2 will be 1800 out of phase. As
shown in fig 1.15, when point A is positive, Q1 is driven into active region while Q2 is driven into cut-off
region, and vice-versa.

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Fig 1.15 Push Pull Class B Amplifier

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fig 1.16.

Fig 1.16 Load lines for push pull Class B amplifier.

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Maximum Efficiency

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1.2.2.2 Complementary symmetry class B amplifier
By complementary symmetry is meant a principle of assembling push-pull class B amplifier without
requiring centre-tapped transformers at the input and output stages. Fig. 1.17 shows the transistor push-pull
amplifier using complementary symmetry. It employs one npn and one pnp transistor and requires no centre-
tapped transformers.

Fig 1.17 Complementary symmetry class B amplifier circuit

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Example 3
A complementary push pull amplifier has a capacitive coupled load RL =8Ω and a supply voltage of 12V.
Calculate

1.6Thermal Runaway
All semiconductor devices are very sensitive to temperature variations. If the temperature of a transistor
exceeds the permissible limit, the transistor may be *permanently damaged. Silicon transistors can withstand
temperatures up to 250ºC while the germanium transistors can withstand temperatures up to 100ºC.
There are two factors which determine the operating temperature of a transistor viz. (i) surrounding temperature
and (ii) power dissipated by the transistor.

When the transistor is in operation, almost the entire heat is produced at the collector-base junction. This power
dissipation causes the junction temperature to rise. This in turn increases the collector current since more
electron-hole pairs are generated due to the rise in temperature. This produces an increased power dissipation
in the transistor and consequently a further rise in temperature.

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Unless adequate cooling is provided or the transistor has built-in temperature compensation circuits to prevent
excessive collector current rise, the junction temperature will continue to increase until the maximum
permissible temperature is exceeded. If this situation occurs, the transistor will be permanently damaged.

The unstable condition where, owing to rise in temperature, the collector current rises and continues to
increase is known as thermal runaway.
Thermal runaway must always be avoided. If it occurs, permanent damage is caused and the transistor must be
replaced.

1.7 Heat Sink

As power transistors handle large currents, they always heat up during operation. Since transistor is a
temperature dependent device, the heat generated must be dissipated to the surroundings in order to keep the
temperature within permissible limits. Generally, the transistor is fixed on a metal sheet (usually aluminum)
so that additional heat is transferred to the Al sheet.
The metal sheet that serves to dissipate the additional heat from the power transistor is known as heat sink.
Most of the heat within the transistor is produced at the collector junction (This is because collector-base
voltage is much greater than the base-emitter voltage, although currents through the two junctions are almost
the same.). The heat sink increases the surface area and allows heat to escape from the collector junction easily.
The result is that temperature of the transistor is sufficiently lowered. Thus heat sink is a direct practical means
of combating the undesirable thermal effects e.g. thermal runaway.

It may be noted that the ability of any heat sink to transfer heat to the surroundings depends upon its material,
volume, area, shape, contact between case and sink and movement of air around the sink. Finned aluminium
heat sinks yield the best heat transfer per unit cost.
It should be realized that the use of heat sink alone may not be sufficient to prevent thermal runaway under all
conditions. In designing a transistor circuit, consideration should also be given to the choice of (i) operating
point (ii) ambient temperatures which are likely to be encountered and (iii) the type of transistor e.g. metal
case transistors are more readily cooled by conduction than plastic ones. Circuits may also be designed to
compensate automatically for temperature changes and thus stabilize the operation of the transistor
components.

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1.8 Mathematical Analysis
The permissible power dissipation of the transistor is very important item for power transistors. The
permissible power rating of a transistor is calculated from the following relation:

The unit of θ is ºC/ watt and its value is always given in the transistor manual. A low thermal resistance means
that it is easy for heat to flow from the junction to the surrounding air. The larger the transistor case, the lower
is the thermal resistance and vice-versa. It is then clear that by using heat sink, the value of θ can be decreased
considerably, resulting in increased power dissipation.
Example 4. A power transistor dissipates 4 W. If TJmax = 90ºC, find the maximum ambient temperature at
which it can be operated. Given θ = 10ºC/W.

Example 5. The total thermal resistance of a power transistor and heat sink is 20°C/W.
The ambient temperature is 25°C and TJ max = 200°C. If VCE = 4 V, find the maximum collector current that
the transistor can carry without destruction. What will be the allowed value of collector current if ambient
temperature rises to 75°C?

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Revision questions
1. What do you understand by class A, class B and class C power amplifiers?
2. Define and explain the following terms as applied to power amplifiers :
(i) collector efficiency
(ii) distortion
(iii) power dissipation capability
3. Show that maximum collector efficiency of class A transformer coupled power amplifier is 50%.
4. Draw the block diagram of a practical power amplifier.
5. Explain the push-pull circuit with a neat diagram.
6. Write short notes on the following :
(i) Heat sink
(ii) Driver stage
(iii) Output stage
(iv) Complementary-symmetry amplifier.
7. The resistance of the secondary of an output transformer is 100 Ω. If the output impedance is 10 kΩ,
find the turn ratio of the transformer for maximum power transference.
8. A power transistor working in class A operation has zero signal power dissipation of 5 watts. If a.c.
output power is 2 watts, find
(i) collector efficiency
(ii) power rating of transistor.
9. A class A power amplifier has a maximum a.c. power output of 30 W. Find the power rating of the
transistor.
10. The a.c. power output of a class A power amplifier is 2 W. If the collector efficiency is 40%, find the
power rating of the transistor.
11. In a class A transformer coupled amplifier, collector current alternates between 3 mA and 110 mA and
its quiescent value is 58 mA. The load resistance is 15 Ω and when referred to primary winding is 325
Ω. The supply voltage is 20V. Find
(i) transformer turn ratio
(ii) a.c. power output
(iii) Power rating of transistor.
12. A power transistor dissipates 4 W. If TJ max = 90°C, find the maximum ambient temperature at which
it can be operated. Given thermal resistance θ = 8ºC/W.

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13. A class A transformer-coupled amplifier uses a 25: 1 transformer to drive a 4Ω load. Calculate the
effective a.c. load (seen by the transistor connected to the larger turns side of the transformer).
14. Why does collector efficiency play important part in power amplifiers?
15. Why does the problem of distortion arise in power amplifiers?
16. Why are power amplifiers classified on the basis of mode of operation?
17. Why does the output stage employ push-pull arrangement?
18. Why is driver stage necessary for push-pull circuit?
19. Why do we use transformer in the output stage?
20. For a class B amplifier with VCC = 25V driving an 8Ω load, determine :
(i) maximum input power
(ii) maximum output power
(iii) maximum circuit efficiency

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