Practical Radiographic

WORLD CENTRE FOR
MATERIALS JOINING
TECHNOLOGY
PRACTICAL RADIOGRAPHY
(NDT20)
TWI Ltd, Training and Examination Services

PRACTICAL RADIOGRAPHY
CONTENTS
Section Subject
1.0 INTRODUCTION & HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

1.1 PROPERTIES OF PENETRATING RADIATION
2.0 SIMPLE ATOMIC THEORY
3.0 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
4.0 IONISING RADIATION
5.0 X-RAYS or BREMSTRAHLUNG

5.1 X-RAY EQUIPMENT
5.1.1 THE CATHODE
5.1.2 THE ANODE (TARGET)
5.1.3 X-RAY TUBES
5.1.4 X-RAY TUBE POWER SUPPLY
5.1.5 X-RAY TUBE CONTROLS
5.1.5.1 PENETRATING POWER OR
RADIATION QUALITY (kV)
5.1.5.2 QUANTITY OF RADIATION (mA)
5.1.6 HIGH ENERGY X-RAY SOURCES
5.1.6.1 BETATRONS
5.1.6.2 LINEAR ACCELERATORS
5.1.6.3 VAN der GRAAF GENERATORS
5.1.7 SPECIAL TYPES OF X-RAY UNIT
5.1.7.1 MICROFOCUS X-RAY SOURCES
5.1.7.2 ROD ANODE X-RAY TUBES
5.1.7.3 ROTATING ANODE X-RAY EQUIPMENT
6.0 GAMMA RAYS

6.1 ALPHA AND BETA EMISSION
6.1.1 ALPHA PARTICLES
6.1.2 BETA PARTICLES
6.2 SEALED SOURCES
6.3 PENETRATING POWER OF GAMMA RADIATION
Practical Radiography. Rev 2 Oct 2005 WORLD CENTRE FOR
Copyright © 2005, TWI Ltd MATERIALS JOINING
TECHNOLOGY
Section Subject
6.4 QUANTITY OF GAMMA RADIATION

6.5 RADIOISOTOPE CONTAINERS FOR INDUSTRIAL
RADIOGRAPHY
6.6 COMPARISON OF X-RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS
6.6.1. ENERGY AND OUTPUT OF RADIATION
6.6.2 RADIOGRAPHIC CONTRAST
6.6.3 FOCAL SPOT SIZE VERSUS SOURCE SIZE
6.6.4 EXPOSURE TIME (FILM RADIOGRAPHY)
6.6.5 POWER SUPPLY
6.6.6 PHYSICAL SIZE AND WEIGHT
6.6.7 EQUIPMENT COST
7.0 METHODS OF PRODUCING A RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE

7.1 RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
7.1.1. LATENT IMAGE FORMATION
7.1.2. FILM CASSETTES
7.1.3. INTENSIFYING SCREENS
7.1.3.1 METALLIC FOIL INTENSIFYING
SCREENS
7.1.3.2 SALT SCREENS
7.1.3.3 FLUOROMETALLIC SCREENS
7.1.4 FILM PROCESSING
7.1.4.1 DEVELOPMENT
7.1.4.2 STOP BATH
7.1.4.3 FIXING AND HARDENING
7.1.4.4 WASHING
7.1.4.5 DRYING
7.2 IMAGE FORMATION IN REAL TIME RADIOGRAPHY
8.0 PRODUCTION OF A RADIOGRAPH (FILM RADIOGRAPHY)

8.1 RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY
8.1.1 CONTRAST
8.1.1.1 FILM TYPE (AFFECTS FILM
CONTRAST)
8.1.1.2.1 FILM DENSITY (AFFECTS FILM
CONTRAST)

TECHNOLOGY
Section Subject
8.1.1.3 BASE FOG LEVEL (AFFECTS FILM

CONTRAST)
8.1.1.4 FILM PROCESSING (AFFECTS FILM
CONTRAST)
8.1.1.5 RADIATION QUALITY (AFFECTS
SUBJECT CONTRAST)
8.1.1.6 SCATTER (AFFECTS FILM AND
SUBJECT
CONTRAST)
8.1.2 DEFINITION
8.1.2.1
GEOMETRIC UNSHARPNESS
8.1.2.2
INHERENT UNSHARPNESS
8.1.2.2.1
FILM (EFFECT ON INHERENT
UNSHARPNESS)
8.1.2.2.2 QUALITY OF RADIATION (EFFECT ON
INHERENT UNSHARPNESS)
8.1.2.2.3 INTENSIFYING SCREENS (EFFECT ON
INHERENT UNSHARPNESS)
8.1.2.3 RELATIVE MOVEMENT DURING
EXPOSURE
8.2 RADIATION SCATTERING AND SCATTER CONTROL
8.2.1 SCATTERING MECHANISMS – THE CAUSES OF
SCATTER
8.2.1.1. THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
8.2.1.2. COMPTON SCATTERING
(INCOHERENT SCATTERING)
8.2.1.3. PAIR PRODUCTION
8.2.1.4. TOTAL SCATTER AT DIFFERENT
PRIMARY BEAM ENERGIES
8.2.2 TYPES OF SCATTER
8.2.2.1 SIDE SCATTER
8.2.2.2 BACK SCATTER
8.2.2.3 SELF-SCATTER
8.2.3 SCATTER CONTROL
8.2.3.1 COLLIMATION
8.2.3.2 DIAPHRAGMS
8.2.3.3 MASKING OR BLOCKING
8.2.3.4 GRIDS
8.2.3.5 FILTERS
TECHNOLOGY
Section Subject
8.2.3.6
METALLIC FOIL SCREENS
8.2.3.7
HIGHER RADIATION ENERGY
8.2.3.8
CHANGE FROM X-RAY TO GAMMA
RAY RADIOGRAPHY
8.2.3.9 REDUCING THE FOCUS OR SOURCE
TO FILM DISTANCE
8.3 DETERMINING THE CORRECT EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE
CHARTS
8.3.1 EXPOSURE CHARTS
8.3.1.1 USING EXPOSURE CHARTS (X-RAY)
8.3.1.1.1 FOCUS TO FILM DISTANCE
8.3.1.1.2 TUBE VOLTAGE
8.3.1.1.3 CHANGING THE FILM DENSITY
8.3.1.1.4 CHANGING THE FILM TYPE
8.3.1.1.5 RADIOGRAPHY OF OTHER
MATERIALS
8.3.1.1.6 COMPENSATING FOR THE USE OF A
FILTER
8.3.1.1.7 OTHER POSSIBLE CHANGES
8.3.1.2 GAMMA RAY EXPOSURES
9.0 SENSITIVITY
9.1 RADIOGRAPHIC SENSITIVITY
9.2 CONTROLLING RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY
9.3 BS EN 462-1 WIRE TYPE IQIs
9.4 OTHER WIRE TYPE IQIs
9.5 BS EN 462-2 STEP–HOLE TYPE IQIs
9.6 ASTM E 1025 PLAQUE TYPE PENETRAMETERS
9.7 IQI SENSITIVITY
10.0 RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES (FOR WELDS IN PLATE AND PIPE)

10.1 IQI TYPE AND PLACEMENT
10.2 LOCATION MARKERS
10.3 IDENTIFICATION OF RADIOGRAPHS
10.4 RADIATION ENERGY
10.5 SOURCE TO FILM DISTANCE
10.6 SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE
10.6.1 SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE TECHNIQUE FOR
PLATE
TECHNOLOGY
Section Subject
10.6.2 SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE TECHNIQUE:

SOURCE INTERNAL, PLACED CENTRALLY
(PANORAMIC TECHNIQUE)
10.6.3 SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE TECHNIQUE:
SOURCE INTERNAL, OFFSET
10.6.4 SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE TECHNIQUE: FILM
INSIDE, SOURCE OUTSIDE
10.7 DOUBLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE
10.8 DOUBLE WALL DOUBLE IMAGE
10.8.1 DOUBLE WALL DOUBLE IMAGE (ELLIPTICAL)
10.8.2 DOUBLE WALL DOUBLE IMAGE
(SUPERIMPOSED)
11.0 INTERPRETATION OF RADIOGRAPHS

11.1 INTRODUCTION
11.2 VIEWING CONDITIONS
11.3 REPORTING
11.4 FILM QUALITY
11.4.1 COMPONENT IDENTIFICATION
11.4.2 LOCATION MARKERS
11.4.3 FILM DENSITY
11.4.4 RAPHIC SENSITIVITY
11.4.5 ARTEFACTS AND OTHER UNWANTED IMAGES
11.5 INTERPRETATION OF RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGES
11.6 ARTEFACTS
11.6.1 PRESSURE MARKS (CRIMP MARKS)
11.6.2 SCRATCHES: ON THE FILM
11.6.3 SCRATCHES: ON LEAD INTENSIFYING SCREENS
11.6.4 DIRT: ON THE FILM OR SCREENS
11.6.5 STREAKINESS OR MOTTLING: POOR
DEVELOPMENT
11.6.6 DEVELOPER SPLASHES
11.6.7 FIXER SPLASHES
11.6.8 WATER SPLASHES
11.6.9 WATER MARKS
11.6.10 AIR BELLS
11.6.11 DIFFRACTION MOTTLING
11.6.12 STATIC MARKS
11.6.13 DICHROIC FOGGING

TECHNOLOGY
Section Subject
11.6.14 RETICULATION
11.6.15 FILM FOGGING BY X OR GAMMA RAYS
11.6.16 LIGHT FOGGING
11.6.17 FILM FOGGING DUE TO INADEQUATE STORAGE
CONDITIONS
11.6.18 SOLARISATION
11.6.19 A FINAL WORD ON ARTEFACTS
11.7 INTERPRETATION OF WELD RADIOGRAPHS
11.7.1 RADIOGRAPHIC INDICATIONS DUE TO SURFACE
GEOMETRY
11.7.1.1 EXCESSIVE ROOT PENETRATION
11.7.1.2 ROOT CONCAVITY
11.7.1.3 INCOMPLETELY FILLED GROOVE
(LACK OF FILL)
11.7.1.4 LACK OF REINFORCEMENT
11.7.1.5 UNDERCUT
11.7.1.6 SPATTER
11.7.1.7 EXCESSIVE DRESSING / GRINDING
MARKS
11.7.1.8 HAMMER MARKS (TOOL MARKS)
11.7.1.9 TORN SURFACE
11.7.1.10 SURFACE PITTING
11.7.2 INTERNAL DEFECTS
11.7.2.1 CRACKS
11.7.2.2 LACK OF FUSION
11.7.2.3 INCOMPLETE ROOT PENETRATION
11.7.2.4 NON-METALLIC INCLUSIONS
11.7.2.5 METALLIC INCLUSIONS
11.7.2.6 GAS PORES: POROSITY
11.7.2.7 ELONGATED CAVITIES (HOLLOW
BEAD)
11.7.2.8 WORM HOLES
11.7.2.9 CRATER PIPES & CRATER CRACKS
11.8 INTERPRETATION OF CASTING RADIOGRAPHS
11.8.1 VOIDS
11.8.1.1 MACROSHRINKAGE
11.8.1.2 FILAMENTARY SHRINKAGE (ALSO
CALLED SPONGINESS)
11.8.1.3 MICROPOROSITY / MICROSHRINKAGE
TECHNOLOGY
11.8.1.4 PINHOLE POROSITY
11.8.1.5 GASHOLES
11.8.1.6 AIRLOCKS (ENTRAPPED AIR)
11.8.2 CRACKS
11.8.2.1 HOT TEARS
11.8.2.2 STRESS CRACKS
11.8.3 COLD SHUTS
11.8.4 INCLUSIONS
11.8.5 SEGREGATIONS
12.0 LOCALISATION
12.1 90° METHOD
12.2 TUBE (SOURCE) SHIFT METHOD
12.3 TUBE (SOURCE) SHIFT METHOD WITH LEAD MARKERS
13.0 UNITS USED IN RADIOGRAPHY

13.1 IONISATION (EXPOSURE)
13.2 ABSORBED DOSE
13.3 MAN MAMMAL EQUIVALENT or RADIOBIOLOGICAL
EQUIVALENT
13.4 DOSE RATE
13.5 SOURCE STRENGTH OR ACTIVITY
13.6 SPECIFIC ACTIVITY
13.7 OUTPUT
14.0 RADIATION MONITORING DEVICES

14.1 SURVEY METERS
14.1.1 IONISATION CHAMBERS
14.1.2 PROPORTIONAL COUNTERS
14.1.3 GEIGER COUNTERS
14.1.4 SOLID STATE RADIATION DETECTORS
14.1.5 SCINTILLATION COUNTERS
14.2 PERSONAL MONITORS
14.2.1 FILM BADGES
14.2.2 THERMOLUMINESCENT DOSIMETERS (TLD)
14.2.3 THE QUARTZ FIBRE ELECTROMETER
(PERSONAL DOSIMETER)
14.2.4 SOLID STATE INTEGRATING DOSIMETERS
15.0 RADIATION SAFETY

15.1 PRECAUTIONS
TECHNOLOGY
Section Subject
15.1.1 EXPOSURE BOOTHS

15.1.2 SITE WORK
15.1.3 SCATTER
15.2 EXPOSURE LIMITS FOR RADIATION WORKERS
15.2.1 DOSIMETERS
15.3 PERMITTED LEVELS
15.3.1 CLASSIFIED WORKERS
15.3.2 UNCLASSIFIED PERSONNEL, CONTROLLED &
SUPERVISED AREAS
15.4 ‘SAFE’ WORKING DISTANCES
15.4.1 SHIELDING
16.0 A GLOSSARY OF TERMS (USED IN RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING)
17.0 APPENDIX 1

TECHNOLOGY
1.0 INTRODUCTION & HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The discovery of penetrating radiation in 1895 is generally credited to the
German scientist Wilhelm Roentgen who was researching the properties of several
thousand volt electrical discharges. During one such experiment involving a partially
evacuated tube he discovered a new type of radiation that was capable of passing
through a solid object and which he could detect using a fluorescent screen.
Roentgen gave the name “x-ray” to his discovery. Not long after this, in 1896,
working under the leadership of Henri Becquerel, the French scientist Pierre Curie and
his Polish wife Marie discovered that similarly penetrating radiation was given off by
‘pitchblende’, which is an ore of Uranium. The Curies named this new phenomenon
‘radioactivity’. A more complete understanding of the mechanisms behind x-ray
production and radioactivity came in the years from 1900 to 1930 which saw the birth
of the science of quantum physics. The first use of x-rays as a tool in non-destructive
testing took place around 1929.
In ‘Industrial Radiography’ x-rays or gamma rays [and sometimes other types of

penetrating radiation] are passed through an object and an image is formed using a
photographic emulsion or other means. Table 1 below charts the history of industrial
radiography.
INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY - TIMELINE

1865 James Clerk Maxwell predicts the existence of electromagnetic
radiation.
1895 Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen discovers x-rays.
First medical use of x-rays follows within months.
1896 Henri Becquerel discovers radioactivity.
1898 Pierre and Marie Curie isolate Radium 226 and other radioactive
isotopes from pitchblende.
1900 Max Planck proposes the quantum theory of radiation
1900 Ernest Rutherford detects alpha and beta particles
1913 Coolidge designs the high vacuum x-ray tube and the first 100 kV x-
ray tubes become available. X-radiography of metallic objects
becomes possible.
1913 Niels Bohr proposes the Bohr theory of the atom
1915 The Radium Committee founded to investigate the biological effects
of ionising radiation.
1922 The first 200 kV x-ray machine is manufactured.
1929 The first major use of radiography in industry occurs in Britain and
America.
1931 ASME approves the use of welding in the manufacture of pressure
vessels based on acceptable radiographic results.
1932 James Chadwick detects neutrons.
Timeline of Industrial Radiography
Practical Radiography. Rev 2 Oct 2005 1.1 WORLD CENTRE FOR

Introduction and Historical Background MATERIALS JOINING
Copyright © 2005, TWI Ltd TECHNOLOGY

1930s Geiger Muller tubes for the detection of ionising radiation
commercially produced
c. 1935 Radium 226 gamma ray sources used for the radiography of steel up
to 300 mm thick.
1939 Van der Graaf generator used to produce short burst of very high
energy (1 to 2 MeV) x-rays.
1939 GEC manufactures a 1 MeV ‘resonant transformer’ (an early type of
high voltage x-ray machine).
c. 1940 The first betatron is produced; x-ray energies of up to 25 MeV
become possible.
1941 GEC markets a 2 MeV resonant transformer, the “Resotron”.
c. 1941 Caesium 137, a by-product of nuclear fission becomes available.
Caesium 137 becomes the isotope of choice for industrial
radiography & remains in common use until the mid-1960s.
1946 Man-made isotopes including Cobalt 60 and Iridium 192 become
available.
1960s Linear accelerator high-energy x-ray sources become available.
c. 1970 Advances in radioactive source handling equipment, the first mass-
produced cable operated source delivery systems become
commercially available.
1980s Metal ceramic tubes gradually replace glass walled x-ray tubes. High
tube current can be used in micro-focus tubes. The science of x-ray
tomography develops.
1990s Advances in filmless radiography.
Timeline of Industrial Radiography (continued)
1.1 PROPERTIES OF PENETRATING RADIATION
Penetrating radiation can be used in non-destructive examination because:
(1) Penetrating radiation travels in a straight line.
(2) Penetrating radiation is absorbed as it passes through matter. The extent to

which it is absorbed depends upon three factors:
The thickness of the absorber.
The physical characteristics of the absorber (in particular its density and atomic
number).
The wavelength or “photon energy” of the radiation itself.


(3) Penetrating radiation can be detected using a photographic emulsion or by
other means. The system used to detect the radiation must be capable of
differentiating between different intensities of radiation.
Penetrating radiation passing through an object
The radiograph that would result from the set-up in figure above
(Note that in film radiography thin sections appear darker while thicker sections
appear lighter. The opposite is true if a fluorescent screen rather than a photographic
film is used as a radiation detector)


Radiation passing through an object containing 2 voids at different depths
The radiograph resulting from the set-up in figure just above.
(Note that the radiograph cannot be used to determine the through thickness position
of the voids.)
Two important things to keep in mind when viewing a radiographic image are:
(1) A radiograph is a two-dimensional image of a three-dimensional object: The

through thickness position and size of an object producing a radiographic
image cannot be determined solely from the information given by a single
radiograph (this is demonstrated in above 2 figures).


(2) A defect will only appear as an image in a radiograph if:
(a) the defect causes a local difference in radiation absorption
and
(b) the method used for detecting the radiation is capable of

detecting the difference in radiation intensity so caused.
For example, suppose that a chosen radiographic technique is capable of

detecting a thickness difference of say 0.5 mm in 50 mm of steel. If we use this
technique to radiograph the weld shown in figure 3 then:
(1) The gas pore will readily be detected because A - (B + C) = 3 mm.
(2) The lack of side fusion will not appear as an image on the radiograph because
A - (D + E) = 0.01 mm which is much too small to be detected by the
technique used.
Radiography of a weld


2.0 SIMPLE ATOMIC THEORY
In order to understand how x and gamma rays are produced it is necessary to
have a basic understanding of atomic theory. An atom is the smallest part of any
chemical element. Atoms are known to consist of 3 basic types of particle, these
being the positively charged proton, the neutron (which has no electrical charge) and
the negatively charged electron. The electrical charge on the proton and electron are
equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity. The atomic mass of a proton is, by
definition equal to 1 atomic mass unit (Abbreviation: amu. 1 amu = 1.6725 x 10-27 kg).
The electron has a tiny mass, around 1/1836 that of a proton (0.000545 amu or about
9.11 x 10-31 kg), while that of a neutron is very slightly greater than that of a proton at
1.0014 amu (or 1.6748 x 10-27 kg). The atom is thought to consist of a positively
charged nucleus (which consists of protons and neutrons) surrounded by a cloud of
orbiting negatively charged electrons.
Simple model of atomic structure
In the equilibrium state the number of orbital electrons is equal to the number of
protons and there is no net electrical charge. When there is inequality between the
numbers of protons and electrons then there is a net electrical charge and the atom is
said to be ionised. Ions may be negatively charged if the number of electrons
exceeds the number of protons or positively charged if the converse is true. So called
electropositive elements, a group which includes all metals, ‘like’ to form positive ions
while the electronegative elements such as oxygen, phosphorous, chlorine and
sulphur ‘like’ to form negative ions.
The orbital electrons exist in fixed energy levels or shells. Each shell can
contain a fixed maximum number of electrons. The shells are identified by the letters
K, L, M, N and so on. The lowest energy level is represented by the K-shell; this is the
innermost of the electron shells and it can contain a maximum of 2 electrons. The L-
shell can contain up to 8 electrons while the M-shell contains a maximum of 18 and
the N-shell contains a maximum of 32. The maximum total number of electrons in
each shell is equal to 2n2 where ‘n’ is the shell number counting the K-shell as 1, L-
shell as 2 etc. Within the M, N and other shells certain groupings of electrons produce
greater stability, elements having an even number of electrons tend to less chemically

Simple Atomic Theory MATERIALS JOINING

reactive than those, which have an odd number. A group of 8 electrons in the M or N
shells produces an element, which is the most chemically inert of all elements – an
inert gas. In electropositive elements the orbital electrons are relatively loosely bound
and there is a tendency to form positive ions. In electronegative elements the orbital
electrons are relatively tightly bound and there is a tendency to form negative ions.
The inert gasses such as neon, argon, xenon and krypton either have an outer shell
that is completely full or one which contains a very stable grouping of electrons.
Based on their chemical properties the elements can be organised into a ‘periodic
table’ as shown below. Elements falling in the same vertical column share very similar
chemical properties.
1 2
H He
1.008 4.003
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.940 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.17
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.30 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.06 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.90 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.71 63.55 65.38 69.74 72.59 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 98.91 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.9 137.3 138.9 178.5 181.0 183.9 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 89
Fr Ra Ac
(223) 226.0 (227)
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanide Series Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Actinide Series Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lw
232.0 231.0 238.0 237.1 (244) (243) (249) (247) (251) (254) (257) (258) (259) (260)
(The numbers above and below each chemical symbol are the atomic number and the atomic weight of
each element. Note that the atomic weight differs slightly from the atomic mass number)
Periodic table of elements
X-rays result from ionisation and de-ionisation events: when a positively

charged ion captures a free electron the atom descends into a lower energy state and
the left over energy may be released in the form of an x-ray ‘photon’. X-rays can also
result as a negative ion loses a captured electron, because again there is a reduction
in the energy stored in the atom as it returns to a state of zero electrical charge.


Each element has its own characteristic number of protons in the nucleus. This
number is the ‘atomic number’, usually abbreviated as ‘Z’. It is the atomic number that
determines the chemical properties of a given substance. However, each element
can exist as any one of a number of ‘nuclides’ or ‘isotopes.’ Each isotope of a given
element has the same atomic number, the same number of protons and the same
chemical properties, but each isotope has a different ‘atomic mass number’. The
difference in atomic mass number is due to a difference in the number of neutrons in
the nucleus. The atomic mass number is equal to the total of protons + neutrons in the
nucleus. Most elements can exist in nature as any one of several stable isotopes.
Some isotopes, however, are not stable – these are the so-called ‘radioactive
isotopes’. The following notation is typically used:
Where 59 is the number of protons + neutrons (the atomic mass number), 27 is

the number of protons (the atomic number) and Co is the chemical symbol, in this
case cobalt. The example shown, if in a non-ionised state, would have 27 protons, 27
electrons and 32 neutrons in each atom.
Radioactive isotopes undergo fission as they ‘decay’ towards a more stable

atomic structure. Some isotopes achieve stability in a single fission event while others
may undergo a series of fission events before the result is a stable isotope or
combination of stable isotopes. Some radioactive isotopes can decay along any one
of several decay paths. Each individual fission event is random; however, each
unstable atom of a given isotope has the same probability of decay. One atom of an
isotope may undergo fission with a life of a few microseconds while its neighbour may
not decay until several centuries have passed, but both radioactive atoms still have
the same probability of decay. Applied to a very large number of active atoms, and a
typical Iridium 192 gamma ray source [as used in industrial radiography], despite its
small physical size, may contain around 1020 radioactive atoms (that’s one hundred
million million million), the constant probability of decay gives rise to a constant ‘half-
life.’ With such a large number the random nature of decay just ‘averages out’.
Gamma rays are an occasional by product of this process of nuclear fission.

Fission means ‘splitting’. There are several routes by which nuclear fission can take
place and two of these are of importance in the production of gamma rays. These will
be discussed in greater detail in the section on gamma ray sources.


3.0 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
From the early part of the nineteenth century it was well understood that light
was a waveform. Light, however, was well known to be capable of passing through a
vacuum. The scientists of the day puzzled long and hard as to how it could be
possible that a waveform could travel without some form of matter to support it.
Therefore the concept of a substance called ‘ether’, which filled otherwise apparently
empty space, was postulated and a lot of research time was expended in trying to
isolate this mysterious substance. The search continued until around 1865 when a
scientist called James Maxwell predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves.
Such waves, he said, would be capable of passing through a vacuum, since they were
supported by oscillating magnetic and electrical fields mutually at right angles to each
other and to the direction of propagation. Moreover, using mathematics, Maxwell
predicted a speed of travel for such waves that was equal to the then known speed of
light. It soon became clear that light was in itself a form of electromagnetic radiation.
All types of electromagnetic radiation travel at the same velocity (v), the velocity
of light, which is about 2.998 x 108 ms-1 (186,000 miles per second in old money), but
differ in terms of their wavelength ( ) and frequency (f). Wavelength can be defined
as the distance travelled during one complete field oscillation while frequency is the
total number of oscillations occurring in one second.
v = f
As scientific knowledge advanced it became clear that in some circumstances
light behaved not so much like a waveform, but more like a particle. Considering such
behaviour in 1900 a scientist called Max Planck first put forward the theory that light
had, what he called, a ‘quantum’ nature. Planck postulated that electromagnetic
energy could not exist in amounts (‘quantum’ being Latin for ‘amount’) smaller than a
given very small amount of energy and that all larger amounts of electromagnetic
energy were exact multiples of this amount to which he gave the name “photon”.
Planck believed that the photon energy of any form of electromagnetic radiation would
be equal to a constant multiplied by its frequency. In later years Planck’s hypothesis
was proved to be true and the constant in question became known as ‘Planck’s
Constant’, usually abbreviated as ‘h’.
E = hf
–23
Where ‘h’ is Planck’s constant (= 6.63 x 10 Js) and ‘E’ is the photon energy
of electromagnetic radiation of frequency ‘f’.

The Electromagnetic Spectrum MATERIALS JOINING

The properties of electromagnetic radiation, especially in the way it interacts
with matter are largely determined by its wavelength. Below figure is a schematic of
the electromagnetic spectrum.
The electromagnetic spectrum
Notes on this figure:
1. The electron volt (eV) is a unit of energy, which is equal to the kinetic energy that
an electron obtains when it accelerates through an electric field of 1 volt. A Mega
electron volt (MeV) is equal to the kinetic energy of an electron that has
accelerated through an electric field of 1 million volts. On electron volt is equal to
1.6 x 10-19 Joules.
2. The relationship between wavelength and photon energy on which the diagram
above has been based is approximate.

The Electromagnetic Spectrum MATERIALS JOINING

4.0 IONISING RADIATION
The 2 types of penetrating radiation most used in industrial radiography, x-rays
and gamma rays are often referred to as “ionising radiation”. This is because the
nature of their interaction with matter is to cause ionisation. Alpha particles and beta
particles, which are products of radioactive fission also cause ionisation and are
therefore included within the term ‘ionising radiation’. Neutron radiation is a hazard in
the nuclear power industry, it can [indirectly] cause ionisation, and it is therefore often
included within this group of types of radiation referred to as ionising. Alpha and beta
particle radiations are covered in greater detail in the sections below.

Ionising Radiation MATERIALS JOINING

5.0 X-RAYS OR BREMSTRAHLUNG
The term ‘x-ray’ is applied to ionising radiation produced when a beam of high
velocity (i.e. high kinetic energy) electrons collides with the atoms of a ‘target’
material. The ‘photon energy’ of the x-radiation thereby produced depends two
factors:
(i) the kinetic energy of the electron at the point of collision
and
(ii) the relative efficiency of the process of stopping the incident electron –
does this occur in a single large event or in a series of events of varying
magnitude?
X-ray production
The maximum energy of the x-ray photons produced is determined by the

maximum kinetic energy of the high velocity electrons impacting upon the target
material. There is no minimum to the energy of the x-ray photons produced. This is
because there is wide variation in the amount of energy, which the electron loses on
collision with an atom. Some of the electrons will score only a glancing hit on the
atom, in so doing interacting with the loosely bound electrons in the outermost
electron shells. This causes the impacting electron to be deflected and it loses part of
its velocity. The reduced energy electron may then interact with another atom and in
so doing produce another photon of x-rays of variable although reduced energy. In
addition to this the x-ray photons produced by electron collisions can themselves
interact with adjacent atoms and thereby produce reduced energy photons. X-ray
spectra are commonly termed to be “continuous, white or polychromatic” (this is
because there is no minimum energy). The first figure on following page shows the
form of a typical x-ray spectrum. Note that higher energy x-rays have shorter
wavelengths.

X-Rays or Bremstrahlung MATERIALS JOINING

X-ray spectrum
The value of the minimum wavelength, which will be produced by an x-ray tube having
an accelerating voltage V, can be estimated using the following formula:
λmin = 1240 / V nanometres

The minimum wavelength, min, is sometimes called the threshold wavelength.
The maximum intensity (the number of photons per square metre) in the continuous
spectrum produced occurs at approximately 2 x λmin .
The ability of the x-rays to penetrate matter depends on their photon energy.
The shorter the wavelength, the higher the photon energy, the more penetrating the
radiation. The penetrating power of the x-rays can be controlled by increasing or
decreasing the accelerating voltage. The greater the accelerating voltage, the more
penetrating the radiation. In an x-ray set the accelerating voltage is the tube voltage.
The total number of photons produced at all wavelengths is directly related to

the number of high velocity electrons arriving at the target. The total number of
electrons is directly proportional to the magnitude of the electric current passing
through the accelerating field. This current in an x-ray set is referred to as tube
current. Radiation intensity is directly proportional to tube current.
The two characteristic peaks shown in above X-ray spectrum figure are caused
by target material inner shell electrons jumping to a higher energy level, then falling


back to their equilibrium state. Characteristic radiation generally occurs at relatively
low energy, long wavelength and is of no great importance in the industrial
radiography of metallic components although it can cause a problem known as
diffraction mottling (see the section on artefacts). As the name suggests, each
element produces its own specific characteristic peaks, and measurement of these
can be used to perform chemical analysis (x-ray fluoroscopy). Low energy x-rays can
be ‘diffracted’ by crystalline materials such as metals. In the diffraction process
radiation is deflected from its original path at an angle that is determined by its
wavelength and the spacing of the atoms in the crystalline material. This effect can be
used to produce the mono-wavelength x-rays that are used in “x-ray crystallography”.
5.1 X-RAY EQUIPMENT

In order to produce x-rays three things are required:
1. A source of electrons.
2. A target constructed from a suitable high melting point material.
3. A means of accelerating electrons toward the target.
High velocity electrons cannot travel far in air; therefore the process of
acceleration must take place in a high vacuum.
5.1.1 THE CATHODE

The source of electrons is called the cathode. In a conventional x-ray tube it
consists of a tungsten filament which is heated by passing a small current through it.
Heating the filament produces a cloud of loosely bound, low kinetic energy electrons
in close proximity to the filament. This process is known as “thermionic emission.”
Electrons are negatively charged and can be accelerated toward the target by making
it positively charged with respect to the source of electrons.
Section through a typical x-ray tube cathode


5.1.2 THE ANODE (TARGET)
The anode consists of a heavy section of high conductivity copper with a small
tungsten (or other high melting point high atomic number metal) insert which is called
the target. The anode has a positive electrical potential with respect to the cathode.
The body of the anode is always copper because copper is an efficient conductor of
heat. This property is necessary because approximately 95% of the kinetic energy of
the impacting electrons is converted to heat at the anode.
The target material is usually tungsten because this has a very high melting
point (3370°C). This reduces the chances that it will be vaporised by the large amount
of heat generated. Tungsten has a high atomic number and therefore a large number
of electrons. This makes it a relatively efficient material for converting kinetic energy to
x-ray energy which in turn helps to reduce the amount heat produced as a proportion
of the total output of energy. Sometimes the target is constructed from Tantalum
(melting point 2996°C) and less frequently from other refractory metals.
Nearly all anodes are ‘hooded’ (see 2 figures below) the hood is a high
conductivity copper shroud which is designed to intercept stray electrons and to
prevent them from hitting the tube walls. The hood has a ‘window’ in the form of a
beryllium insert or a thinned section of copper, which permits x-rays to exit without
unduly increasing ‘inherent filtration’. Inherent filtration is the term used to describe
removal of x-rays from the primary beam due to absorption by the materials used in x-
ray head construction. The reason that a beryllium window is used in many x-ray
heads is that beryllium has a very low absorption factor and this minimises inherent
filtration whilst still affording the tube walls protection from stray electrons.
Anodes maybe directional as in the “Directional anode” figure or panoramic as

in the “Panoramic anode” figure. In either case anode design is such that the effective
focus size in the direction of the useful beam is much smaller than the actual focus
size. This arrangement is called a “line” or “Benson” focus and it serves to maximise
anode life without unduly compromising image quality.
Directional anode


Panoramic anode
The target is generally set at an angle of about 70° to the electron beam as
shown in both figures above. This produces a small effective focus size whilst
maintaining a large actual focal spot size. The large actual focus size helps to
dissipate the heat generated more efficiently. Therefore higher tube currents can be
sustained without the risk of damaging the target. This design feature is known as
“Benson” or “Line” focusing. See figure below:
Line or Benson focus


5.1.3 X-RAY TUBES
The cathode and anode are mounted in an evacuated glass (or in modern
tubes metal-ceramic) envelope as shown in figure below. The tube may be provided
with shielding to absorb any unwanted radiation that is not already shielded out by the
natural geometry of the anode. Directional type tubes produce a useful beam of
radiation that is usually in the form of a cone with a dihedral angle of around 40°. X-
ray tubes fitted with a panoramic anode produce a useful beam of radiation through an
angle of 360° about the tube axis.
Directional x-ray tube (metal – ceramic type)
The x-ray beam produced is filtered by the wall of the glass (or metal-ceramic)
envelope. This reduces the useful quantity of x-rays produced, with the low energy
components of the spectrum being particularly effected. Therefore it is common in
glass tubes that the tube wall will be ground thinner in the region of the useful beam in
order to minimise the x-ray energy lost due to self-filtration. Metal-ceramic x-ray tubes
(and low kilovoltage glass tubes) may have Beryllium inserts (usually called windows)
in order to minimise the filtration effect of the tube wall. Beryllium is used for this
purpose because it has a very low x-ray absorption coefficient and because it is
mechanically strong enough to contain the necessary vacuum.
X-ray tubes are invariably mounted inside some form of ‘tank’. This is usually a
metal cylinder that may be fitted with a beryllium or plastic window in order to minimise
self-filtration of the x-rays produced. The tank contains a coolant, which may be oil or
some type of gas. It provides high voltage insulation and mechanical protection. In
portable equipment the high voltage transformer is mounted inside the tank.


5.1.4 X-RAY TUBE POWER SUPPLY
In order to produce a beam of electrons from the filament in the tube it is

necessary to make the anode positive with respect to the cathode. If an AC supply is
connected across the tube then the beam of electrons will pass only when the anode
is positive and the tube will act as a half wave rectifier.
Current flow across a half-wave self-rectified x-ray tube
Most older type portable x-ray sets were half-wave self-rectified. This produced
a considerable weight saving compared with the earlier types of constant potential
unit. Most modern portable units are constant potential and use lightweight solid state
rectifiers to produce what is effectively DC current.
The metal ceramic tubes used in modern equipment are able to safely
withstand a greater potential difference between the anode / cathode and the tube
wall. This permits the use of “grounded anode” type circuitry, which in turn permits
direct water cooling of the anode. In an older type unit operating at say 200 kV the
cathode voltage would have been minus100 kV while the anode voltage would have
been plus 100 kV, giving a maximum potential difference between the electrodes and
the glass tube wall of 100 kV. With modern grounded anode circuitry it is safe to hold
the cathode at minus 200 kV with the anode at zero volts to produce the same 200 kV
potential difference. An anode held at zero volts can be safely cooled by water.
Water is a very efficient coolant and direct water cooling of the anode permits
operation at greatly increased tube currents. For example the maximum tube current
for an older type 200 kV oil cooled head was typically 5 mA self-rectified. With modern
portable equipment maximum constant potential tube currents of 15 or 20 mA are not
unusual for a 200 kV head.


Older type constant potential industrial x-ray units were extremely heavy and
bulky and were suitable for use only in fixed installations. Much of the weight and bulk
involved came from the rectification circuitry used, the so called “Greinacher Circuit”
and the large external oil cooling system that was necessary in order to dissipate the
large amount of heat generated.
Greinacher circuit voltage


The total quantity of x-rays produced by an x-ray unit is directly proportional to
the area under the line showing voltage against time. Thus for the same tube current
and peak voltage, an x-ray tube using a smoothed and fully rectified supply (i.e. a
constant potential unit) will produce more x-rays than a self rectified tube. In fact the
output of x-rays is more than doubled for the same tube current. In a self-rectified unit
the tube voltage varies from zero to the peak voltage and back again with each cycle.
In a constant potential unit the tube voltage is close to constant. Thus, looking at the
spectrum of x-rays produced, a self-rectified unit produces proportionally more low
energy radiation than does a similar constant potential unit.
X-ray spectra of constant potential and self rectified tubes
5.1.5 X-RAY TUBE CONTROLS
The radiation produced by the x-ray tube can be varied in quantity and
penetrating power (or quality) by controlling the electrical supplies to the tube.
5.1.5.1 PENETRATING POWER OR RADIATION QUALITY (kV)

The penetrating power of x-rays depends on the magnitude of the accelerating
voltage, which is applied between the cathode and the anode. The higher the voltage -
the higher the kinetic energy of the accelerated electrons - the higher the photon
energy of x-rays produced. The higher the photon energy - the shorter the wavelength
- the greater the penetrating power. Thus the penetrating power or quality of x-rays is
controlled by the tube voltage.
Conventional x-ray tubes, as used in industrial radiography, are capable of

being operated in the range from below 50 to 400 kV. If greater penetrating power is
required high energy x-ray sources such as betatrons, linear accelerators or Van der
Graaf generators can be used to provide x-ray energies of up to 30 or even 40 MeV.


National codes and standards such as ASME V (pre-1996 revisions) and BS
EN 1435 relate the maximum kilovoltage which may be used to the material thickness
which is to be examined. Table below gives the approximate limiting maximum
economically penetrable thicknesses of steel for various kilovoltages. The figures
given are typical for film radiography using lead intensifying screens and portable self
rectified equipment. Constant potential units can be used economically on greater
thicknesses than can self-rectified units.
BS EN 1435 maximum permissible x-ray tube voltage for various materials
Occasionally penetrating radiation is referred to as being either ‘hard’ or ‘soft’.

These terms are relative, but hard radiation is produced by high tube voltages (above
150 kV say) whilst soft radiation is produced at lower tube voltages.
Kilovolts Penetrating power:

mm of steel
120 6
160 20
200 30
250 45
300 60
Approximate penetrating power in mm of steel for various kilovoltages.
5.1.5.2 QUANTITY OF RADIATION (mA)

The quantity of radiation produced by the x-ray tube per unit time depends on
the number of electrons released by the cathode filament. The number of electrons
per second reaching the anode multiplied by the charge on the electron is equal to the

tube current. The tube current is not controlled directly. It is increased or decreased
by controlling the size of the heating current supplied to the cathode filament. The
higher the heating current, the hotter the filament, the greater the thermionic emission
of electrons and hence the greater the tube current. Tube current will also be
increased for the same heating current if the tube voltage is increased. This is
because higher voltages can draw more electrons from the filament even though the
filament temperature does not change. So if the tube voltage is altered it will be
necessary to adjust the heating current if the same value of tube current is to be
maintained. The use of too high a tube current would cause damage to the anode due
to overheating; therefore x-ray equipment always incorporates a safety cut-out switch
in order to prevent the use of a too-high value of tube current.
The total quantity of radiation produced by the x-ray set is directly

proportional to the product of the exposure time (i.e. the time for which the x-ray
tube is energised) and the tube current; therefore x-ray exposures are usually
given in milliampere minutes (mAmin) at a given tube voltage.
The standard controls on the x-ray set are:
(1) Voltage control: This alters the tube voltage (kV) by varying the low voltage
supply to the high voltage transformer. Note that high voltage is not generated
in the control panel. This minimises the hazard to personnel.
(2) Milliampere control: An ammeter incorporated into the control panel measures
(albeit indirectly) the current flowing across the tube. This is proportional to the
number of electrons flowing from the cathode to the anode per unit time. In
order to increase the supply of electrons the heating current to the filament is
increased using the milliampere control. Note that the ammeter measures
the current flowing between the anode and the cathode, not the current
flowing in the filament (i.e. the heating current).
(3) Timer: Since the quantity of x-rays produced is proportional to the length of
time during which the tube is energised it is convenient to incorporate a time-
switch into the control panel of the x-ray set which automatically terminates the
exposure at a preset time.
As explained above it is convenient to refer to x-ray exposures in terms of

milliampere minutes. For example an exposure which produces an acceptable
radiograph may have been determined to be, 36 mAmins at 200 kV. If this was the
case then any of the following exposures should give an identical acceptable result:
(a) 9 mA for 4 mins at 200 kV.
(b) 18 mA for 2 mins at 200 kV.
(c) 2 mA for 18 mins at 200 kV.
This is because the amount of radiation produced is the same in each case.
Obviously it would be desirable to use a high value of mA, in order to reduce the

exposure time, but as explained above the use of high tube currents can severely
damage the anode of the x-ray tube and thus reduce its service life. Therefore it is
usual to operate at a value of mA which is well within the tube’s specified capabilities.
The reciprocal relationship between time and tube current is sometimes

referred to as the reciprocity law or the Bunsen Roscoe reciprocity law.
5.1.6 HIGH ENERGY X-RAY SOURCES
5.1.6.1 BETATRONS
Betatrons are used to produce ultra-hard extremely penetrating radiation with

photon energies in the range 1-30 MeV. The efficiency with which the kinetic energy of
the accelerated electrons is converted to x-rays is much better at these high voltages
than at those experienced in conventional x-ray tubes. Consequently betatrons usually
benefit from quite small focal spots. In betatrons electrons are accelerated in a spiral
path of perhaps 1,000,000 revolutions by means of alternating magnetic fields before
being deflected towards the target. The radiation produced by betatrons can penetrate
300 mm or more of steel. They are primarily used for the radiography of castings or
large section welds in fixed installations but portable units are available. These are
sometimes used on site for the inspection of reinforcing bars in heavy concrete
sections. Up to around 10 MeV betatrons are usually preferred to linear accelerators
because they are more compact and less expensive to manufacture.
5.1.6.2 LINEAR ACCELERATORS
Linear accelerators (often called linacs) accelerate electrons to very high

velocities along a straight path by means of an electromagnetic waveform generated
by a device called a magnetotron. The particle velocities are similar to those achieved
in betatrons but a much higher output of radiation is achievable. For radiation energies
above 10 MeV linear accelerators are generally the preferred solution.
5.1.6.3 VAN der GRAAF GENERATORS
Van der Graaf generators generate a high voltage charge of static electricity by
mechanical means - friction. The static charge produced can be used to accelerate
electrons for x-ray production. Van der Graaf generators can produce short intense
pulses of x-ray energy. They have therefore found some application in the field of
‘ballistic radiography.’


5.1.7 SPECIAL TYPES OF X-RAY UNIT
5.1.7.1 MICROFOCUS X-RAY SOURCES
Standard x-ray equipment has an effective focus size usually in the range from
1 to 4 mm. This is small enough to provide adequate image quality for most standard
techniques. Microfocus x-ray equipment may have an effective focus size as small as
0.1 mm. Using such a small focus size geometric enlargement techniques are
possible whilst still producing an adequately sharp image.
Image enlargement using standard and microfocus x-ray equipment


5.1.7.2 ROD ANODE X-RAY TUBES
In a rod anode tube the target is at the end of a copper or aluminium tube which
is usually less than 20 mm outside diameter and may be up to a metre long. The
target is invariably of the panoramic variety. Grounded anode circuitry is essential for
this type of tube. The anode can be positioned inside small diameter pipes in order to
carry out panoramic radiography of girth welds; it can also be positioned in many other
otherwise inaccessible locations. Rod anode tubes are most often used in aerospace
applications.
Rod-anode x-ray tube
5.1.7.3 ROTATING ANODE X-RAY EQUIPMENT

In medical radiography a very large tube current is generally desirable – a high
tube current permits a very short exposure time which in turn helps to eliminate or
reduce unsharpness caused by relative movement during exposure. In order to
maximise tube current some medical equipment is fitted with a rotating anode. In a
rotating anode x-ray tube the anode rotates at high speed and the focus area of the
target is therefore constantly changing. Each section of the tungsten target is ‘in use’
for a short time followed by a slightly longer period of ‘resting’. This helps to prevent
overheating so the tube current can be greatly increased.


6.0 GAMMA RAYS
‘Gamma (γ) ray’ is the term applied to the electromagnetic radiation which is
sometimes produced when the atomic nuclei of a radioactive isotope disintegrate in
the process known as atomic fission. Alpha (α) and beta (β) particles may also be
produced during the disintegration process; in fact gamma emission is always a by-
product of alpha or beta emission. Of the three main types of radiation produced by
fission alpha is by far the most hazardous to health; alpha and beta radiation must be
taken into consideration when assessing safety. Except as a health hazard, alpha and
beta particle radiations have no significance for industrial radiography since they are
easily absorbed by very thin materials.
The disintegration process is fixed for each radioactive isotope and as a result the
gamma ray energies produced are also fixed.
Decay path for cobalt 60
The spectra produced are ‘line’ or ‘discrete’ spectra as opposed to the

‘continuous’ spectra produced by x-ray equipment. The table in section 6.2 lists the
principal gamma emissions for various commonly used isotopes. The figure just below
the table (section 6.2) shows the line spectrum for Iridium 192.
6.1 ALPHA AND BETA EMISSION
6.1.1 ALPHA PARTICLES

Alpha particles are emitted during the decay of heavy nuclides such as
Uranium (U) 238 and Plutonium (Pu) 239. An alpha particle consist of 2 protons and 2
neutrons – basically a Helium (He) nucleus, emitted from the nucleus at very high
velocity.

Gamma Rays MATERIALS JOINING

Thus in alpha emission there is a loss of 4 amu from the nucleus and a
reduction in atomic number of 2 (see the example above). Alpha particle radiation
cannot penetrate more than a thin sheet of paper or a few centimetres of air, it is,
however, very strongly ionising. The great danger to health with alpha emitters is that
they may be ingested – radioactive contamination. Once within the human body they
will in most cases cause cancer.
6.1.2 BETA PARTICLES

Beta particles may be emitted during radioactive decay. A beta particle consists
of a very high velocity electron emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive atom when a
neutron converts to a proton. It is important to note that although the beta particle is
an electron it has very much higher kinetic energy than a free electron, which has
resulted from an ionisation event.
Thus in beta emission there is no loss from the atomic mass number whilst the
atomic number increases by 1 (see the example above). Beta radiation is more
penetrating than alpha. It can penetrate the outer layers of the skin and lead to fatal
skin burns. The damage caused is very similar to sunburn, but much more severe.
Many of the early victims of the Chernobyl disaster died as a result of skin burns
caused by exposure to high intensities of beta radiation. If beta emitters are ingested
they will often lead to cancer.


6.2 SEALED SOURCES
The first gamma ray emitting radioisotopes to be used in industrial radiography
were naturally occurring radioactive materials such as Radium. Such sources were
not sealed and therefore there was a danger of exposure to alpha (α) and beta (β)
particles, both of which are extremely damaging to human tissue. Coupled with this
was the even greater hazard of radioactive contamination by which radioactive
materials might find their way into the human body.
All gamma sources in use today are man-made. They are manufactured by
neutron bombardment of non-radioactive raw materials in the core of a small nuclear
reactor. The sources in use are all beta emitters, gamma rays being produced as a
by-product of beta emission. In order to prevent beta emission or contamination
hazard the sources used in industrial radiography are invariably sealed sources. The
fissile material is encapsulated in a high integrity titanium or stainless steel shell. Beta
radiation is not capable of penetrating the walls of the capsule, and the capsule further
precludes any possible contamination hazard so long as it remains intact.
Principle Equivalent x-ray Penetrating

Isotope Half-Life Emissions Kilovoltage Power in mm of
(MeV) (kV) Steel
0.31,0.47,
Iridium (Ir) 192 74.4 days 400 75
0.60
Cobalt (Co) 60 5.3 years 1.17,1.33 1200 200
Thulium (Tm) 170 127 days 0.052,0.084 80 4
Ytterbium (Yb) 169 32 days 0.17,0.20 145 10
217
(low energy beam
0.121, 0.136,
Selenium (Se) 75 118.5 days components 30
0.265, 0.28, 0.401
improve
sensitivity)
Gamma emissions for commonly used isotopes.
Iridium 192 - principal gamma emissions


Sealed source
This figure shows the typical encapsulation arrangement for Iridium 192 and
Cobalt 60. Some isotopes such as Caesium 137 are double encapsulated. In the
case of Caesium 137 this is because the caesium is in the form of caesium chloride
which is highly corrosive and highly water-soluble (but this is still an improvement on
caesium metal which causes an explosion on contact with water).
6.3 PENETRATING POWER OF GAMMA RADIATION

The penetrating power is fixed for each isotope because the spectrum of
gamma radiation emitted is fixed. If a material thickness is too great to produce a
radiograph using, say, Ir192 then an isotope, which produces higher energy gamma
radiation such as Co60, must be used.
6.4 QUANTITY OF GAMMA RADIATION

The amount of gamma radiation – the number of photons, produced by an
isotope is controlled by the number of disintegrations (atomic fissions) per unit time.
The “source strength” of an isotope is usually expressed in curies (Ci) or becquerels
(Bq). “Source strength” may also be referred to as “source activity.”
1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per second
1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second
The becquerel, which is the SI unit of radioactivity, is a very small unit in terms
of what is required for industrial radiography. The curie is therefore generally
preferred. If the becquerel is used at all then it is usually in the form of gigabecquerels
(GBq). One gigabecquerel is equal to one thousand million (109) becquerels. One
curie is equal to 37 gigabecquerels (37 GBq). In the great majority of cases gamma
ray exposures are expressed in curie-hours, curie-minutes or curie-seconds; this in


each case being the product of source strength measured in curies multiplied by
exposure time measured in hours, minutes or seconds.
Example:
A steel section 50 mm thick requires an exposure of 700 curie-minutes using

Iridium 192 with a source to film distance of 1 metre using Kodak CX film and lead
intensifying screens.
All other factors being equal the exposure time would therefore be:
(a) 1 hour 10 minutes with a source strength of 10 Curies.
or
(b) 20 minutes with a source strength of 35 Curies.
or
(c) 7 minutes with a source strength of 100 Curies.
Gamma rays are produced by a disintegration process. Atoms having unstable

nuclei decay with a fixed probability to form other atoms having stable nuclei.
Therefore the source strength of the radioactive isotope will reduce with time. The
probability decay for a large number of unstable atoms is fixed and proportional to the
number of unstable atoms present. This means that the strength of a radioactive
source will always reduce exponentially: i.e. the strength of a given source will reduce
by 50% in a fixed time. This fixed time is referred to as ‘HALF LIFE’.
The half-life of various commonly encountered isotopes is given in table 3.
If the half-life of an isotope is known then the source activity at a given time can
be calculated if at some point previously the source activity was measured.
Suppose that an isotope having a half-life, h had an activity, S0 at time, t = 0.
Then at time, t the source strength or activity, St can be calculated using :
St = S0 2-(t/h)
Alternatively the activity of a source can be estimated using a decay chart. The
figure below shows the decay chart for Iridium 192.


Iridium 192 decay
6.5 RADIOISOTOPE CONTAINERS FOR INDUSTRIAL

RADIOGRAPHY
Radioactive isotopes emit gamma rays continuously. The decay process
cannot be switched off or in any way slowed down. Gamma radiation is extremely
harmful to human body tissues so radioactive isotopes must be shielded when not in
use. The shielding materials used in isotope containers are always dense materials
such as lead, tungsten or (more commonly) depleted uranium. Most modern
containers use depleted uranium shielding because uranium is an extremely efficient
absorber of gamma radiation. Uranium shielded isotope containers are much lighter
and more portable than their lead shielded counterparts. An uranium shielded
container having a weight of about 20-kg can safely store 100 Chi of Iridium 192. A
lead-shielded container of the same weight would be capable of safely containing only
20 Chi of Iridium 192.
Radioactive isotope containers are designed to fulfil two important functions :
(1) To contain the radioactive isotope and reduce the emitted intensity of radiation
to a level which allows for safe transportation and storage.
(2) To allow the radioactive isotope to be safely exposed in order that it may be
used for radiography.


In addition, radioactive isotope containers have to be capable of withstanding
possible accidents involving impact or fire.
All modern isotope containers are designed to be operated by cable (see figure
26). They are of two basic types (see following 2 figures). Of the two types depicted
the “S” tube type is intrinsically safer but around 30% heavier than the equivalent
shutter type. Older types of isotope container did not provide for remote operation.
S-tube type radioactive source container
Shutter type radioactive source container (schematic only)


Remote control isotope delivery system
Sealed source with flexible cable (pigtail) attached


6.6 COMPARISON OF X-RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS
6.6.1 ENERGY AND OUTPUT OF RADIATION
X-ray equipment produces a continuous range of photon energies up to a

threshold level dependent upon the tube voltage setting. The threshold photon energy
level can be adjusted from 50 keV or less up to a maximum (for high-energy
equipment) of perhaps 30 MeV. The photon energy of gamma ray sources is fixed.
The output of radiation per unit time is variable for x-ray equipment up to the
maximum mA rating of the tube. The output of radiation from a radioactive isotope is
fixed by the source activity. The output of radiation produced by x-ray equipment is
generally much greater than that produced by radioactive isotopes.
The penetrating power of ionising radiation is controlled by its maximum photon

energy and the photon energy distribution. Table below gives an indication of the
maximum steel thickness that can practically be radiographed using conventional x-
ray equipment and the commonly encountered isotopes. The penetrating power of x-
rays produce by self rectified equipment is less than that of x-rays produced by
constant potential equipment operating at the same tube voltage. This is because the
constant potential equipment produces a larger proportion of high-energy radiation
than does the self-rectified.
Source of Radiation Useful Thickness Range/mm

of Steel
x-ray 100 kV (peak) Maximum 6 mm
Self- 150 kV (peak) Maximum 20 mm
Rectified 200 kV (peak) Maximum 30 mm
300 kV (peak) Maximum 60 mm
x-ray 100 kV Maximum 10 mm
Constant 150 kV Maximum 32 mm
Potential 200 kV Maximum 45 mm
300 kV Maximum 100 mm
Thulium 170 Maximum 4 mm
Gamma Ray Selenium 75 4-30 mm
Ytterbium 169 2-8 mm
Iridium 192 10-75 mm
Cobalt 60 40-200
Useful thickness range for various sources of radiation.

Note: Steel sections of 500 or 600 mm can be radiographed using x-rays generated
by linear accelerators or betatrons.


6.6.2 RADIOGRAPHIC CONTRAST
Low energy radiation is more easily absorbed by than high-energy radiation.
Therefore low energy radiation will show a bigger change in radiation intensity for the
same change of penetrated section thickness than will high-energy radiation. Thus
radiographs made with low energy radiation will usually show better contrast than
those made using high-energy radiation.
The contrast of x-radiographs is generally better than gamma-radiographs

since it is possible to optimise the x-ray energy for the thickness of the material which
is to be examined; in so doing obtaining the best possible contrast. With a gamma ray
source the radiation energy is fixed and is optimum for a narrow range of thickness
only. Contrast is better for x-rays of the same maximum radiation energy than it is for
gamma rays because x-ray tubes produce a continuous range of energies as opposed
to the line spectrum which is obtained from a gamma ray source.
6.6.3 FOCAL SPOT SIZE VERSUS SOURCE SIZE
A radiograph produced using small effective source size will usually be of

higher quality than one produced with a larger effective source size. The average focal
spot size an x-ray tube is similar to the average physical size of the gamma ray
sources which are commonly used. Most x-ray tubes have a fixed effective focal spot
of between 1 and 4 mm. With some x-ray equipment the focal spot size can be varied.
Microfocus x-ray tubes may have an effective focal spot of less than 0.1 mm. The size
of the focal spot in an x-ray tube tends to be larger for the higher maximum kilovoltage
tubes. This is due to the need to dissipate the increased amount of heat generated at
high kV. The practical source size for a radioactive isotope is determined by the
maximum economically achievable specific activity. Specific activity is usually
expressed in curies (or becquerels) per gram. Table 5 below gives typical practical
achievable maximum specific activity for 4 common isotopes.
Maximum
practically
Practically
achievable
achievable
Density activity for 3 mm
Isotope maximum specific
(g/cm3) diameter, 3 mm
activity
long cylindrical
(Curies per gram)
pellet
(Curies)
Cobalt 60 50 8.9 10
Iridium 192 350 22.4 166
Caesium 137 25 3.5 (note 1) 2
Thulium 170 1,000 4 (note 2) 85
Note 1. Density is for compressed caesium chloride (CsCl)

Note 2. Density is for thulium oxide (Tm2O3)
Specific activity for common radioisotopes


Note that the maximum activity of a gamma ray source is limited by its physical
size. The most useful isotopes are those which have a high value of practically
achievable specific activity. In an iridium 192 source at the maximum achievable
activity about 2.5 atoms per 100 million are radioactive. In a cobalt 60 source the
figure is only about 1 atom in every 10,000 million.
The output of radiation from a typical x-ray machine is much greater than the
output of radiation from a typical gamma source. This means that in x-radiography the
use of long focal to film distances is more economically feasible than is the case in
gamma radiography. Thus, even though the focus is similar in physical size when
compared with the average gamma source, it is generally the case that geometric
unsharpness is better for x-ray techniques than for gamma.
6.6.4 EXPOSURE TIME (FILM RADIOGRAPHY)

An exposure time of between 1 & 5 minutes is usual for x-ray radiography. A
conventional self-rectified x-ray set operating at maximum kilovoltage and tube current
will generally be capable of continuous use with an exposure time of up to 5 minutes
followed by a rest period between successive exposures of around 1 or 2 minutes. If
the exposure time is extended beyond 5 minutes then overheating will generally occur
if the rest period is not considerably extended. Constant potential equipment intended
for fixed installation usage will usually be capable of continuous operation at its
maximum output rating. However, even with such equipment, exposure times in
exceeding 10 minutes will generally be avoided.
The exposure time for gamma radiography tends to be longer. This is because
the output of radiation (in photons per second) is generally much less. Gamma ray
exposure times are usually in the range from about 30 seconds to 1 hour, but
exposure times exceeding 24 hours are not unheard of. The required exposure time
for a gamma ray source increases as the source activity reduces with time.
6.6.5 POWER SUPPLY
X-ray sets require power from a mains supply or mobile generator. Usually a
4.5 kW generator will provide sufficient power to operate a 300 kV self-rectified set.
Gamma radiography can in general be carried out without the need for a power
supply.
6.6.6 PHYSICAL SIZE AND WEIGHT
An Iridium 192 isotope with a source activity of up to 100 curies can safely be
stored in a container weighing approximately 15-20 kg which has outside dimensions
of approximately 200 x 400 x 100 mm. Such isotopes are useful for the radiography of


steel sections of up to 75 mm thick. Gamma ray sources can be used to make
exposures in situations where access is extremely limited.
A typical self-rectified 300 kV rated x-ray set (which is useful for the
radiography of steel sections of up to 60 mm thick) is on the other hand considerably
less portable and less manoeuvrable. A typical 300 kV SR tube head could weigh 55
kg and measure 300 x 300 x 750 mm while the associated control panel might weigh
as much as 30 kg and measure 450 x 350 x 250 mm. Low kilovoltage equipment
offers improved portability and manoeuvrability but this has to be offset against the
reduced penetrating power.
6.6.7 EQUIPMENT COST

The initial cost of x-ray equipment for site work is about 2-5 times that of a
portable gamma ray container. The cost of maintenance and repair is greater for x-ray
equipment, due to the nature of the electrical equipment involved and because x-ray
equipment is less rugged and therefore more prone to damage in site conditions.
Gamma ray sources have to be replaced on a regular basis due to radioactive
decay. This can become costly if the source is not used regularly. Gamma ray sources
have, by law in most countries, to be stored in very secure conditions. This factor also
adds to costs when compared to x-ray equipment.
X-ray exposures tend to be shorter so there can be a cost saving with x-ray
equipment if the setting up time between successive exposures is minimised. Overall
gamma radiography tends to be the most cost effective solution for construction site
work but x-radiography may provide the cheapest option where are large number of
similar radiographs are required (such as may be the case in pipeline or mass
production environments).


7.0 METHODS OF PRODUCING A RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE
7.1 RADIOGRAPHIC FILM

Radiographic film is essentially the same as that used in photography in that it
consists of a suspension of silver halide grains in a gelatine binder on an acetate or
polyester base. Radiographic film, however, differs from photographic film in the
following respects:
(i) The acetate or polyester base material is considerably thicker than is the case
with photographic film.
(ii) The emulsion is applied to both sides of the film. This effectively doubles the
film density (i.e. degree of darkness) for the same exposure to radiation and
thereby doubles the film speed.
(iii) The emulsion tends to be thicker (usually around 0.025 mm) than that used in
photographic films, in order to further increase the film speed.
Two types of radiographic film are used for industrial radiography, these being:
Direct type film, where the principal cause of image formation is the ionising radiation
itself. This may be coupled with the effect of “secondary electrons” emitted from
metallic foil intensifying screens.
and
Screen type film, where the principal cause of image formation is light emitted from
fluorescent image intensifying screens under the action of ionising radiation.
Cross-section through a radiographic film
Some radiographic film will produce good results either as a direct type or as a
screen type film. The film emulsion in screen type films usually has a matt finish so as
to avoid reflecting the light produced by fluorescence. Radiographic film is generally
further divided into three categories, these being:
(BS EN 584-1 lists a total of 6 film classifications, C1 to C6. BS EN 1435, however, refers to only 3 of
these 6, these being C3, C4 and C5. Class C3 corresponds to ultrafine grain (e.g. Agfa D4). Class C5
corresponds to fine grain (e.g. Agfa D7 or Fuji 100) while C4 is intermediate between the two (e.g. Agfa
D5, Kodak MX or Fuji 80).

Methods of Producing a Radiographic Image MATERIALS JOINING

ultrafine grain (slow film) e.g. Agfa D4 or D5, Fuji 80 or 50 and Kodak MX
fine grain (medium speed film) e.g. Agfa D7, Fuji 100 or Kodak CX
and
coarse grain (high-speed film).
Coarse grained film requires a shorter exposure time than does fine grain film
because each grain of silver halide needs only to receive as few a single photon of
radiation or single ‘secondary electron’ in order to become ‘sensitised.’ When a
sensitised grain contacts the developer solution the entire grain, regardless of its size
is converted to image forming metallic silver. Large grains of silver will block out more
light than small grains so a coarse grained film will appear darker after processing
than will a fine grained film even though the exposure conditions were exactly the
same. The table below lists the direct type radiographic films produced by various
manufacturers in order of their relative film speed.
For the most part, industrial radiography is carried out using fine grain film such
as Kodak CX, Agfa D7, Cronex NDT 70 or Fuji 100. Ultrafine grained film is used
where adequate sensitivity cannot be achieved using fine-grained film. Coarse-
grained film is rarely used where except very rapid results have to be obtained.
Film Kodak Agfa Dupont Fuji

manufacturer Gevaert (Cronex)
Film type
NDT 45
Ultrafine grain MX D4 NDT 55 50
D5 NDT 65 80
Fine grain AA D7 NDT 70 100
CX NDT 75
Coarse grain D10 NDT 91 150
400
Radiographic film
7.1.1 LATENT IMAGE FORMATION
When film is exposed to x-rays, gamma rays, or light, an invisible change called
a latent image is produced in the film emulsion. The areas so exposed become dark
when the film is immersed in a developing solution, the degree of darkening
depending on the amount of exposure.
Photographic emulsion consists of myriads of tiny crystals of silver halide

(usually silver bromide with a small quantity of silver iodide) dispersed in gelatine.


Each tiny crystal responds as an individual unit to during exposure to radiation and
subsequent development. A latent image can be defined as that radiation induced
change in a silver halide crystal that renders the crystal susceptible to the chemical
action of the developer.
Photography utilising film emulsion similar to that which is in use today has
been with us since around 1839 but the mechanisms involved in latent image
formation remained a mystery until 1938 when the ‘Gurney – Mott Theory’ was first
put forward. Although this theory is now generally accepted there remain areas of
speculation.
Formation of a latent image involves very subtle change in the silver halide
grain. It is known to involve the absorption of only one or a few photons of radiation.
Because of the small amount of energy involved it is obvious that only a few atoms,
out of the ten thousand million or so atoms in a typical silver halide grain, can actually
be affected. To date it has proved impossible to detect either the physical or the
chemical nature of the tiny changes involved. Against this, however, much can be
deduced about what the physical nature of these changes must be. For one thing we
know that the substance which forms the radiographic image must be metallic silver.
We also know that the latent image is localised at certain discrete sites within the
silver halide grain. The evidence for this is shown in figure below. This figure is an
electron micrograph of a section of film emulsion that has been exposed to light
followed by a brief contact with developer. Note how tiny amounts of silver have
appeared (the dark areas) within each grain of silver halide. Further it is known that
prolonged exposure to light will darken the film emulsion even without development.
Therefore the mechanism of latent image formation will by itself cause the release of
silver from a silver halide grain under extreme conditions (see figure on next page).
Electron micrograph of exposed, partially developed, partially fixed grains of silver

halide, showing initiation of development at localised sites in the grains
(1µ = 1 micron = 0.001 mm).


Electron micrograph of the release of silver in a grain of silver halide caused
by very intense exposure to light.
Based on such evidence it is fairly safe to assume that the mechanism of latent
image formation releases a few atoms of silver within each exposed silver halide
grain. The chemicals contained in the developer then preferentially attack such
exposed grains.
An excellent explanation of the Gurney – Mott Theory can be found
“Radiography in Modern Industry” which can be found on the Kodak website.
7.1.2 FILM CASSETTES

Radiographic film is highly sensitive to light, in particular to light at the blue end
of the spectrum. It has to be protected from exposure to light (except for the light from
darkroom safe lamps) at all times up to the point where the fixing process has
commenced. Prior to use the film is stored in lightproof boxes. In order that the film
can be used for radiography the film has first to be inserted into a suitable lightproof
container. Such containers are called ‘cassettes’. Film cassettes are of two types:
rigid and flexible. Film cassettes serve three important functions: firstly they protect
the film from unwanted exposure to light, secondly they help to maintain good film -
screen contact and thirdly they protect the film against environmental or handling
damage. Film cassettes must be manufactured in such a way that they do not produce
any unwanted image on the radiograph. Some radiographic film is available pre-
packed in a protective lightproof envelope complete with lead intensifying screens.
For the most part however, flexible cassettes manufactured from opaque PVC or other
plastic are used because they are cheap, durable and versatile.
Film cassettes must be handled with care, flexible cassettes are particularly
easy to rupture during loading and unloading of the film. Cassettes which leak light
can add considerably to the cost of radiography if they lead to a radiograph having to
be retaken. Therefore it is good practice to inspect cassettes prior to use. Leaky
cassettes can often be satisfactorily repaired using opaque adhesive tape.

7.1.3 INTENSIFYING SCREENS
In industrial radiography intensifying screens of one form or another tend to be
used for most exposures. An intensifying screen amplifies the effect that the primary
radiation beam has upon the radiographic film emulsion, thus shortening the required
exposure time.
7.1.3.1 METALLIC FOIL INTENSIFYING SCREENS

At first it may seem to be a little paradoxical that metallic (nearly always lead
but occasionally copper, steel or tantalum) foil screens can produce an intensifying
effect. All metals are good absorbers of ionising radiation so one would naturally
expect that the film density would be reduced rather than increased. In practice
however, lead or copper foil screens brought into close contact with direct type
radiographic film reduce the required exposure for radiation energies in excess of 120
keV by a factor of about two. The reason for this is that under the action of ionising
radiation of energy 120 keV or greater metals produce ‘secondary electrons’ which
have kinetic energy sufficient to cause the sensitisation of the grains of silver halide
which they strike. Metallic foil screens further add to the quality of the radiograph by
filtering out a large proportion of the scattered radiation which is of lower energy (and
therefore more easily absorbed) than the primary beam.
For most purposes lead foil screens 0.125 mm thick are used but thicker
screens are used for high-energy radiography. Copper screens tend to be used only
for extremely high-energy techniques (above 1 MeV). The lead screens found in pre-
packed film are only a few microns thick, they produce a strong intensifying effect but
have a much reduced effect on the scattered radiation as compared with standard re-
useable lead screens. Pre-packed film is available either in individual disposable
cassettes or as ‘roll-pack’ where a long narrow length of film is supplied complete with
lead screens in a protective light proof sheath. Roll-pack film can be cut to any desired
length. The cut ends have to be light sealed with suitable adhesive tape. Roll-pack is
commonly used on pipelines in conjunction with the panoramic technique.
BS EN 1435 tables 2 and 3 specify metallic foil screens of lead, copper, steel
and tantalum. The specified thickness range and screen material change for different
x-ray tube voltages and for different isotopes.
7.1.3.2 SALT SCREENS

Salt screens consist of a layer of calcium tungstate (or other fluorescent
material), attached, using a suitable binding material, to a sheet of cardboard. While
salt screens can produce a dramatic reduction in exposure time when used with
screen type film they are seldom used in industrial radiography because they produce
an image of inferior quality. They are expensive and they are very easily damaged.

Salt screens produce an image intensifying effect by fluorescing, usually the
blue part of the spectrum, under the action of ionising radiation. They are capable of
cutting the exposure time required by a factor of up to 500.
7.1.3.3 FLUOROMETALLIC SCREENS
These screens, which attempt to combine the advantages of lead screens with
those of salt screens are occasionally used in industrial radiography when there are
strong financial pressures for a reduction in exposure time. One such application is on
offshore pipe laying barges. They are even more expensive than salt screens at
around £70 for a pair of 10 x 40 cm screens and they are just as easily damaged.
They do not provide quite the same reduction in exposure time as do salt screens but
the image quality is considerably improved (although still inferior to that produced
using lead screens). Fluorometallic screens consist of a cardboard backing material to
which a layer of lead foil is attached, attached to the lead foil is a layer of calcium
tungstate or other fluorescent crystalline material suspended in a suitable binding
material.
7.1.4 FILM PROCESSING
Radiographic film forms a ‘latent image’ during exposure to ionising radiation,

light or secondary electrons. By a process which is not fully understood silver halide
grains become sensitised during exposure (see section 7.1.1 above). In order to make
the latent image formed by the sensitised grains visible it is necessary to chemically
process the film. Films can be processed either manually or automatically but the
chemical processes involved are the same. Radiographic film must not be exposed to
light except that from darkroom safe-lamps; even exposure to safe-lamps must be
minimised as prolonged exposure can result in film fogging. Extreme care must be
exercised during film processing because the wet film emulsion is extremely fragile.
Film / lead screens / flexible cassette


7.1.4.1 DEVELOPMENT
The first stage in film processing is development. During this stage a reducing
agent such as hydroquinone or metol reduces the sensitised silver halide grains in the
film emulsion to metallic silver. Development whether manual or automatic must be
carried out within the temperature range recommended by the developer
manufacturer otherwise image quality will be severely impaired.
Developers for manual processing are usually designed for use at 20°C, for
automatic processing this will usually be increased to around 27°C. Films should
always be developed for the optimum processing time of about 5 minutes for manual
development and under 2 minutes for automatic development.
Film developed for a time which is not within the developer manufacturer’s
recommendations will have impaired image quality. Films must be agitated thoroughly
in the first 20 - 30 seconds of development when the reaction with the developer is
rapid and at regular intervals (usually 10 seconds per minute) throughout the
remainder of allotted development time. Failure to properly agitate the film will result
in a streaky radiograph and inferior image contrast. The developer solution undergoes
chemical changes during film processing and it must be replenished regularly in order
to maintain its effectiveness. Exposure to air must be minimised because developer is
readily oxidised. Contamination of the developer with foreign material, especially
metal particles, is likely to lead to unwanted images being produced on the film.
7.1.4.2 STOP BATH

The stop bath serves two purposes: (1) to curtail the action of the developer
and (2) to protect the fixer by reducing carry over of developer solution. It is not
essential to use a stop bath but it is desirable because it will considerably extend the
life of the fixer. It will also help to avoid possible film artefacts, ‘dichroic fogging’ in
particular. Two types of stop bath may be used: (1) an acid stop bath or (2) a running
water stop bath. In either case the stop bath must be maintained at a temperature
which is comparable to that of the developer otherwise ‘reticulation’ may result. The
developer operates in an alkaline buffer solution. Acid stop baths neutralise the
alkalinity of the developer and stop the development process almost immediately. It is
normal to allow the film to remain in such a stop bath for 10 to 30 seconds. Running
water stop baths quickly dilute the developer solution thus rapidly slowing the
development reaction and minimising the damage to the fixer. It is normal to allow a
time of 2 to 3 minutes when using running water stop baths.
7.1.4.3 FIXING AND HARDENING
The chemicals which are used to ‘fix’ the image and ‘harden’ the emulsion are
normally combined together in a single chemical bath. Both types of chemical have to
be protected by an acid buffer solution. In acid solution the active ingredient in the
fixer will dissolve only silver halide from the film; if the solution becomes alkaline it will,

in addition, begin to dissolve any metallic silver present. The silver halides which
remain intact in the film emulsion after development must be removed in order to
preserve the image which has been formed and in order that it can be viewed using
transmitted light. Any silver halide which remains in the emulsion of a fully processed
film will quickly deteriorate on contact with air under the influence of light to form
brown stains which severely degrade the quality of the image.
The process of removing excess silver halides is called “fixing”. The chemical
used to achieve this is sodium (or ammonium) thiosulphate (sometimes called hypo).
The gelatine binder which holds the silver and silver halides becomes soft and
spongy in the developer. ‘Hardening’ the film serves to get rid of some of this
sponginess and gives the film better resistance to the formation of water marks during
drying.
Hardening of the film emulsion, although always desirable, is not absolutely

necessary if the films are subsequently washed at a temperature of less than 25°C
and dried manually If automatic dryers are to be used, however, the film emulsion will
be badly damaged by the rollers if the film has not been properly hardened.
For manual processing the fixer-hardener bath should be maintained at the

same temperature as the developer, although in this case the temperature is not so
critical. Films should be fixed for twice the ‘clearing time’ where ‘clearing time’ is the
time taken for the fixer to strip out the remaining silver halide. The clearing time for a
fixer bath maintained in good condition will generally be less than 2.5 minutes at 20°C.
While fixing times of 1 hour or more generally have no ill effects, over fixing should be
avoided because in some circumstances it can lead to ‘frilling’. Frilling is a film artefact
whereby the film emulsion becomes detached from the base. Frilling can be caused
by allowing film to remain in the fixer for an extended period at high temperature,
particularly where hardener has not been added to the fixer.
7.1.4.4 WASHING
After fixing the film must be thoroughly washed so as to remove all traces of the
fixer chemicals from the emulsion. Insufficient washing will result in the formation of
brownish yellow stains while over-washing can cause water marks or even frilling (see
above). Adequate wash times in a running water wash vary from 10 minutes at 30°C
to 30 minutes at 10°C. Most film manufacturers recommend that the wash
temperature should not be more than 25°C. Film can be washed successfully in a still
water bath provided that the water is changed regularly.
7.1.4.5 DRYING
The application of a wetting agent to the film prior to drying will help the film to
dry quickly / evenly and without watermarks. If the films are to be dried using a warm


air draught then care must be taken to ensure that dust is not blown onto the wet
films. Warm air dryers with a downward draught dry the film more quickly.
7.2 IMAGE FORMATION IN REAL TIME RADIOGRAPHY

It is possible to form a radiographic image simultaneously with the exposure to
radiation. Early forms of real time radiography (known as fluoroscopy) used
fluorescent screens which were viewed through a series of mirrors in order to avoid
exposing the inspector to ionising radiation. Later means of electronically amplifying
the fluoroscopic image were developed which increased the brightness of the image
by a factor of up to 1000 times. This type of electronic device is known as an image
intensifier or photo-multiplier tube. The increased image brightness allows the image
produced to be optically enlarged or transmitted to a remote location by means of
video equipment.
The image quality can approach that of film radiography (limiting sensitivity
about 2% as opposed to less than 1% for film radiography) and permanent records
can be made using a computer, photography or video.
Image intensifier tubes work by accelerating electrons emitted at the primary

fluorescent screen through a vacuum incorporating a focusing device in order to form
an extremely bright but reduced in size radiographic image on the secondary screen.
Typically the primary image will measure around 250 x 250 mm while secondary
image will measure around 25 x 25 mm. The resolving power of a typical image
intensifier is around 100 lines per 25 mm as opposed to as much as 400 lines per 25
mm for film radiography and 70 lines per 25 mm for conventional fluoroscopy.
Solid state imaging panels are now available. Such panels can form a very
bright image without reducing the size of the image. Panels measuring 250 mm x 250
mm are available which can produce an image about 50 times brighter than a
conventional fluoroscopic screen. Using such panels a resolving power of around 300
lines per inch can be achieved which is very close to that of radiographic film.
In still more recent developments similar panels have been used to form
digitised electronic images which can be viewed via a computer. This enables the
images to be processed by the computer in order to increase contrast, thereby
equalling the sensitivity produced in film radiography. Such systems can form
radiographic images from extremely low doses of radiation. This makes them ideal for
use with micro focus x-ray equipment. This in turn allows the image size to be
magnified simply by increasing the object to detector distance without a detrimental
increase in penumbra. So-called x-ray tomography is possible using this type of
equipment. Small components can be rotated through 360° while recording the
images formed using the computer. Equipped with right software computers can
convert this information into a three dimensional image. Such systems are in use in
the aerospace industry.


8.0 PRODUCTION OF A RADIOGRAPH (FILM
RADIOGRAPHY)
A radiograph is a record of the way in which a beam of radiation has been
differentially absorbed by an object stored on photographic film. In order to produce
good quality radiographs in an economical time numerous factors have to taken into
account. First it is necessary to understand what is meant by ‘radiographic quality’.
8.1 RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY

The quality or sensitivity of a radiograph is a measure of the ability of the
radiograph to detect small changes in radiation intensity caused by variations in object
thickness or composition. In order to detect small imperfections in an object an
adequate level of sensitivity must be achieved. The standard methods of measuring or
estimating sensitivity are described in the next chapter. Achieving adequate sensitivity
is the crucial factor that determines the level of success of radiography as an NDT
technique.
This figure summarises the factors which must be considered if radiographs of

adequate quality are to be produced. Radiographic quality or sensitivity depends on
achieving good ‘contrast’ and good ‘definition’.
Factors affecting radiographic sensitivity
8.1.1 CONTRAST
Contrast can be defined as the ease with which it is possible to distinguish
between two adjacent areas of different film density. The chief factor that determines
whether or not the two areas will be clearly defined is the degree of difference in film
density.

Production of a Radiograph (Film Radiography) MATERIALS JOINING

Radiographic contrast comes from two sources:
1. The object being radiographed: ‘subject contrast’.
and
2. The film used to produce the radiograph: ‘film contrast’.
Subject contrast can be defined as the degree of difference in transmitted

radiation intensity produced by a given change in subject thickness. This is primarily a
function of the type of material from which the subject is made. For instance a 1 mm
step in a 10 mm section of lead will produce a much greater change in transmitted
radiation intensity than would the same step in a similar section of aluminium
(assuming that the energy of the incident radiation was the same in both cases).
Film contrast can be defined as the degree of difference in film density

produced by a given change in radiation intensity or exposure time. This is primarily
controlled by the type of film used.
The factors affecting film and subject contrast are discussed below:
8.1.1.1 FILM TYPE (AFFECTS FILM CONTRAST)

In considering the effect that film type has upon film contrast (the type of film
has no effect on subject contrast) it is useful to refer to a type of graph called a ‘film
characteristic curve’. Such graphs relate the logarithm of the relative exposure time to
the achieved film density. A few examples are given in the figure below.


The gradient of a film characteristic curve represents the change in film density
produced by a small change in subject thickness. The figure on the following page
shows how the gradient of the film characteristic curve varies with film density. Note
that the curve for Kodak MX, an ultrafine grain film, has the steepest gradient. The
Agfa D7 curve is in turn steeper than that of Kodak CX. D7 and CX are both class C5
fine grain film, but CX is a faster film than D7. Thus MX will provide the best film
contrast, whilst D7 should produce contrast better than that of CX.
Film characteristic curves CX-D7-MX (direct type film / lead screens)


Gradient of the film characteristic curve versus film density for Kodak MX,
Agfa D7 and Kodak CX
8.1.1.2 FILM DENSITY (AFFECTS FILM CONTRAST)

Film density can be defined as the degree of darkening of the film or more
properly the degree to which the film prevents light from passing through it.
Mathematically, film density is defined as the logarithm to the base 10 of the ratio of
the incident to transmitted light intensity. It can be calculated using the following
formula:
The logarithm to the base 10 of a number is just the power of 10 that will
produce the number itself.
For example:
102 = 100 and the logarithm of 100 = 2;
103 = 1,000 and the logarithm of 1,000 =3;

100.301 = 2 and the logarithm of 2 = 0.301


Thus a film having a density of 2.0 transmits 1% of the incident light intensity
while a film with a density of 3.0 transmits only 0.1%. A film with a density of 0.3 would
transmit about 50% of the incident light intensity.
The previous 2 figures show how film density affects film contrast. Film density
does not affect subject contrast. The gradient of the film characteristic curve is a good
measure of film contrast. The gradient for all films increases with increasing film
density. If the gradient is steep then a small change in radiation intensity or exposure
time will produce a large change in film density. The gradient of all of the film
characteristic curves becomes shallow at film densities of less than 1.5, indicating that
film contrast will be poor at low film densities. In view of this all relevant national
standards stipulate a minimum film density of about 2.0 for industrial radiography.
8.1.1.3 BASE FOG LEVEL (AFFECTS FILM CONTRAST)

National standards generally limit the base fog level of unexposed radiographic
film to 0.3. If the base fog level exceeds this value film contrast can be quite severely
affected. Fog level can be checked by processing a sample of the unexposed film.
This figure demonstrates how the base fog level affects film contrast.
Effect of film fogging on the film characteristic curve

(The dotted lines show the average gradient between a film density of 1.5 and a film density of 2.5 for
film having a base fog level of 0.1 and 0.5 respectively. The average gradient with a base fog level of
0.1 is about 3.6 while that for a base fog level of 0.5 is about 2.7. This decrease in average gradient is
indicative of a reduction in film contrast.)


8.1.1.4 FILM PROCESSING (AFFECTS FILM CONTRAST)
Radiographic film should always be processed in accordance with the

manufacturer’s recommendations. Any deviation from these will result in a lowering of
film contrast and hence sensitivity.
The film attains about 80% of its final density in the first 30 seconds of
development. During the remaining 3½ to 5½ minutes of the standard development
time radiographic developers are designed to increase film contrast. The developer
works more vigorously in areas where a lot of metallic silver has already been
released than in areas where the converse is true. Thus film contrast gradually
improves during the final minutes of the development process. This is why
radiographs which have been ‘pulled’ – intentionally underdeveloped in an effort to
produce acceptable film density, invariably show poor film contrast. If the film is
allowed to remain in the developer for too long, however, the developer will begin to
attack all areas of the film and contrast will begin to suffer.
All radiographic developers are designed to for use at the processing

temperature specified by the developer manufacturer. Development time can to some
extent be increased to compensate for a lower developer temperature or reduced if
the temperature is above the optimum, but this will invariably be at the cost of reduced
film contrast.
In order to maintain the developer in good condition it must be replenished.

Developer which has not been properly replenished quickly leads to low contrast low
quality radiographs.
8.1.1.5 RADIATION QUALITY (AFFECTS SUBJECT CONTRAST)

As the photon energy of the incident beam of radiation increases the subject
contrast produced by the same change in component thickness of decreases. This is
because higher energy radiation is less absorbed as it passes through a given
thickness of the same material than is lower energy radiation.


It is useful to talk about different radiation energy in terms of its ‘half value
layer’. The half value layer can be defined as the thickness of any particular material
that will reduce the intensity of the incident radiation by a factor of 2. The thickness of
the half value layer for any material increases with increasing radiation energy.
Examples of half value layers for various materials and radiation energies are given in
below table.
Nature of incident Half value layer Half value layer Half value layer
radiation (steel) / mm (aluminium) / mm (lead) / mm
Iridium 192 γ-rays 13 35 4.8
Cobalt 60 γ-rays 22 70 12.5
100 kV x-rays 2.4 15 0.1
150 kV x-rays 4.5 18.5 0.3
200 kV x-rays 6 21 0.65
300 kV x-rays 8 25 1.6
Half value layers

(Note that as half value layer decreases subject contrast increases.)
8.1.1.6 SCATTER (AFFECTS FILM AND SUBJECT CONTRAST)
As ionising radiation passes through any material it undergoes a process

known as scattering. Scattering occurs due to various mechanisms (the principal
cause of scattering varies with the radiation energy) all of which occur due to the way
in which radiation photons interact with atoms. When a x-ray photon strikes an atom it
will cause the atom to lose one or more electrons, so that the affected atom becomes
positively charged. Such electrically charged atoms are normally referred to as ions.
Ions, by their nature are not stable, they will try to attract electrons into their empty
energy shells in order to achieve a zero electrical charge. As electrons are captured
from free space by ions they give up part of their kinetic energy as a photon of
radiation. These photons will radiate in all directions from the affected atoms. Such
radiation is known as scattered radiation. Scattered radiation can lead to an overall
‘fogging’ of the film emulsion. This reduces film contrast by effectively shifting the film
characteristic curve upwards on the y-axis of the graph (the affect is the same as
excessive base fog level, see the previous figure in section 8.1.1.3).
Scatter can severely reduce subject contrast by reducing the differences in

radiation intensity reaching the film from various parts of the component under test.
Scattering mechanisms and methods of controlling scattered radiation are

discussed in a later section.


8.1.2 DEFINITION
‘Definition’ is a measure of the ‘sharpness’ of the images on the radiograph.

Definition can be defined as the width of the boundary between two areas of different
density on a film. The opposite of definition is ‘unsharpness’.
A graphic illustration of unsharpness is given by the figure below.
The total unsharpness on a radiograph is due to three factors:
Geometric unsharpness (also called penumbra or penumbral shadow)
inherent unsharpness (also called film unsharpness)
and
relative movement during exposure.
These are described and discussed below.
Unsharpness
(The unsharpness of the boundary between light and dark increases from left to right)
8.1.2.1 GEOMETRIC UNSHARPNESS
A major factor affecting definition on a radiograph is geometric unsharpness.

This can be defined as the width of the ‘penumbra’. Penumbra is the word used in
physics to describe the lack of sharpness at the edge of a shadow. ‘Umbra’ means full
shadow and penumbra means half shadow. So long as the source of radiation is not a
true point source (and it never is a true point source) there will be a penumbral area at
the edge of any shadow. A radiographic image is basically just a shadow.


The focal spot of a x-ray tube and a radioactive isotope always have finite
physical dimensions so a penumbra is always produced. Once the achieved
penumbra falls below about 0.2 mm the unaided human eye ceases to perceive any
further improvement in definition. For very high quality radiographic techniques
geometric unsharpness is therefore generally kept to a value of less than 0.2 mm. To
achieve this the object to film distance is kept short and the radiation source to film
distance is made as long as necessary depending upon the radiation source
dimensions.
Geometric Unsharpness
8.1.2.2 INHERENT UNSHARPNESS
Inherent unsharpness depends on three factors: the type film, the type of
intensifying screen and the quality (or photon energy) of the radiation.
8.1.2.2.1 FILM (EFFECT ON INHERENT UNSHARPNESS)
The emulsion of any radiographic film is made up of silver halide grains. As

already mentioned the size of these grains is varied in order to control the film speed.
Each grain of silver halide needs to interact with as few as a single photon of ionising
radiation in order to become ‘sensitised’. Grains of silver halide which have become
sensitised are very rapidly reduced to silver metal on contact with the reducing agents
contained in film developer. Obviously if the grains of silver halide are large they will
tend to cause a blurring effect on the radiographic image. A similar effect occurs on a
computer screen. At a resolution of 640x480 the image quality is quite poor. This is
like a coarse grain film. At a resolution of 1024x768 the image quality is considerably
better because the pixel size is much smaller. This is like a fine grain film.
Each silver halide grain in a fine grain film is around 1 m in size. To give an
idea of just how small this is, the pixel size on a computer screen at a resolution of


1024X768 is in excess of 40 m. This is one of the reasons why digital imaging
systems have found it so hard to replace film radiography.
8.1.2.2.2 QUALITY OF RADIATION (EFFECT ON INHERENT

UNSHARPNESS)
When ionising radiation passes through a material (including radiographic film)

it is scattered. Scattering processes involve the emission of electrons, so called
‘secondary electrons’. As the radiation energy of the primary beam increases the
kinetic energy of the secondary electrons released also increases. As the velocity of
the secondary electrons increases they become capable of penetrating an ever-
increasing thickness of the surrounding material. The reason why lead screens
produce no intensification effect below 120 keV is that the below this primary beam
energy the secondary electrons released in the screens have insufficient energy to
penetrate the supercoat of the film.
It is now known that most silver halide grains in a direct type radiographic film
are not sensitised directly by the penetrating radiation itself. They are for the most part
sensitised by the secondary electrons released by the intensifying screens and by
secondary electrons generated within the film emulsion itself. The greater the distance
the secondary electrons are able to travel within the emulsion the greater the resulting
unsharpness.
At very high radiation energies (exceeding 1.02 MeV) a scattering process

called pair production begins to predominate (pair production is more fully described in
section 8.2.1.3). Pair production releases high-energy electron positron pairs. The
positron released is annihilated as it meets with a free electron. This produces a burst
of x-rays with a characteristic photon energy of 0.51 MeV. This so-called annihilation
radiation greatly reduces the sharpness of the image. The bremstrahlung released as
the electron half of the pair collides with neighbouring shell electrons further reduces
image sharpness.
8.1.2.2.3 INTENSIFYING SCREENS (EFFECT ON INHERENT

UNSHARPNESS)
Lead or copper intensifying screens increase the film speed by producing

secondary electrons which are capable of sensitising adjacent silver halide grains. As
the radiation energy increases the energy of the electrons produced by the screens
increases and this leads to a consequent increase in inherent unsharpness because
the electrons are capable of travelling longer distances within the film emulsion.
Unsharpness will be increased still further if the screens are not in good contact with
the film.
Fluorometallic screens produce light photons in addition to secondary

electrons. The production of light photons inevitably produces an increase in
unsharpness compared to lead or copper screens because there is no limit to how far

the photons of light can travel. This loss of image quality will be greatly exacerbated if
good film screen contact is not maintained.
Salt screens fluoresce strongly under the influence of X-rays and produce very
large increases in film speed. They are not generally used in industrial radiography
due to the large increase in inherent unsharpness associated with their use.
8.1.2.3 RELATIVE MOVEMENT DURING EXPOSURE
An increase in unsharpness will also be produced if there is any relative

movement between the source, object or film during exposure. This can be a
particular problem when carrying out radiography of pipework which is in service (and
therefore vibrating) or when radiography has to be performed in windy conditions.
8.2 RADIATION SCATTERING AND SCATTER CONTROL
Matter which has absorbed ionising radiation and which has therefore reached
an unstable energy state will emit energy in the form of radiation as it returns to a
stable energy state. Some of this radiation will be in the form of heat, in a few
specialised cases it will be in the form of light and in many cases x-rays will be
produced. Such x-rays are termed scattered radiation and they can very adversely
effect radiographic quality. Control of scattered radiation is therefore essential if high
quality radiographs are to be produced.
Scattered radiation
8.2.1 SCATTERING MECHANISMS – THE CAUSES OF

SCATTER
There are three scattering mechanisms which are of particular importance in

radiography. These are the photoelectric effect, Compton or incoherent scattering and
pair production. The predominant scattering mechanism depends on the photon
energy of the primary beam. Several other scattering mechanisms are possible,
including Rayleigh or coherent scattering, but these are of little importance in industrial
radiography.

8.2.1.1 THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
The predominant scattering mechanism below 0.6 MeV is the photoelectric
effect. In the photoelectric effect all of the energy of the incident x or gamma ray
photon is transferred to an orbital electron. The absorbing electron is in most cases
ejected from the atom and ionisation occurs. In a few cases where the energy of the
incident photon is correct the absorbing electron merely jumps from an inner energy
shell to an outer energy shell. As this electron at some later stage falls back into its
original energy state a photon of x-rays is emitted. The energy of this photon is a
characteristic of the scattering atom. Characteristic radiation emission can be used to
perform chemical analysis. Atoms that have been ionised emit x-rays as they capture
an electron from free space and the ejected electrons emit x-rays as they collide with
and interact with the atoms in their path.
Photoelectric effect
( An incident X-ray photon, energy E0 collides with an outer shell electron which is ejected from the
atom with energy E0 – Eb where Eb is the binding energy)
8.2.1.2 COMPTON SCATTERING (INCOHERENT SCATTERING)
The predominant scattering mechanism above 0.6 MeV and up to 6 MeV is

Compton scattering. In Compton scattering only part of the energy of the incident x or
gamma ray photon is transferred to an orbital electron. The absorbing electron is
ejected from the atom and ionisation occurs. The remaining photon energy continues
as a lower energy x-ray although slightly deflected from its original path. Atoms that
have been ionised emit x-rays as they capture an electron from free space and the
ejected electrons emit x-rays as they collide with and interact with the atoms in their
path.
Compton scattering


8.2.1.3 PAIR PRODUCTION
The predominant scattering mechanism above 6 MeV is pair production. In pair

production the incident x or gamma ray photon collides either with the nucleus or with
an inner shell electron. The incident photon then converts to an electron - positron
pair. A positron is a particle having the same size and mass as an electron but
opposite electrical charge. Pair production cannot occur below a threshold photon
energy of 1.02 MeV. The electron – positron pair is ejected at high velocity but the
positron has a very short life. It quickly meets a free electron and annihilation occurs
– the positron and electron cease to exist and 2 photons of 0.51 MeV radiation are
emitted. The ejected electron emits x-rays as it collides with and interacts with the
atoms in its path.
Pair production
8.2.1.4 TOTAL SCATTER AT DIFFERENT PRIMARY BEAM

ENERGIES
Total scatter versus radiation energy (schematic only)


The figure above shows how scatter is a greater problem at low incident
radiation energy. Scatter as a percentage of the total radiation is at a minimum at
around 2 MeV, however, as radiation energy increases through the threshold photon
energy of 1.02 MeV pair production within the film emulsion begins to increase
inherent unsharpness resulting in poor image quality.
Usually a decrease in incident radiation energy would be expected to produce

improved subject contrast and reduced inherent unsharpness. There is a limit to this,
however, where the increased scatter associated with low incident radiation energy
begins to counteract the beneficial effect of reducing the incident radiation energy and
a decrease (rather than an increase) in image contrast may be the overall result.
8.2.2 TYPES OF SCATTER
Several types of scatter cause problems in radiography, these being side

scatter, back scatter and internal scatter (self scatter). The angle formed between the
direction of travel of the primary beam and the direction of travel of the scattered
radiation (reaching the film) is called the scattering angle or angle of scatter. Side
scatter and internal scatter have an angle of scatter which is less than or equal to 90°
while for back scatter the angle exceeds 90°.
8.2.2.1 SIDE SCATTER
Radiation may be scattered by parts of the object that are not within the
diagnostic area of the radiograph or by the walls of the exposure room. This is termed
‘side scatter’.
This type of scatter can be reduced by collimating the beam such that only the
area to be examined is subjected to the primary beam and by the use of lead
masking, diaphragms or grids. In x-radiography the use of a filter may help to reduce
side scatter.
Side scatter causes ‘undercutting’ of the radiographic image around the edges
of a component where these can be seen on the radiograph or at any site where there
is a large change in section thickness (e.g. a bolt hole). Undercutting causes a lack of
sharpness and may mask possible defect indications.
8.2.2.2 BACK SCATTER

Back scatter is caused by the primary beam striking an object behind the film
and scattering back.
This type of scatter can easily be reduced by shielding the back of the film
cassette with a sheet of lead. A sheet of lead approximately 2 mm thick is adequate


for most applications. In x-radiography the use of a filter may help to reduce back
scatter.
The presence of excessive back scatter may be detected by placing a lead

letter ‘B’ on the back surface of the cassette (i.e. the cassette surface furthest from the
source of radiation). If there is excessive back scatter then a light image of the letter
‘B’ will be seen on the developed film. The use of a lead letter ‘B’ is mandatory when
working in accordance with the ASME code and is required for each new technique by
BS EN 1435 (i.e. not for production radiography). In accordance with BS EN 1435 the
lead letter ‘B’ shall be a minimum of 10 mm high and 1.5 mm thick.
Note: If a dark image of the letter ‘B’ appears this is not an indication of excessive
back scatter. It merely indicates scatter caused by the letter ‘B’ itself.
Should back scatter be detected then the thickness of the lead sheet shielding
the back of the film cassette must be increased.
8.2.2.3 SELF-SCATTER
Self-scatter is scattered radiation originating from within the test component

itself. The detrimental effect of self-scatter on film quality can be reduced by the use of
lead intensifying screens placed in contact with the film and, in x-radiography, by the
use of filters.
If the radiation source is an x-ray tube then the use of a copper filter can help to
reduce the effects of this type of scatter. A copper filter significantly reduces the
proportion of low energy radiation within the primary beam. Since it is the low energy
radiation which is chiefly responsible for scatter the use of such a filter can reduce the
overall amount of scatter occurring and in this way improve image quality. Filters
made from lead, steel or other metals may be used in a similar way.
Metallic foil intensifying screens made from lead or other metals reduce the
effects of self-scatter for both x-ray and gamma ray radiography. They filter out the
low energy scattered radiation and prevent it from reaching the film.


8.2.3 SCATTER CONTROL
8.2.3.1 COLLIMATION
Probably the single most effective way of reducing scatter is to collimate the
radiation beam. Collimators shield out most of the radiation that is not travelling in the
useful direction. X-ray equipment is always to some extent self-collimated – the
geometry of the hooded anode shields out much of the unwanted radiation produced,
but some x-ray heads may contain additional shielding. In gamma radiography
collimators consisting of hollowed out blocks of lead weighing around 2.5 kg are
common. More effective (but more expensive) collimators for gamma radiography are
made from tungsten or tantalum.
The principle of collimation is simply that if there is less radiation then there will
be proportionally less scatter.
8.2.3.2 DIAPHRAGMS
Diaphragms take collimation a step further. They consist of a sheet of lead

which has a hole cut in it the same shape as the object that is being radiographed.
Using a diaphragm the radiographer is attempting to shield out all unwanted radiation,
the set up for radiography must however, be extremely accurate if the use of a
diaphragm is to be successful. Diaphragms are therefore more likely to be seen where
a fully automated technique is in use that allows for a very high degree of repeatability
in the set up accuracy.
8.2.3.3 MASKING OR BLOCKING
Masking or blocking consists of placing sheets of lead, bags of lead shot or

barium putty or any other radiation absorbing material around the object which is
being radiographed in order to reduce the undercutting effect of side scatter. The
figures below attempts to show the benefits of blocking.
Using a diaphragm

Radiographs produced with & without blocking
8.2.3.4 GRIDS
The use of a grid is generally limited to medical radiography. A grid consists of
a matrix of parallel metal bars which is set in oscillation during exposure such that the
grid itself does not produce a radiographic image. The use grid is a very effective
method of reducing the effects of side scatter, but grids are very rarely a practical
option for industrial situations. In order to be effective the grid must be placed as close
as possible to the film. In microfocus x-radiography it may be placed between the film
and the object.
8.2.3.5 FILTERS
The previous figure in section 8.2.1.4 shows how the percentage of scattered
radiation is high when the radiation energy is low. Placing a thin sheet (typically 1 to 2
mm) of copper or other metal in the primary beam, close to the source of radiation,
greatly reduces the amount of low energy radiation while permitting most of the higher
energy radiation to pass through. If there is less low energy radiation there will be less
scatter, although it is possible that film contrast will be reduced. The use of a filter to
reduce scatter is limited to x-radiography because gamma ray sources do not produce
long wavelength low energy radiation.
Oscillating grid


The effect of filtration on a typical x-ray spectrum
8.2.3.6 METALLIC FOIL SCREENS

Lead screens, or screens made from other metals such as steel or copper are a
very effective means of reducing scatter, for both x and gamma radiography,
particularly when the energy of the primary beam exceeds 120 keV. Such screens are
placed in contact with the film. The front screen works like a filter, greatly reducing the
proportion of low energy radiation which reaches the film. Scattered radiation is
always lower energy than the primary beam, so the scatter is more affected by the
filtration effect than is the primary beam. The back screen reduces back scattered
radiation which reaches the film.
In addition to this both screens intensify the effect of radiation, the energy of
which, exceeds 120 keV. The screens do this by producing secondary electrons to
which the film emulsion is sensitive. Most of the radiation exceeding 120 keV will be
part of the primary beam. Thus the effect of the primary beam is amplified at the
expense of the unwanted scattered radiation.
The effect of lead screens


8.2.3.7 HIGHER RADIATION ENERGY
Up to a radiation energy of around 1.5 MeV increasing the maximum radiation

energy of the primary beam will reduce scatter (in proportion to the primary beam) and
improve image quality. At higher radiation energy there is a continued decrease in the
proportion of scattered radiation, but pair production within the film emulsion begins to
have an increasingly detrimental effect on film unsharpness. See figure in section
8.2.1.4 above.
8.2.3.8 CHANGE FROM X-RAY TO GAMMA RAY RADIOGRAPHY

The absence of low energy components in radiation obtained from radioactive
materials such as Iridium 192 or Cobalt 60 is the reason why gamma ray radiography
is much less affected by scatter than is x-ray radiography.
8.2.3.9 REDUCING THE FOCUS OR SOURCE TO FILM DISTANCE
Reducing focus or source to film distance reduces the amount of matter

through which the penetrating radiation is passing, in so doing reducing the amount of
scatter. The use of a source to film distance that will produce a value of geometric
unsharpness that is less than the inherent unsharpness for the film – screen
combination in use is therefore not recommended.
8.3 DETERMINING THE CORRECT EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE

CHARTS
‘Exposure’ in film radiography can be defined as the amount of radiation striking
or passing through the film. The amount of radiation striking the film is equal to the
product of the radiation intensity* at the film and the exposure time. Exposure is
critical, because underexposed films will show low film density and therefore reduced
contrast, while overexposed films which exceed a film density of about 4.0 cannot
usually be satisfactorily viewed using the unaided human eye and standard film
illuminators.
(* Note that in film radiography it is better to think of intensity as photons per square metre
rather than energy per square metre. This is because radiographic film has a fairly flat
response to changes in photon energy right across the full spectrum of x and gamma rays. In
terms of film density 1 photon of 150 keV radiation has much the same effect as 1 photon of
20 MeV radiation.)
In x-radiography the number of photons produced per unit time is directly

proportional to the tube current. Therefore it is usual to express x-ray exposures in
milliampere-minutes (mA-min); the product of the exposure time and the tube current.


In gamma radiography the number of photons produced per unit time is directly
proportional to the source activity. Source activity is usually measured in curies (Ci) or,
less commonly in gigabecquerels (GBq). Therefore gamma ray exposures are usually
expressed in curie-minutes (Ci-min) or curie-hours (Ci-h) but may also be expressed
in gigabecquerel-minutes (GBq-min) or gigabecquerel-hours (GBq-h).
The factors listed in below table will affect either the film speed or the amount of
radiation reaching the film and have to be taken into account when determining the
correct exposure for film radiography. In addition to these factors the required film
density obviously has an impact upon the required exposure time (see same table).


Factors affecting film speed (part 1)
Factor Comments
Film type Coarse grained films are fast & require a short exposure while fine grained films are slow &
require a long exposure.
Intensifying screen The affect of intensifying screens varies with the incident radiation energy. Metallic foil
intensifying screens reduce the required exposure time by a factor of about 2 or 3 at
type radiation energies of 120 keV or more. Fluorometallic screens reduce the exposure time by
a factor of about 50 with films designed for use with such screens. Salt screens can reduce
the required exposure time by a factor of 500 but are seldom used for industrial
radiography.
Film processing Developer type and concentration together with the development temperature can affect the
film speed. Automatic processing usually gives a slight increase in film speed when
compared with manual processing.
Radiation energy Fairly minor compared with other factors. Can affect the efficiency of the intensifying
screens, and to a lesser extent the film speed.
Factors affecting the intensity of radiation reaching the film (part 2)

Factor Comments
Material type The amount of radiation absorbed by a material increases with increasing density and
atomic number.
Material thickness The amount of radiation absorbed by an object rises exponentially with increasing material
thickness.
I = I0e μ
- t
Where I0 = the intensity of the incident radiation;

I = the intensity of the transmitted radiation;
μ = the coefficient of linear absorption; t = the penetrated thickness
Radiation energy The amount of radiation absorbed by a material decreases with increasing radiation energy.
For x-ray techniques the amount of radiation which will be absorbed for a given radiation
energy can not be calculated - this has to be measured experimentally.
Radiation energy Exposure times for self-rectified x-ray equipment are always longer than those for constant
potential equipment operating at the same peak tube voltage. The radiation produced by
distribution constant potential equipment is said to be ‘harder’ because it contains proportionally more
high energy radiation. In fact radiation energy distribution can vary quite markedly even
between different types self-rectified or constant potential unit. X-ray exposure charts
therefore are applicable to only a single equipment type.
Source or focus to The amount of radiation reaching the film is proportional to the reciprocal of the square of
the source to film distance. As the required exposure time is inversely proportional to the
film distance radiation intensity:
E ∝ al 2
D
Where E is the exposure time at distance D.

Filters If the half value layer of the material from which the filter is made is known and its thickness
is known then it is possible to compensate the exposure for the insertion of or removal of a
filter.
Source strength or Radiation intensity is proportional to the tube current for x-rays and to the source activity for
gamma rays.
tube current
Film Density (part 3)

Factor Comments
Film Density The required exposure is strongly dependent upon the required film density. Film
characteristic curves can be used to compensate for a change in the required film density.
Factors affecting radiographic exposure (film radiography)
8.3.1 EXPOSURE CHARTS

‘Exposure charts’ provide a convenient means of estimating radiographic
exposures for both x-ray and gamma ray techniques. All exposure charts are correct
only for a fixed set of conditions - all of the factors mentioned in above table are fixed


for any particular chart. Exposure charts for x-ray equipment are usually applicable
only to a single type of equipment. Following first 3 figures show an examples of x-ray
exposure charts. The 4th figure below is an example of an exposure chart for Iridium
192.
Exposure chart for Andrex 140 kV SR directional


Exposure chart for Philips 300 kV SR directional

Exposure chart for Pantak 200 kV CP directional


Exposure chart for Iridium 192

Butt weld in 15 mm plate
8.3.1.1 USING EXPOSURE CHARTS (X-RAY)
8.3.1.1.1 FOCUS TO FILM DISTANCE

Two factors affect the choice of focus to film distance, geometric unsharpness
(Ug) requirements and the desired diagnostic film length (DFL).
BS EN 1435 does not directly specify geometric unsharpness, but controls it by

specifying a minimum value of focus to film distance for a given effective focus size
and object to film distance. See 2 figures on following page.
Taking the example given in the figure just above let’s suppose that we wish to
achieve a geometric unsharpness of 0.25 mm or better. This would be sufficient to
satisfy the requirements of most national codes or standards including BS EN 1435
class A.
but the OFD can be taken as being equal to the material thickness, in this case 18
mm, and the FFD is equal to the FOD plus the material thickness so:
If we choose to use the Pantak 200 CP the effective focus size on the broad focus
setting is about 4 mm, so:


Note that this diagram is for
an effective source size of
3mm. The minimum SFD for
other source sizes can be
found as follows:
1. Find the minimum SFD

for the desired image
class from the figure, let
this distance = d
2. Minimum SFD for source
size = f is then equal to:
BS EN 1435 minimum SFD / FFD
Note that in BS EN 1435 ‘standard techniques’ are ‘class A’, while ‘enhanced techniques’ are ‘class B’.
BS EN 1435 geometric unsharpness at minimum SFD / FFD
So a focus to film distance of 288 mm will achieve the required value of

geometric unsharpness. However if we use this minimum FFD the diagnostic film
length (DFL) will be rather short due to fade off. BS EN 1435 has a requirement for
class B techniques that the penetrated thickness (based on the nominal thickness) at
the ends of the DFL shall not exceed 110% of the nominal thickness. For class A the

requirement is that the penetrated thickness shall not exceed 120% of the nominal
thickness at the end of the DFL. This translates to a DFL that is approximately 0.9 x
FFD for class B and 1.3 x FFD for class A. In this case let’s apply the BS EN 1435
class A requirement. If we want to achieve a DFL of 450 mm the minimum FFD based
on this will be 450/1.3 = 346. For convenience we can round this up to say 400 mm.
8.3.1.1.2 TUBE VOLTAGE

After deciding on an appropriate value for focus to film distance the next thing
to consider when determining an exposure time for an x-ray technique is what tube
voltage will be appropriate. Some national codes and standards specify the maximum
tube voltage that may be used for a given thickness of material. See the figure in
section 5.1.5.1 further above for BS EN 1435 requirements, the maximum tube
voltage in our case would be about 250 kV. However, common good practice, which is
to choose a tube voltage which will produce an exposure time of between 1 and 5
minutes at around 75-100% of the maximum tube current, will in nearly all cases
satisfy such codes and standards.
The exposure chart for the Pantak 200 CP is drawn for a source to film distance
of 914 mm. The maximum tube current is 14 mA. Let’s use 10 mA. We would like to
achieve an exposure time of between 1 and 5 minutes, giving an exposure of between
10 and 50 mA-mins. The focus to film distance that we wish to use is 400 mm. The
exposure chart has been constructed using FFD = 914. Using the inverse square law
(see figure 55) we can see that an exposure of 10 to 50 mA-mins at 400 mm FFD is
equivalent to an exposure at 914 mm FFD of between 10 x 9142 / 4002 = 52.2 mA-
mins and 50 x 9142 / 4002 = 261 mA-mins.
Looking at the exposure chart (see the 3rd figure in section 8.4.1) a density of
2.2 will be achieved using Kodak CX with an exposure of about 150 mA-mins at 120
kV or with an exposure of about 40 mA-mins at 140 kV. These values are for an FFD
of 914 mm. The equivalent exposures at an FFD of 400 mm will be:
150 x 4002 / 9142 = 29 mA-mins at 120 kV

or
40 x 4002 / 9142 = 7.66 mA-mins at 140 kV.
Thus for Kodak CX and a film density of 2.2 these exposures should work:
120 kV , 10 mA, 2 minutes 54 seconds

or
140 kV, 6 mA, 1 minute 16 seconds
The 120 kV exposure should produce the best film contrast while the 140 kV exposure
will be more economic.


The inverse square law
Intensity = number of photons per square metre. At 2D the same number of photons that
passed through one square at D now passes through 4 squares. Thus the intensity at 2D is
one quarter of what it was at D. Intensity is proportional to 1/(distance)2. Radiographic
exposure time is proportional to 1/(intensity), thus exposure time is proportional to (distance)2.
The inverse square law can be stated as follows:


8.3.1.1.3 CHANGING THE FILM DENSITY
If for example a film density of 2.2 was thought to be too light, then the film
characteristic curve (see figure in section 8.1.1.1) can be used to find the correct
amount of exposure compensation. For example, let’s say that we wanted to achieve
a film density of 2.5.
Using the logarithm from above mentioned figure (relative exposure) for a film
density of 2.2 on CX = 1.3 while for a film density of 2.5 logarithm (relative exposure)
= 1.38
1.38 – 1.3 = 0.08
antilogarithm (0.08) = 100.08 = 1.2
So at 120 kV the exposure required = 1.2 x 29 = 35 mA-mins

while at 140 kV it would be 1.2 x 7.66 = 9.2 mA-mins
Thus if we use Kodak CX film the following exposures should achieve a film density of
2.5:
120 kV , 10 mA, 3 minutes 30 seconds
or
140 kV, 6 mA, 1 minute 32 seconds
8.3.1.1.4 CHANGING THE FILM TYPE

Sometimes we may wish to change to a different type of film. For example if
the required radiographic sensitivity could not be achieved using Kodak CX film we
might consider using MX film that should produce better contrast and consequently
better sensitivity. This can be achieved using the film characteristic curves, but it is
more convenient to use ‘film factors.’ Table below lists film factors for some common
direct type x-ray films.
FILM MANUFACTURER FILM FILM

TYPE FACTOR
CX 2.50
Kodak AX 3.75
MX 10.00
D7 3.50
Agfa D5 5.50
D4 13.00
150 1.90
Fuji 100 3.10
80 6.50
75 2.00
Dupont (Cronex) 65 4.00
55 8.00
Film factors


Note that the film factors given in table 7 are approximately correct for radiation energy in the
range 0.1 to 1.0 MeV. Film factors can vary with radiation energy.
Suppose that we wish to change from film ‘A’ to film ‘B’
Thus to change from CX to MX we divide by the film factor for CX (= 2.50) and
multiply the result by the film factor for MX (= 10.0).
Therefore using MX film, for a film density of 2.5 our exposures become 140
mA-mins at 120 kV or 37 mA-mins at 140 kV. The exposure at 120 kV is now rather
long (14 minutes at 10mA) so an exposure using 140 kV of around 3 minutes at 12.1
mA would be preferred.
8.3.1.1.5 RADIOGRAPHY OF OTHER MATERIALS
All of the exposure charts in the figures above have been constructed for steel.
If radiography has to be carried out on materials other than steel then the exposure
time will have to be adjusted to compensate for the difference in radiation absorption.
This can be done using ‘half value layers.’ The half value layer of a given material for
a given incident radiation energy being the thickness of the material which reduces the
intensity of the incident radiation by a factor of 2. However the simplest way is to use
‘equivalence factors’, some examples of which are listed in this table.
Material Radiation Energy / Isotope

100 keV 150 keV 220 keV 400 keV Ir192
Steel 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Copper 1.5 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.1
Aluminium 0.08 0.12 0.18 - 0.35
Al alloy 4.5% Cu 0.13 0.16 0.22 - 0.35
Titanium 0.5 0.45 0.35 - -
Equivalence factors
Going back to the example, if we needed to radiograph a weld dimensionally

similar but made in a copper based alloy rather than steel then the first thing to do
would be to work out the ‘steel equivalent thickness.’
This is equal to the actual thickness of copper divided by the copper

equivalence factor and multiplied by the equivalence factor for steel. Stated generally
this is:


From the table it can be seen that at 140 kV the copper equivalence factor is
probably about 1.55, while that for steel is 1.0. So 18 mm copper is radiographically
equivalent to 18 ÷ 1.0 x 1.55 = 28 mm steel.
Looking at figure 50 it can be seen that an exposure of about 205 mA-mins

would be required using the Pantak 200 CP to achieve a film density of 2.2 at a FFD
of 914 mm using CX film on 18 mm thick copper (28 mm steel equivalent).
8.3.1.1.6 COMPENSATING FOR THE USE OF A FILTER
If problems arise with scattered radiation one possibility in x-radiography is to

use a filter. Typically filters made from 1 or 2 mm thick copper sheet are used. Filters
made from other metals such as lead may also be used. The difference which the use
of a filter will make to the exposure time for the steel weld in the example can be
calculated using the equivalence factors in the table above.
Suppose that we wish to radiograph our 18 mm thick steel weld using the
Pantak 200 at 140 kV with a focus to film distance of 400 mm. The exposure required
for a film density of 2.5 without a filter was calculated above as 9.2 mA-mins if using
CX film. The equivalence factor for copper at 140 kV is about 0.64. Therefore 1.0 mm
of copper will be radiographically equivalent to 1.0 ÷ 0.64 x 1.0 = 1.6 mm of steel. To
find the correct exposure (for a copper filter thickness of 1 mm) we simply need to add
this amount to the steel thickness which is being radiographed :
18 + 1.6 = 19.6 mm
The 3rd figure in section 8.4.1 gives an exposure of about 50 mA-mins for 19.6
mm of steel at a focus to film distance of 914 mm, which is an increase of 25%
compared to the exposure which was required under the same conditions without the
filter. Thus the exposure required with a FFD of 400 mm using CX film for a film
density of 2.5 increases by 25% from 9.2 to 11.5 mA-mins.
8.3.1.1.7 OTHER POSSIBLE CHANGES

The exposure charts given in the 3 first figures in section 8.4.1 were made
using lead screens, 0.125 mm thick and automatic film processing. If either or both of
these two factors is changed then the only way to establish the correct exposure will
be by experimentation, although the charts will still act as a guide. The exposure


charts in these figures are fixed for a particular type of x-ray equipment. They cannot
be used to predict exposures for any other type of x-ray equipment.
8.3.1.2 GAMMA RAY EXPOSURES

The method used to establish gamma ray exposures from an exposure chart is
in every way similar to that used for x-rays except that the possibility to change the
radiation energy has been removed. Before proceeding to carry out gamma
radiography it will be necessary to establish the source activity at the time of
exposure. This is done by reference to the decay chart supplied by the source
manufacturer.
Other convenient means of establishing gamma ray exposures are to use a

specially designed slide rule or a programmable calculator. Slide rules can be
obtained from some film manufacturers and from organisations such as ‘SCRATA.’
For the mathematically minded it is a relatively simple task to program a calculator
such that it can be used to predict gamma ray exposures.


9.0 SENSITIVITY
9.1 RADIOGRAPHIC SENSITIVITY

Radiographic sensitivity can be defined as the ability of a radiographic system
to reveal small changes in section thickness. It may also be defined as the ability of a
radiographic technique to reveal the smallest possible flaw. True radiographic
sensitivity is a difficult quantity to measure.
9.2 CONTROLLING RADIOGRAPHIC QUALITY

Prior to interpretation of a radiograph it is necessary to establish adequacy of
the radiographic technique used. National codes and standards describe devices
known as ‘Image Quality Indicators’ (IQIs). Occasionally the word ‘Penetrameter’ is
used when referring to the IQI. It is very important to realise IQI sensitivity is not a
direct measure of radiographic sensitivity per se. Good IQI sensitivity does not
necessarily indicate good radiographic sensitivity, but it does to some extent prove the
quality of the radiographic technique in a general sense.
These days the type of IQI most commonly in use is the wire type but other
types exist, two examples being the plaque type and the step hole type.
9.3 BS EN 462-1 WIRE TYPE IQIs

BS EN 462-1 wire type IQIs each consist of 7 wires taken from a list of 19
wires. Four standard wire groupings are available, designation ‘1’, wires 1 to 7,
designation ‘6’, wires 6 to 12, designation ‘10’, wires 10 to 16 and designation ‘13’,
wires 13 to 19. Each of these groupings is available in any of 4 types of material;
steel, designated ‘FE’, copper, designated ‘CU’, aluminium, designated ‘AL’ and
titanium, designation ‘TI’.
EN 462-1 wire type IQIs

Sensitivity MATERIALS JOINING

Designation Diameter
W1 3.2
W2 2.5
W3 2.0
W4 1.6
W5 1.25
W6 1.0
W7 0.8
W8 0.63
W9 0.5
W10 0.4
W11 0.32
W12 0.25
W13 0.2
W14 0.16
W15 0.125
W16 0.1
W17 0.08
W18 0.063
W19 0.05
BS EN 462-1 wire diameters
Note that it is fairly easy to remember the wire diameters: if you can remember the diameters
of the first three, 3.2, 2.5 and 2.0 mm you can arrive at all other wire diameters by halving as
shown just below.
Remembering the EN 462-1 wire diameters
Looking along each row the wire diameters are successively halved, e.g. 3.2, 1.6, 0.8…..
The EN 462-1 material groupings are as follows: the FE designated IQIs are
made from low alloy steel and cover all ferrous materials; the CU designated IQIs are
made from copper and cover copper, tin, zinc and their alloys; the AL designated IQIs
are made from aluminium and cover aluminium and its alloys; the TI designated IQIs
are made from titanium and cover titanium and its alloys. Special IQIs can be used for
materials lying outside these 4 groups, or the contracting parties could agree to use
one of the four normal designations.


9.4 OTHER WIRE TYPE IQIs
Several other wire type IQIs are in common usage. Amongst these are the BS
3971, the DIN 54 109 and the ASTM E 747. The BS3971 series consisted of 21 wires
where wire number 21 was the thickest at 3.2 mm and wire number 1 was the thinnest
at 0.032 mm, the order of numbering was basically the reverse of that used by EN
462-1 with wire number 11 being the same diameter in both series (0.32 mm).
BS 3971 wire diameters
The DIN 54 109 series consisted of 16 wires corresponding exactly to the first
16 wires in the EN 462-1 series. The ASTM E 747 series consists of 21 wires ranging
from 0.08 mm to 8.1 mm in diameter; there are 4 overlapping groups of 6 wires, each
designated by a letter (A, B, C or D), see table below, and a large number of material
groupings each designated by a number with ferrous being ‘1’.
IQI
WIRE DIAMETERS
Designation
A 0.08 0.1 0.13 0.16 0.2 0.25
B 0.25 0.33 0.4 0.5 0.63 0.81
C 0.81 1.0 1.27 1.6 2.0 2.5
D 2.5 3.2 4.0 5.1 6.3 8.1
ASTM E 747 wire diameters
9.5 BS EN 462-2 STEP–HOLE TYPE IQIs
BS EN 462-2 IQIs consist of stepped blocks of material with each step having a
through drilled hole or pair of through drilled holes. Step thicknesses of 0.8 mm or less
have two drilled holes, while the thicker steps have a single hole. In each case the
step thickness and the hole diameter are equal.
BS EN 462-2 step hole IQIs

(These IQIs are supplied encased in plastic complete with lead number identification similar to
that used in EN 462-1 wire type IQIs)


IQI DESIGNATION Hole / Step Hole dia. /
H1 H5 H9 H13 Number step t’ness
X H1 0.125
X H2 0.16
X H3 0.2
X H4 0.25
X X H5 0.32
X X H6 0.4
X H7 0.5
X H8 0.63
X X H9 0.8
X X H10 1.0
X H11 1.25
X H12 1.6
X X H13 2.0
X X H14 2.5
X H15 3.2
X H16 4.0
X H17 5.0
X H18 6.3
BS EN 462-2 Step-hole IQIs
9.6 ASTM E 1025 PLAQUE TYPE PENETRAMETERS

ASTM E 1025 describes plaque type ‘penetrameters’ (penetrameter is just
another word meaning IQI). When using this type of IQI the required sensitivity is
typically specified as ‘2-2T’, ‘1-2T’ or perhaps ‘2-4T’. The number ‘2’ or ‘1’ indicates
that the IQI thickness is 2% or 1% the thickness of the component under test. Where
the component is a weld the reinforcement should be taken into consideration when
choosing the IQI. ‘2T’ or ‘4T’ indicates the diameter of the drilled hole that must be
clearly visible in the radiographic image if the radiograph is to be considered
acceptable. The 2T hole has a diameter equal to 2 times the plaque thickness, the
diameter of the 1T hole is equal to the plaque thickness while that of the 4T hole is 4
times the plaque thickness. Penetrameters up to 160 thousandths of an inch thick are
rectangular and contain 1T, 2T and 4T holes. Thicker penetrameters are circular and
contain 1T and 2T holes. Each rectangular penetrameter carries lead markers
indicating its thickness in thousandths of an inch. Each circular penetrameter is
identified by lead markers placed alongside which indicate its thickness in
thousandths of an inch. A total of 8 material groups are identified by adding notches
to the edges of the penetrameter.


ASTM E 1025 IQIs
9.7 IQI SENSITIVITY
IQI sensitivity is usually defined as the thickness of the thinnest wire, plaque or
step that is visible on the radiograph expressed as a percentage of the specimen
thickness. Exactly what is meant by specimen thickness varies from standard to
standard and from technique to technique. BS EN 1435 contains tables of ‘essential
wires’ for class A and class B techniques for IQI placed source or film side. ASME V
article 2 also permits the use of wire type IQIs and takes a similar ‘essential wire’
approach. BS EN 1435 bases its requirements on nominal thickness while ASME V
article 2 bases its requirements on the actual weld throat thickness.
It used to be common good practice to place the IQI in the least favourable
position within the diagnostic area of the radiograph. This would usually have meant
placing the IQI upon the source side of the specimen and towards the extremities of
the diagnostic area because this is where the contrast and definition would tend to be
at their least favourable (highest value of geometric unsharpness and lowest film
density).
Nowadays, when performing radiography of a weld in accordance with BS EN

1435 the wire type IQI must be placed preferably source side, possibly film side, in an
area of uniform film density. This usually means on the parent material and at the
centre of the area of interest. The wires may or may not be visible in the image of the
weld for double wall single image (DWSI) or single wall single image (SWSI)
radiography but they shall be placed at 90° to the weld axis and at least a 10 mm
length of wire shall appear on the parent material in an area of uniform film density.
For double wall double image (DWDI) radiography the wires shall not be visible in the
image of the weld. The IQI shall be placed with its wires parallel to the weld axis on
the parent material adjacent to the weld. The requirement for visible wire length
remains unchanged.
In the past it was not uncommon for national codes or standards to specify an
overall requirement for a radiographic sensitivity of 2% or better. This was easy to
achieve on thicker sections but often impossible to achieve on thinner sections of
material. Modern radiographic standards take account of the fact that the best
achievable sensitivity for a given situation and technique is not a fixed quantity but a
variable which depends upon such factors as the type of radiation source, the
technique and the thickness of the specimen. Such standards specify a minimum


sensitivity that should be achievable using a good quality radiographic technique.
One such standard is BS EN 1435. The table below gives some BS EN 1435
requirements for single wall single image (SWSI) radiography with source side IQI
placement, double wall single image (DWSI) radiography with film side IQI placement
and double wall double image (DWDI) radiography with source side IQI placement.
CLASS ‘A’ RADIOGRAPHY CLASS ‘B’ RADIOGRAPHY

1. Single Wall Technique Source Side IQI 1. Single Wall Technique Source Side IQI
Thickne Require Wire Average Thickne Require Wire Average
ss d wire diameter Sensitivi ss d wire diameter Sensitivi
ty ty
≤ 1.2 18 0.063 > 5.25% ≤ 1.5 19 0.05 > 3.33%
> 1.2 ≤ 2 17 0.08 5% > 1.5 ≤ 2.5 18 0.063 3.15%
> 2 ≤ 3.5 16 0.1 3.64% > 2.5 ≤ 4 17 0.08 2.46%
> 3.5 ≤ 5 15 0.125 2.94% >4≤6 16 0.1 2.0%
>5≤7 14 0.16 2.67% >6≤8 15 0.125 1.79%
> 7 ≤ 12 13 0.2 2.1% > 8 ≤ 12 14 0.16 1.6%
> 12 ≤ 18 12 0.25 1.67% > 12 ≤ 20 13 0.2 1.25%
> 18 ≤ 30 11 0.32 1.33% > 20 ≤ 30 12 0.25 1.0%
> 30 ≤ 40 10 0.4 1.14% > 30 ≤ 35 11 0.32 0.98%
> 40 ≤ 50 9 0.5 1.11% > 35 ≤ 45 10 0.4 1.0%
> 50 ≤ 60 8 0.63 1.14% > 45 ≤ 65 9 0.5 0.91%
> 65 ≤ 85 7 0.8 1.07% > 65 ≤ 120 8 0.63 0.68%
> 85 ≤ 120 6 1.0 0.98% > 120 ≤ 7 0.8 0.5%
200
> 120 ≤ 5 1.25 0.74% > 200 ≤ 6 1.0 0.36%
220 350
> 220 ≤ 4 1.6 0.53% > 350 5 1.25 < 0.36%
380
> 380 3 2.0 < 0.53%
2. DWSI Technique Film Side IQI 2. DWSI Technique Film Side IQI
ty ty
≤ 1.2 18 0.063 > 5.25% ≤ 1.5 19 0.05 > 3.33%
> 1.2 ≤ 2 17 0.08 5% > 1.5 ≤ 2.5 18 0.063 3.15%
> 2 ≤ 3.5 16 0.1 3.64% > 2.5 ≤ 4 17 0.08 2.46%
> 3.5 ≤ 5 15 0.125 2.94% >4≤6 16 0.1 2.0%
> 5 ≤ 10 14 0.16 2.13% > 6 ≤ 12 15 0.125 1.56%
> 10 ≤ 15 13 0.2 1.6% > 12 ≤ 18 14 0.16 1.07%
> 15 ≤ 22 12 0.25 1.35% > 18 ≤ 30 13 0.2 0.83%
> 22 ≤ 38 11 0.32 1.07% > 30 ≤ 45 12 0.25 0.67%
> 38 ≤ 48 10 0.4 0.93% > 45 ≤ 55 11 0.32 0.64%
> 48 ≤ 60 9 0.5 0.93% > 55 ≤ 70 10 0.4 0.64%
> 60 ≤ 85 8 0.63 0.93% > 70 ≤ 100 9 0.5 0.59%
> 85 ≤ 125 7 0.8 0.76% > 100 ≤ 8 0.63 0.45%
180
> 125 ≤ 6 1.0 0.57% > 180 ≤ 7 0.8 0.33%
225 300
> 225 ≤ 5 1.25 0.42% > 300 6 1.0 < 0.33%
375
> 375 4 1.6 < 0.43%
2. DWDI Technique Source Side IQI 2. DWDI Technique Source Side IQI
ty ty
≤ 1.2 18 0.063 > 5.25% ≤ 1.5 19 0.05 > 3.33%
> 1.2 ≤ 2 17 0.08 5% > 1.5 ≤ 2.5 18 0.063 3.15%


> 2 ≤ 3.5 16 0.1 3.64% > 2.5 ≤ 4 17 0.08 2.46%
> 3.5 ≤ 5 15 0.125 2.94% >4≤6 16 0.1 2.0%
>5≤7 14 0.16 2.67% >6≤8 15 0.125 1.79%
> 7 ≤ 12 13 0.2 2.1% > 8 ≤ 15 14 0.16 1.39%
> 12 ≤ 18 12 0.25 1.67% > 15 ≤ 25 13 0.2 1.0%
> 18 ≤ 30 11 0.32 1.33% > 25 ≤ 38 12 0.25 0.79%
> 30 ≤ 40 10 0.4 1.14% > 38 ≤ 45 11 0.32 0.77%
> 40 ≤ 50 9 0.5 1.11% > 45 ≤ 55 10 0.4 0.8%
> 50 ≤ 60 8 0.63 1.14% > 55 ≤ 70 9 0.5 0.8%
> 65 ≤ 85 7 0.8 1.07% > 70 ≤ 100 8 0.63 0.74%
> 85 ≤ 120 6 1.0 0.98% > 100 ≤ 7 0.8 0.59%
170
> 120 ≤ 5 1.25 0.74% > 170 ≤ 6 1.0 0.48%
220 250
> 220 ≤ 4 1.6 0.53% > 250 5 1.25 < 0.5%
380
> 380 3 2.0 < 0.53%
BS EN 1435 Sensitivity requirements for wire type IQIs.


10.0 RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES (FOR WELDS IN PLATE
AND PIPE)
Three basic techniques are used for the radiography of butt-welds in pipe,
these being the ‘single wall single image (SWSI)’, ‘double wall single image (DWSI)’
and ‘double wall double image DWDI’ techniques. All radiographs of butt-welds in
plate will in general be single wall single image.
Each of these techniques is discussed below, paying particular respect to the

extent of the diagnostic area, the minimum source to film distance, the placement of
location markers and the placement of IQIs.
10.1 IQI TYPE AND PLACEMENT
It is important that IQIs are placed source or film side and at a position within
the diagnostic film length (DFL) in accordance with the requirements of the contract
specification.
As a general rule, wherever possible, the IQI should be placed source side.
IQIs placed source side are affected both by radiographic contrast and by geometric
unsharpness. Film side IQIs indicate radiographic contrast only, thus source side IQIs
give a more accurate measure of the overall radiographic quality.
It used to be standard good practice to place wire type IQIs towards the end of
the diagnostic area, with the thinner wires toward the outside of the DFL; the wires
were invariably placed across the weld and sensitivity was assessed on the weld
allowing for any weld reinforcement present. This way of working would still meet
ASME V article 2 requirements, although this document does not specify where within
the DFL the IQI should be placed. In Europe matters are different. When working in
accordance with BS EN 1435 sensitivity should generally be assessed at the centre of
the DFL on the parent material.
Plaque type and step hole type IQIs should (preferably) always be placed at the
centre of the diagnostic area on the parent material. Should the image of these IQI
types encroach on the weld area the radiograph should be re-taken.
If working with a wire type IQI in accordance with ASME V article 2 sensitivity
would probably be measured on the weld. ASME V article 2 then has a requirement
that the film density through the diagnostic length shall not vary by more than + 30%
or – 15% from that measured at the IQI. The same allowable density variation applies
to plaque type IQIs, but these, of course, must be placed alongside, not on the weld.
Plaque type IQIs may be shimmed to compensate for any weld reinforcement. If a
technique produces a wide range of film density the placement of several IQIs may be
necessary in order to meet the allowable density variation requirement.

Radiographic Techniques (for Welds in Plate and Pipe) MATERIALS JOINING

BS EN limits the diagnostic film length (DFL) by specifying that the penetrated
thickness at the ends of the DFL shall not exceed 110% (class ‘B’ techniques) or
120% (class ‘A’ techniques) of the thickness penetrated at the centre of the DFL.
10.2 LOCATION MARKERS
All national codes and standards require the use of location markers, usually in
the form of lead letters or numbers that appear in the radiograph as a radiographic
image. It is very important that the markers are placed in such a way as to prove
coverage of the weld where a multiple exposure technique is used. Three general
rules apply:
(1) When performing radiography of welds in flat plate location markers must be
placed source side. Film side markers will not prove coverage because of
‘parallax.’
(2) When performing radiography of welds in curved surfaces location markers

should be placed on the convex surface for all techniques where the source or
focus to film distance is equal to or exceeds the radius of curvature.
(3) When performing radiography of welds in curved surfaces location markers

should be placed source side for all techniques where the source or focus to
film distance is less than the radius of curvature.
Location marker placement – parallax effect on flat plate


10.3 IDENTIFICATION OF RADIOGRAPHS
All national codes and standards require unique and permanent identification of
radiographs. In general this can be applied by any suitable means although in some
cases identification using lead numbers that appear as radiographic images is
required. Where not prohibited by the contract specification ‘flashing’ the radiographic
identification is a good method. he required identification is written on a scrap of white
paper, the radiograph is suitably masked and the scrap of paper is placed on the
unmasked area. The radiograph is then flashed with a suitable light source and the
identification becomes visible during subsequent film processing. Exactly what
constitutes an acceptable unique identification varies widely from specification to
specification, but the minimum is a unique number. ASME V article 2 requires a
unique weld number, the date and the manufacturer’s name or symbol. Most codes
require radiographs of repair welds to be marked with R1, R2, R3 etc depending on
the number of repair attempts. RW is commonly used to identify a complete re-weld.
Items such as heat treatment condition, welder number and welding procedure
reference may also be required.
10.4 RADIATION ENERGY
BS EN 1435 specifies the maximum x-ray tube voltage that may be used based
on the component thickness (see the figure in section 5.1.5.1 above). BS EN 1435
also specifies the minimum and maximum thickness on which each type of gamma
ray isotope may be used (see table just below). ASME V article 2 specifies a
recommended minimum steel thickness for iridium 192 of 19 mm and a minimum of
38 mm for cobalt 60, a minimum of 63 mm of aluminium is specified for iridium 192.
PENETRATED THICKNESS (w)

RADIATION SOURCE
Test Class A Test Class B
Thulium 170 w≤5 w≤5
Ytterbium 169 (1) 1 ≤ w ≤ 15 2 ≤ w ≤ 12
Selenium 75 (2) 10 ≤ w ≤ 40 14 ≤ w ≤ 40
Iridium 192 20 ≤ w ≤ 100 20 ≤ w ≤ 90
Cobalt 60 40 ≤ w ≤ 200 60 ≤ w ≤ 150
X-ray equipment, 1 MeV to 4 MeV 30 ≤ w ≤ 200 50 ≤ w ≤ 180
X-ray equipment, 4 MeV to 12 MeV w ≥ 50 w ≥ 80
X-ray equipment, 12 MeV and above w ≥ 80 w ≥ 100
(1) For aluminium & titanium, the penetrated thickness is 10 ≤ w ≤ 70 for class A and 25 ≤ w ≤ 55 for class B.
(2) For aluminium & titanium, the penetrated thickness is 35 ≤ w ≤ 120 for class A.
BS EN 1435 applicable thickness ranges for gamma ray sources and high
energy x-rays


10.5 SOURCE TO FILM DISTANCE
The minimum source to film distance for BS EN 1435 is calculated using the
formula: f/d ≤ kb2/3 where f is the source to object distance, d is the effective source or
focus size, b is the object to film distance and k is a constant equal to 7.5 for class A
techniques and 15 for class B. BS EN 1435 also includes a nomogram for the less
mathematically minded. The first figure in section 8.4.1.1.1 above shows the BS EN
1435 requirements graphically.
ASME V article 2 limits the minimum source or focus to film distance by

specifying maximum geometric unsharpness, 0.51 mm for component thickness up to
50.8 mm, 0.76 mm for component thickness greater than 50.8 & up to 76.2 mm, 1.0
mm for component thickness greater than 76.2 and up to 101.6 mm and 1.78 mm for
component thickness exceeding 101.6mm
10.6 SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE
10.6.1 SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE TECHNIQUE FOR PLATE
BS EN 1435 SWSI technique for flat plate
The figure above shows a typical set-up for exposure of a butt weld in flat plate.
The captions refer to BS EN 1435 requirements. The source should be positioned on
the centre line of the weld, directly above the centre of the diagnostic area.


10.6.2 SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE TECHNIQUE: SOURCE
INTERNAL, PLACED CENTRALLY (PANORAMIC
TECHNIQUE)
Single wall single image ‘panoramic’ technique (BS EN 1435)

Required number of exposures = 1 (see figure further below for BS EN 1435 requirements)
This technique is commonly used for pipeline welds where specially designed,
remotely operated, devices known as crawlers are often used. These machines can
travel distances of up to several kilometres along the inside of the pipeline in order to
reach the desired position to radiograph a particular weld. The typical battery life for
an x-ray crawler will usually allow about 100 exposures to be made between
successive battery charges. Gamma ray crawlers are also used.
This technique may also be used for examining girth welds in cylindrical
pressure vessels. Using Thulium 170 isotopes boiler tube welds which may have an
outside diameter of only 40 mm are occasionally examined by this technique.
The major advantage of this technique is that it can radiograph an entire girth
weld in a single exposure. With this technique location marker placement is not
critical, but it usually more convenient to place the markers film side. In most cases it
will be impractical to place the IQI source side for this technique, although source side
IQIs would be preferred if access is not a problem. Film side IQIs are therefore
generally used. Comparitor radiographs having IQIs placed source and film side can
be used to establish sensitivity requirements for film side IQIs. In most cases three
IQIs are placed at 120° intervals around the circumference, although some
specifications require more or less than this. The radiograph may consist of a number
of overlapping films or it may be a single length of ‘rollpack’ film. Identification of the
film may be included as a radiographic image but it may also be added later. Where
several overlapping films are used each film must be uniquely and permanently
identified.

10.6.3 SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE TECHNIQUE: SOURCE
INTERNAL, OFFSET.
Single wall single image source internal & offset technique (BS EN 1435)
Required number of exposures: see figure next page for BS EN 1435 requirements
In some cases it may not be possible to satisfy the requirements of the

applicable specification for geometric unsharpness if the panoramic technique is used.
Where this is the case it may be possible to achieve a satisfactory geometric
unsharpness by offsetting the source towards the inner wall of the pipe. Location
markers should be placed film side if the SFD or FFD is longer than the radius of
curvature of the test item. If the converse of this is true (as may be the case for a large
diameter pressure vessel) then the location markers should be placed source side.
10.6.4 SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE TECHNIQUE: FILM

INSIDE, SOURCE OUTSIDE
Single wall single image film inside, source outside (BS EN 1435)

BS EN 1435: Exposures required for FISO techniques
FISO = film inside source outside


This is a rather unpopular technique because a large number of exposures
(usually 8 or more) are required in order to cover the entire circumference of the weld.
In general it will only be used when an acceptable radiograph cannot be achieved
using either of the two single wall techniques described in section 10.6.2 and 10.6.3
above and can also not be achieved using the double wall techniques described
below. Location markers MUST be placed source side. The IQI should always be
placed source side, there is no excuse for using a film side IQI when using this
technique. Identification of the films may be included as radiographic images
(although it will probably impractical to use long identifications due to the limited
amount of area available on the film) but may also be added later.
10.7 DOUBLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE

Where there is no access to the inside of a pipe double wall techniques have to
be employed.
In the double wall single image technique the source of radiation is usually
placed at the minimum possible distance from the film. The reason for this is that as
the source to film distance increases so does the number of exposures needed to
cover the entire circumference of the weld. In addition, any improvement in image
quality due to the reduced geometric unsharpness associated with an increase in SFD
or FFD has to be offset against a reduction in image quality due to increased scatter.
Geometric unsharpness limitations permitting gamma sources can be placed

almost in contact with the outside surface of the pipe. In many cases this reduces the
required number of exposures to just three (see 2nd figure below for BS EN 1435
requirements).
X-ray tubes are bulky and the minimum achievable FFD will usually be about
125 mm plus the outside diameter of the pipe. A minimum of 4 exposures per weld is
therefore required when using an x-ray source for this technique.
Being able to place the source of radiation in close contact with the pipe gives
gamma ray techniques another significant advantage over x-ray techniques
particularly on smaller pipe diameters. Less offset is needed with gamma ray sources
in order to ensure that the image of the source side portion of the weld is not
superimposed upon the film side part of the weld. This can increase the chance of
finding vertical defects such as lack of root fusion in the weld being radiographed.
As the wall thickness to diameter ratio increases the double wall single image
technique becomes increasingly difficult to apply, the number of exposures required
increases and the quality of the radiographs produced diminishes. For these reasons
double-wall-double-image (superimposed) techniques tend to be preferred for heavy
wall small diameter pipes.
Because in general there will be no access to the inside of the pipe when this
technique is employed the location markers and IQI are always placed film side.


Double wall single image technique
Required number of exposures: see previous figure for BS EN 1435


BS EN 1435: Exposures required for DWSI & SWSI SIFO techniques
SIFO = source inside film outside


10.8 DOUBLE WALL DOUBLE IMAGE
10.8.1 DOUBLE WALL DOUBLE IMAGE (ELLIPTICAL)
Double wall double image technique (elliptical)


In accordance with BS EN 1435 this technique is limited to girth welds in pipe
having an outside diameter of less than 100 mm. In accordance with ASME V article 2
welds in pipe of up to 3½ inch nominal diameter ( OD about 101.9 mm, this is slightly
outside the BS EN 1435 requirement) may be radiographed using DWDI.
For pipes with a wall thickness to outside diameter ratio in excess of about 0.15
the double-wall-double-image (superimposed) technique is to be preferred.
The minimum number of exposures required by both BS EN and American

standards is two at 90° to each other.
Long source to film distances are needed because the minimum value of object
to film distance is equal to the outside diameter of the pipe. Exposure times for this
technique therefore tend to be rather long especially in the case of gamma ray
techniques.
A single location marker on each exposure is generally sufficient, although

some specifications require pitch markers (A to B, B to C, C to D and D to A etc).
Location markers may be placed source side or film side. IQIs should always be
placed source side.
BS EN 1435 requires wire type IQI s to be placed on the parent material with
their wires parallel to the weld axis (see previous figure above). Special BS EN 462-1
having wires just 10 mm long are available for this purpose. Working in accordance
with ASME V article 2 standard wire type IQIs should be placed with their wires across
the weld at 90° to the weld axis.
In the double wall single image technique the film is wrapped around the pipe
so as to remain as close as possible to the weld. Conversely, in the double wall
double image technique the film should be kept as flat as possible (see previous
figure).
10.8.2 DOUBLE WALL DOUBLE IMAGE (SUPERIMPOSED)
This technique has the same range of application as the elliptical technique, but
is preferred when the thickness to outside diameter ratio exceeds 0.15. Welds having
difficult geometry that may prevent them from being radiographed using the elliptical
technique can generally be radiographed successfully using this technique.
As the image of the source side part of the weld is superimposed on the image
the film side part of the weld it is often not possible to accurately locate a weld defect
when using this technique. This is not usually much of a handicap because small
diameter welds tend to be cut-out and re-welded rather than being repaired locally.
A single location marker per exposure is usually sufficient when using this
technique and it may be placed either source or film side. IQIs should always be
placed source side.


BS EN 1435 and ASME V article 2 both require a minimum of 3 exposures at
120° to spacing (or 3 at 60° spacing for difficult access situations) for this technique.
The double wall double image superimposed technique may be more likely
(than the elliptical technique) to successfully detect lack of root fusion due to the more
favourable angle of incidence of the primary beam.
Double wall double image technique (superimposed)


11.0 INTERPRETATION OF RADIOGRAPHS
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Competent interpretation of radiographs is a skill which can only be gained
through long experience. This chapter is intended to give the reader a guide to
radiographic interpretation and should be regarded as a base upon which to build.
The interpretation of a radiograph should not be confused with the acceptance

or rejection of a component. The radiograph must first be interpreted and any defects
observed assessed against applicable standard. A weld or casting must be accepted
on its merits or rejected for its faults and should neither be accepted nor rejected due
to difficulties encountered in the interpretation of radiographs. Any radiograph not
meeting code requirements with regard to radiographic quality must be rejected.
In circumstances where there is doubt as to the nature of a radiographic image
it is often necessary to visually inspect the component or to cross check the
radiographic results using another NDT method.
11.2 VIEWING CONDITIONS
The success or failure of radiographic interpretation is highly dependent upon

the film viewing conditions. The eye is very sensitive to small variations in film density
once it has developed ‘night vision’. Anyone carrying out radiographic interpretation
should therefore not begin to view radiographs until ‘night vision’ has developed.
Since this cannot be achieved in a brightly lit room it is important that the films are
viewed in low ambient light. ‘Night vision’ takes several minutes to develop and so the
films should not be viewed immediately upon entering the viewing room. Five minutes
is the recommended period that should elapse before critical interpretations are made.
It is also important that film is properly masked on the viewer so that the light falling on
the eye comes from the radiograph only. If the film is not adequately masked the eye
will be blinded by the bright light coming from around the film.
Radiographs are easily damaged, therefore the viewing room must be clean
and dry and the radiographs must be handled with care. The viewer should be
mounted on a table or bench large enough to allow the films to be spread out without
the danger of them falling to the floor. A well shielded reading lamp will allow reports
to be read or notes to be made, without unduly increasing the overall ambient lighting.
The radiographs should be viewed at a normal reading distance ( normally less
than 400 mm). A low power magnifier (2 or 3X) may occasionally be helpful, but it
should not be necessary for routine examination. In accordance with PCN and CSWIP
requirements the visual acuity of the radiographic interpreter must be J1 in at least
one eye (corrected or uncorrected).
The viewing of radiographs is often undertaken in the dark room where the film
was processed. This is satisfactory provided that the viewing bench or table is clean

Interpretation of Radiographics MATERIALS JOINING

and well away from the processing tanks. Under normal circumstances films should
NEVER be viewed whilst wet. There are two reasons for this:
(a) The film emulsion is swollen with water and the images are not as clear as
when the film is dry.
(b) The emulsion is very delicate and any attempt to mask the film will result in
scratches or marks on the film, effectively ruining it.
National standards generally require that the illuminance of a radiographic film

viewer be sufficient to produce a transmitted light intensity of at least 30 and
preferably 300 candela per square metre (cd/m2). This means that a viewer suitable
for viewing radiographic film with a density of 3.0 must have an illuminance of at least
30,000 cd/m2 with as much as 300,000 cd/m2 being desirable. BS EN 25580
requirements for radiographic film viewers are given by the table below. Note that
these are minimum requirements.
Minimum Screen Transmitted light

Film Density
Illuminance (cd/m2) Illuminance (cd/m2)
1.0 300 30.0
1.5 1,000 31.6
2.0 3,000 30.0
2.5 10,000 31.6
3.0 10,000 10.0
3.5 30,000 9.5
4.0 100,000 10.0
4.5 300,000 9.5
BS EN 25580 requirements for radiographic film viewers
11.3 REPORTING
The initial interpretation of a radiograph should always be undertaken by the

manufacturer or his designated representative. Other interested parties should be
presented with a report which includes an interpretation of each film. It is their job to
check this and to agree or disagree with it. The radiographic report should contain the
following information as a minimum:
(i) Identification of the item radiographed.

(ii) The date of manufacture.
(iii) The date of radiography.
(iv) Exposure details including the type of equipment used and the tube voltage for
x-ray techniques and the type of isotope for gamma ray techniques.
(v) The type of film used.
(vi) The type and thickness of the intensifying screens used.
(vii) Geometric details, particularly the FFD or SFD and the effective focus or source
dimension.

(viii) Details of the component being radiographed, including the type of material and
method of manufacture, the thickness, the heat treatment condition and the
repair status.
(ix) The method of film processing.
(x) The film density achieved.
(xi) The radiographic sensitivity achieved.
(xii) The technician’s name, signature and date.
(xiii) The interpreter’s name, signature and date.
(xiv) An interpretation of each film and a statement of the component’s acceptability
or not.
(xv) The code or standard applicable to the radiographic technique.
(xvi) The acceptance code or standard.
(xvii) Reference to a written procedure or technique sheet.
11.4 FILM QUALITY

The success of radiographic interpretation is dependent upon the quality of the
film presented. If the film does not meet the minimum applicable standards for quality
then it should be rejected and reshot. The manufacturer’s interpreter may, for
economic reasons, not be inclined to reject radiographs which do not meet the
minimum quality standards. Therefore any third party viewing the radiographs should
be extremely careful to correctly assess the quality of the radiographs prior to
endorsing the relevant report. Otherwise the third party will be open to criticism should
the film become the subject of any subsequent legal inquiry. When assessing a film
for quality a number of items must be considered. These are discussed below.
11.4.1 COMPONENT IDENTIFICATION

All radiographs must be permanently and uniquely marked with sufficient
information so as to permit their identification with the component radiographed at a
later stage. It is often useful to include such items as the date of test and heat
treatment or repair status of the component in the identification. Radiographic
identification could appear on the radiograph as a radiographic image but there is
usually no reason why it should not be added by any other suitable means. A written
procedure should be in force describing the standard method to be used for identifying
radiographs.
11.4.2 LOCATION MARKERS
Location markers on a radiograph serve two functions: they permit the

radiograph to be identified with the area of the component radiographed and they
serve to prove that the component has been fully covered by the technique used.
Refer to the sections above on radiographic techniques for details. Wherever possible
location markers should permanently identify the radiograph with the area
radiographed. Items such as pressure vessels are usually hard stamped with a

permanent radiographic datum. A written procedure should be in force which
describes the standard method used for the placement of location markers.
11.4.3 FILM DENSITY

It is important that the film density is within the specified range since a film
having low film density will also have inferior film contrast. BS EN 1435 requires a
minimum film density of 2.0 for class A radiography and a minimum of 2.3 for class B.
ASME V Article 2 requires a minimum of 1.8 for x-ray techniques and minimum of 2.0
for gamma ray techniques. In most cases (including BS EN 1435 and ASME V article
2) the minimum figures for film density apply to the area of interest (the diagnostic
area) on the radiograph. In weld radiography, for example, film density should
generally be measured on the weld area between the location markers (which identify
the ends of the diagnostic film length).
Density can be assessed either by comparison with a calibrated density strip

(which preferably should have been made using film identical to that of the
radiograph) or by using a measuring device known as a densitometer. Anyone
accepting radiographs which do not meet the applicable density requirements is open
to criticism at a later stage should litigation follow a component failure.
ASME V article 2 requires that the film density within the area of interest must
not vary by more than minus 15% or plus 30% from the value measured through the
body of the IQI. If necessary additional IQIs can be used in order to satisfy this
requirement for exceptional areas.
Occasionally an upper limit is specified for film density. ASME V article 2, for
example, specifies an upper limit of 4.0.
11.4.4 RADIOGRAPHIC SENSITIVITY

Radiographic sensitivity is not directly related to the minimum detectable defect
size. However, a radiograph that meets the applicable code requirement for
radiographic sensitivity, is much more likely to provide good defect sensitivity than a
radiograph which fails to meet the code requirements.
The sensitivity of a radiograph depends upon the parameters chosen to

produce that radiograph (see the section above on the production of a radiograph). If
any of the relevant parameters are altered the sensitivity will be affected. It is therefore
essential to use Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) in order to prove that adequate
radiographic quality has been attained. Except in the case of the ‘panoramic
technique’, which has been described above, at least one IQI should generally appear
each radiograph.


Anyone viewing radiographs should be careful to check that the radiographic
sensitivity meets the requirements of the applicable code. Anyone who fails to do is
open to criticism should litigation follow a component failure.
11.4.5 ARTEFACTS AND OTHER UNWANTED IMAGES

In film radiography an artefact can be defined as ‘any image resulting from a
cause that is not directly associated with the object that has been radiographed.
Artefacts can be produced by mechanical or chemical damage to the film and

by damaged or dirty intensifying screens. Sometimes radiographic images may be
formed by things such as debris on the internal of a pipe. These images, while they
are strictly speaking not artefacts, can also interfere with the proper interpretation of
the radiograph.
When radiographs are being produced on a commercial basis it is not possible

for every film to be free from all artefacts. An artefact only becomes significant when it
cannot be identified as being an artefact or when it hinders the interpretation of the
film. These two factors are rather subjective but if any doubt exists then the interpreter
should call for a repeat radiograph. A list of possible artefacts is given in the next
section.
11.5 INTERPRETATION OF RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGES

There are three types of images that may appear on a radiograph:
(i) Images due to artefacts.

(ii) Images due to surface irregularities in the component.
(iii) Images due to internal discontinuities in the component.
Every image within the diagnostic area of a radiograph must be identified as

one of these three. It is not permissible to reject a component simply because an
image appearing within the diagnostic area cannot be interpreted. Similarly it is not
permissible to reject a radiograph for artefacts which are not within the diagnostic
area. The following sections attempt to give a description the various types of image
that may be seen on a radiograph. The ability to successfully identify all radiographic
images is a skill that can only be perfected with time and experience.


11.6 ARTEFACTS
11.6.1 PRESSURE MARKS (CRIMP MARKS)
These are produced by careless film handling. If the film is crimped or buckled
either before or after exposure crescent shaped images in the processed radiograph
will result. Light marks indicate crimping before exposure. Dark marks indicate
crimping after exposure but before film processing.
It is usually possible to identify crimp marks by viewing the film in reflected light.
They should appear as indentations in the surface of the film. Lead screens that have
been crimped should be discarded.
11.6.2 SCRATCHES: ON THE FILM
Radiographic film emulsion is delicate, it is easily damaged if handled

carelessly at any stage during the production of a radiograph. Areas used for film
handling must be free from dust and films must be handled carefully at all times.
Depending upon how severe and when or how formed film scratches may produce
either light or dark images. Film scratches can usually be identified using reflected
light.
11.6.3 SCRATCHES: ON LEAD INTENSIFYING SCREENS

These may appear as either light or dark images that cannot be seen in
reflected light. If the intensifying screens used to make the radiograph can be
positively identified then it may be possible to trace the shape and position of such an
image to a scratch on the screens. Even if this can be done it will probably be
necessary to re-shoot the radiograph. Scratched lead screens should be discarded.
11.6.4 DIRT: ON THE FILM OR SCREENS

Dirt which finds it’s way between the film and the screens will in general
produce a light image on the resultant radiograph which is not visible in reflected light.
Greasy fingers will produce dark marks on a finished radiograph that can easily be
seen in reflected light. Greasy fingers before development produce light marks.
11.6.5 STREAKINESS OR MOTTLING: POOR DEVELOPMENT

This is usually caused by insufficient agitation in the early stages of
development and is due a process known as ‘bromide streaming’. Reaction products
from the chemical interaction of the developer with the silver halides in the film
emulsion tend to build up around high film density zones. These reaction products
slow down the action of the developer. Since they are relatively heavy they will tend to

flow down the surface of the film leading to a light coloured streak in the finished
radiograph. Under or over development usually leads to a mottled effect on the
finished radiograph. A similar effect will be produced by developer that has passed the
end of its service life. In less severe cases such artefacts may not be a cause for
rejection of the radiograph but darkroom procedures should be reviewed in order to
prevent a recurrence or a further deterioration in radiographic quality.
11.6.6 DEVELOPER SPLASHES
These will appear as dark spots on the film and indicate poor dark room
practice. Such marks are usually visible in reflected light.
11.6.7 FIXER SPLASHES
These will appear as light spots on the film and again indicate poor dark room
practice. Such marks are usually visible in reflected light.
11.6.8 WATER SPLASHES
These may appear as either light or dark images on a radiograph. Water

splashes before exposure tend to cause light marks. Water splashes after exposure
tend to cause dark marks. Such marks are usually visible in reflected light.
11.6.9 WATER MARKS
These are easily seen on the radiograph in both transmitted and reflected light
and are due to uneven drying. They commonly occur where a dry or partially dry film
is wetted locally either by splashing or by excess water running down from a film clip.
The appearance of water marks can be reduced or eliminated by the use of a
squeegee to remove excess water or by the use of a final wash that contains a small
amount of detergent (i.e. a wetting agent).
11.6.10 AIR BELLS

These are light marks caused by air bubbles adhering to the film in the early
stages of development. They will not occur if the film is properly agitated.
11.6.11 DIFFRACTION MOTTLING

This can be a problem when x-rays are used to radiograph large grained
material, one example being cast austenitic steels. Diffraction is an apparent bending
of a beam of radiation that is due to ‘interference.’ Diffraction occurs when radiation

passes through a grating that has a spacing approximately equal to one wavelength.
The spacing of atoms in a metallic crystal is about 0.1 nanometres. This corresponds
to x-ray radiation with a photon energy in the region of 10 keV. If low energy
components are removed from the x-ray beam by filtration the problem with diffraction
mottling will disappear. Diffraction mottling does not occur in gamma radiography
because of the absence of low energy beam components. Diffraction can be used to
advantage. It is the basis for the study of metal crystals by x-ray crystallography.
11.6.12 STATIC MARKS
Penetrating radiation is by definition ‘ionising’. It always causes the build up of

an electric charge on the film during exposure but under normal circumstances this is
not a problem because the charge quickly flows to earth. In dry climates, however, a
static charge may remain on the film up to the point where it is unloaded in the
darkroom, whereupon it flows to earth suddenly in a manner that could be painful for
the radiographer. Such a sudden dissipation of electrical energy leads to the emission
of a sudden burst of light. This light produces dark tree-like marks on the finished
radiograph. Static marks can be avoided by careful film handling.
11.6.13 DICHROIC FOGGING
Radiographs affected by dichroic fog will appear reddish when viewed using
transmitted light and greenish in reflected light. Dichroic means two-coloured. This
artefact is caused when the development process continues during the fixing process.
It happens when the fixer solution has become insufficiently acidic to stop the
development process. The use of an acidic stop bath between the development and
fixing processes will in general prevent the occurrence of this seldom seen artefact.
11.6.14 RETICULATION
This artefact appears on the radiograph as an orange peel like mottling effect.
It is caused when the film emulsion is subjected to a temperature shock at any stage
during the film processing. A sudden change in temperature causes the film emulsion
to wrinkle. It will not generally occur as long as the sudden change in temperature is
less than 10°C.
11.6.15 FILM FOGGING BY X OR GAMMA RAYS

If radiographic film is not stored well away from sources of ionising radiation
then it is likely to become ‘fogged.’ Films that have been fogged in this way will
produce reduced radiographic contrast (fogging has much the same effect as
scattered radiation which is explained in a section above). If it is suspected that the
film is fogged then the fog level can be checked by processing a piece of unexposed


film. Film with a density due to fogging of 0.3 or more is not suitable for use in high
quality industrial radiography.
11.6.16 LIGHT FOGGING

Exposure to light other than that from darkroom safe-lights (actually prolonged
exposure to safe-lights will cause also fogging) at any stage prior to fixing the film will
cause the film to become fogged. Such fogging may be localised or general.
Localised fogging is not a problem unless it encroaches onto the diagnostic film area.
General fogging by light has the same effect as fogging due to exposure to ionising
radiation.
11.6.17 FILM FOGGING DUE TO INADEQUATE STORAGE

CONDITIONS
Film stored at too high a temperature or which has been exposed to chemical
fumes may become fogged. The fog level of all film increases with age, even under
ideal storage conditions, therefore all film boxes are marked with an expiry date.
High-speed films deteriorate more quickly than do slower films.
11.6.18 SOLARISATION
Image reversal due to extreme over exposure to x or gamma rays or caused by

exposure to light during film development.
11.6.19 A FINAL WORD ON ARTEFACTS
It should be stressed again that artefacts are cause for rejecting the film only if
they interfere with interpretation. A large number of artefacts present on the
radiographs indicate poor practice and the interpreter should take time to inspect the
radiographic facilities and review darkroom procedures.
11.7 INTERPRETATION OF WELD RADIOGRAPHS
11.7.1 RADIOGRAPHIC INDICATIONS DUE TO SURFACE

GEOMETRY
It is usually possible to successfully interpret radiographs of welds in the as

welded condition. Experience will help the interpreter to identify the sort of surface
marks that are normal for a particular welding process and technique. Where there is
doubt it a visual examination of the weld will often help. Where it is felt that an


indication resulting from surface geometry could mask a significant defect indication,
or where visual examination proves inconclusive, it may be necessary to dress the
weld to a smooth contour and re-shoot the radiograph.
The severity of weld defects such as excessive penetration or undercutting is

difficult to judge using radiographic evidence alone. Wherever possible defects of this
type should be judged for acceptability by visual means. Listed below are some of the
common surface conditions that can produce radiographic images.
11.7.1.1 EXCESSIVE ROOT PENETRATION

This is excess weld material protruding through the root of a single sided fusion
weld. It appears in the radiograph as a continuous or intermittent light irregular band
within the image of the weld. Common causes of excessive penetration are, no root
face, root gap too wide, excessive amperage, travel speed too slow and incorrect
polarity.
Excessive root penetration
11.7.1.2 ROOT CONCATIVITY

This takes the form of shallow groove that may occur in the root of a single
sided weld. It appears in the radiograph as a series of dark areas along the centre of
the weld varying in density according to the depth of imperfection. It is often seen in
welds made with the use of a backing gas. The pressure of the backing gas can cause
the weld root to collapse during welding of the first subsequent weld run (hot-pass).
Other possible causes are no root face, travel speed too slow on the hot pass,
amperage too high on the hot pass, incorrect polarity on the hot pass, excessive pre-
heat and root gap too narrow.
Root concavity


11.7.1.3 INCOMPLETELY FILLED GROOVE (LACK OF FILL)
This is a continuous or intermittent channel along the edge of the weld, due to
insufficient weld material. Incompletely filled groove is a fusion defect and should not
be confused with lack of reinforcement or undercutting. It produces an image in the
radiograph of a straight edged (on one side at least) dark band. Incompletely filled
groove is caused by poor welding practice.
Incompletely filled groove or lack of fill
11.7.1.4 LACK OF REINFORCEMENT
This is a concave area of the weld cap where the weld is locally thinner,
sometimes thinner than the parent material. In the radiograph it appears as a dark
area towards the centre of the weld which has diffuse edges. Lack of reinforcement is
caused by poor welding practice.
Lack of reinforcement
11.7.1.5 UNDERCUT
This is an irregular groove at the toe the weld in the parent material due to
burning away during welding. It appears in the radiograph as a dark / irregular
/intermittent band in a position adjacent to either the cap or root weld toe or between
adjacent capping runs. It may therefore appear inside or outside the weld image on
the radiograph. The major causes of undercutting are excessive amperage and poor
welding technique. Welds in the vertical or horizontal – vertical position tend to be
prone to undercutting.

Undercut
11.7.1.6 SPATTER
Spatter consists of globules of molten filler metal expelled during arc welding on
to the surface of the parent material or weld. Spatter appears in the radiograph as
small light spots. The major causes of spatter are incorrect polarity and welding
current too high. Spatter particularly affects MIG, MAG, MMA and FCAW, spatter is
highly unlikely to be seen in association with welds made by TIG or SAW. In pipe
welding spatter is possible on both the external and internal surfaces.
Weld spatter


11.7.1.7 EXCESSIVE DRESSING / GRINDING MARKS
This is a reduction in material thickness caused by the removal of the surface of

a weld and adjacent areas to below the surface of the parent material. Excessive
dressing appears as a dark area with diffuse edges. A grinding mark appears as a
dark area that will usually have clearly defined edges. Caused by poor practice or
poor access for welding.
Excessive dressing
11.7.1.8 HAMMER MARKS (TOOL MARKS)

These are indentations in the surface of the parent material or of the weld
resulting from the application of a tool, for example a chipping hammer. They usually
appear in a radiograph as dark half moon shaped areas usually having clearly defined
edges. Caused by poor fabrication practice. They often result from attempts to correct
welding distortion.
11.7.1.9 TORN SURFACE

This is a surface irregularity due to breaking off of temporary attachments. The
radiographic indication produced has a shape corresponding to that of the affected
area which may be may be either light or dark depending on whether part of the
attachment has remained or whether parent material has been torn away. Caused by
poor fabrication practice, often seen in association with storage tank or ship hull
welds.
11.7.1.10 SURFACE PITTING
This is a surface imperfection, usually of the parent material but also the weld
metal where a component has been in service. It usually takes the form of small
depressions resulting from localised corrosion. Pitting appears in a radiograph as
small dark rounded images. It is possible to mistake this for a welding defect, its
appearance in the radiograph can be identical to that of porosity.


11.7.2 INTERNAL DEFECTS
11.7.2.1 CRACKS
In weld radiography four basic types of crack are sometimes detected by

radiography. These are:
(i) Centreline cracks (shrinkage cracks).

(ii) Transverse cracks (including chevron cracks).
(iii) Heat affected zone cracks or toe cracks.
(iv) Crater cracks.
A crack is a linear discontinuity produced by a fracture. In association with

welding, cracks can occur at a time after the completion of welding, during the
deposition of subsequent welding runs or at the point of solidification. Cracking can
affect both the weld deposit and the parent material.
Cracks are often invisible on radiographs but when they are detected they
appear in the radiograph as dark, fine often branching lines which are usually diffuse
or discontinuous. The ability of the radiographic technique to detect a crack is
dependent on the crack’s orientation relative to the direction of the radiation. The
figure below shows how even a slight deviation from the optimum orientation will
greatly reduce the change in section thickness that the radiation experiences due to a
planar defect such as a crack. In the case shown a variation from optimum incidence
of just ± 1° will reduce the change in penetrated thickness from 10 mm to 1 mm for a
planar defect measuring 10 mm by 17 m.
Detectability of planar defects


Centreline cracks (also called shrinkage or solidification cracks)
Centreline cracks are caused by excessive restraint or the deposition of too

large an amount of weld metal in a single pass. Too large an amount of weld metal
can result from excessive amperage or travel speed too slow. Centreline cracks are
possible for all arc welding methods. Centreline cracks occur at the point of
solidification when the weld metal has a very low tensile strength. They are the
welding equivalent of a hot tear. Of all the types of crack that can affect welds
centreline cracks are probably the easiest to detect by radiography. They tend to be
much wider than other types of crack and because of this their detectability is less
strongly affected by changes in the direction of the primary beam.
Transverse cracks & chevron cracks
Any crack that lies across the weld axis is called a transverse crack. Basically
there are two distinct types of transverse crack. Both types usually occur when the
compressive strength of the parent material is significantly greater than the tensile
strength of the weld metal.
The first type is a shrinkage or solidification crack. Cracks of this type usually
occur at 90° to the weld axis, often affecting the root pass of single sided welds. In
nature they are very similar to centreline cracks, but the source of restraint is different.
They are relatively easy to detect by radiography.
The second type is a chevron crack. This type of crack occurs at an angle of
about 45° to the weld axis, usually at some time after the completion of welding.
Chevron cracks are a special type of hydrogen induced crack; the stress that causes
the crack being due to an excessive amount of dissolved hydrogen in the weld metal.
They are sometimes detected by radiography, but in situations where there is a known
problem, other NDT methods with a higher probability of detection should be used.
Heat affected zone cracks & toe cracks
Various mechanisms can lead to cracking in the heat affected zone of a weld.
Heat affected zone cracks will often start at or run to the toe of the weld since there is
always a high stress concentration at this point. In ferrous welds the hardest, most
martensitic, most brittle microstructure is usually to be found in the heat affected zone.
It is this ‘susceptible grain structure’ that makes the heat affected zone a prime site for
cracking.
Heat affected zone cracks are usually caused by one of two mechanisms.
The first of these involves dissolved hydrogen. Molten iron has a very high
solubility for hydrogen while solid iron has a very low solubility. Thus as the metal
freezes hydrogen will attempt to leave solution and escape from the weld pool but this
process is slow compared to the process of freezing, therefore most of the hydrogen
becomes trapped in the solidified metal. The trapped hydrogen then diffuses through
the metal crystals and begins to build up an internal pressure at points of weakness,


usually the grain boundaries. In some cases the internal pressure exceeds the
strength of the material and hydrogen cracking occurs. Hydrogen induced cracking
may occur at any time up to 48 hours after welding. Where ferrous materials operate
in a hydrogen rich environment, for example in sour gas service, hydrogen cracking
can occur as an in-service defect. High strength, high carbon equivalent steels are
the most prone to hydrogen cracking. The presence of trace elements, especially
sulphur and phosphorous can make hydrogen cracking much more likely to occur.
Hydrogen induced cracks are not likely to be detected by radiography and other
methods such as ultrasonic testing should be used in any situation where there is a
high probability of occurrence.
A second type of cracking that can occur in the heat affected zone of a weld is
sometimes called weld decay. This type of cracking can affect stainless steels and is
caused by the precipitation of brittle material at the grain boundaries. The brittle
material is chromium carbide. All stainless steels contain a small proportion of carbon
which is generally held in solution within the austenitic grains. The heat from welding
can cause this carbon to combine with the chromium which is present forming
chromium carbide which is an extremely brittle material. Weld decay can be avoided
by reducing the carbon content of the parent material and filler wire. Cracking caused
by weld decay is unlikely to be detected by radiography.
Crater cracks
This type of crack occurs when the heat source is removed too suddenly at the
end of a weld run. The cracking mechanism is the same as that for centreline
cracking. The major dimension of a crater crack is usually less than 5 mm. They often
have a star shaped appearance in a radiograph and they are relatively easy to detect.
Many welding standards will permit this type of cracking provided that it does not
exceed a specified maximum dimension.
Typical radiographic appearance of a crack
11.7.2.2 LACK OF FUSION

Lack of fusion in welding can occur either between the weld deposit and the
parent material or between successive layers of weld material. Lack of fusion may


also occur due to lack of fill (see 11.6.1.3 above) or due to lack of penetration (see
11.7.2.3 below).
Lack of fusion is an area where the solid material immediately adjacent to the
molten weld pool failed to become molten during the welding process leading to a lack
of union between the molten weld material and the adjacent solid material. The ability
of radiographic techniques to successfully detect lack of fusion is strongly dependent
on the orientation of the defect with respect to the incident beam of radiation (see
figure in section 11.7.2.1). Given favourable orientation lack of fusion with the parent
material will appear in the radiograph as a fine dark straight line which may be
continuous or intermittent. Unfavourably orientated lack of fusion with the parent
material may sometimes still be detected due to the presence of associated slag
inclusions or porosity. A slag inclusion with a straight edge normally indicates lack of
fusion and gas escaping from an area lack of fusion during the deposition of a
subsequent welding run may lead to a line of ‘linear porosity’.
Lack of fusion between subsequent layers of weld material will generally not be
detected by radiography unless it is associated with some other type of defect such as
slag.
Types of lack of fusion


Lack of fusion in the radiograph


11.7.2.3 INCOMPLETE ROOT PENETRATION
This can be described as the failure of the weld material to extend into the root
of a joint. Incomplete penetration is a fusion defect, not to be confused with root
concavity (see section 11.7.1.2 above).
Incomplete root penetration appears in a radiograph as a dark continuous or

intermittent linear shadow, the edges of which will usually be straight.
Where welds are deposited without a root gap lack of penetration may appear
as a single continuous or intermittent dark line. It should be noted that root gaps
frequently close during welding so even in cases where there should have been a root
gap lack of penetration may appear in the radiograph as a single dark line.
Lack of root penetration
11.7.2.4 NON-METALLIC INCLUSIONS

These are usually formed by slag, but occasionally by other foreign matter such
as wind blown sand may become entrapped within the molten weld material. Slag
inclusions are irregularly shaped, they may be either rounded / isolated or linear /
elongated. Linear slag inclusions with a straight edge often indicate lack of fusion.
Sometimes linear slag will appear on the radiograph as two parallel lines. This type of
slag inclusion is often referred to as ‘tram lines’ or ‘wagon tracks’.
Most welding slag and other possible sources of non-metallic inclusions are
radiographically much less absorbing than the surrounding metallic material, therefore
they appear in the radiograph as dark images.
Although very rarely used, some types of covered welding electrode have a
high barium content in the flux coating. These electrodes produce a slag which is
radiographically denser than steel. In this case, therefore, a slag inclusion may appear
as a light image.


11.7.2.5 METALLIC INCLUSIONS
Dependent upon the nature of the welding process it is possible for foreign
metallic material to become entrapped within the molten weld material. Associated
with the gas tungsten arc welding process, tungsten inclusions are probably the
most commonly encountered form of metallic inclusion. They are caused by the break-
up of the non-consumable tungsten electrode during welding. Since tungsten has a
melting point well in excess of 3000°C particles of tungsten falling into the weld pool
do not become molten. Tungsten is radiographically extremely dense, therefore
tungsten inclusions always appear as bright - light images which tend to be angular.
They are usually quite small - typically around 0.5 mm. Copper inclusions can occur
particularly with the submerged arc or other welding process where the consumable
electrode is fed through a copper contact. If the copper contact gets too near to or if it
touches the weld pool molten copper (melting point about 900°C) will become
included in the weld pool. Copper is radiographically more absorbing than most other
materials including steel so copper inclusions may produce light rounded images with
extremely diffuse edges. Copper inclusions in ferritic steel welds usually cause severe
transverse cracking.
Metallic inclusions are quite common in aluminium welds, where such welds
are not properly segregated from their steel counterparts. Aluminium melts at around
660°C, so particles of steel or iron oxide falling into the weld pool will not become
molten (the melting point of steel is about 1400°C). Contamination can easily occur if
tools such as grinding disks which have been used for steel are used on aluminium.
Steel inclusions in aluminium appear as very bright angular shapes with sharp edges.
Slag inclusions
Tungsten inclusion


11.7.2.6 GAS PORES: POROSITY
The solubility for gas of the molten weld material is many times that of the solid
weld material, thus as the material freezes there is a tendency for any dissolved gases
to precipitate from solution causing gas pores or porosity in the finished weld. Gas
pores are extremely easy to detect by radiography since they are not sensitive to the
direction of radiation and the gas which fills them is many times less radiographically
dense than the surrounding material. Gas pores appear on a radiograph as sharply
defined dark circular spots. They may be isolated, grouped or evenly distributed.
Aligned porosity is usually an indication of lack of fusion (see 11.7.2.2 above). Evenly
distributed porosity generally indicates that the electrode was in some way faulty,
group porosity usually occurs at restarts and is due to poor welding technique.
11.7.2.7 ELONGATED CAVITIES (HOLLOW BEAD)
These will generally only occur in the root run of welds deposited by manual
metallic arc. Welds deposited using cellulosic coated electrodes (AWS E6010, 7010
etc.) are more likely to suffer from this defect than welds deposited with other types of
electrode.
Hollow bead can be caused by holding the arc at too shallow an angle with
respect to the work piece or by a strong draught of air along the inside of the pipe
during welding. On the radiograph it has the appearance very similar to that of slag.
The radiographic indication usually has rounded ends and it is always situated along
the centre of the root bead.
11.7.2.8 WORM HOLES

These are gas pores which have become frozen in the weld pool while
attempting to migrate to the surface of the weld pool. In addition to occurring due to an
excess of dissolved gas in the weld pool wormholes sometimes occur due to
laminations in the parent material which extend to the weld face. Lack of fusion
contains a small amount of entrapped air and this can cause wormholes in a similar
way.
Wormholes appear on the radiograph as a dark shadow the shape of which

depends on the orientation of the defect. If the wormhole is end on to the radiation a
very dark rounded shadow is formed. If the wormhole is side on then the appearance
is somewhat like a tadpole. Where a lamination in the parent material or a lack of
fusion is the source of wormholes they are often apparent in the radiograph in a
herringbone like array.


Wormholes due to a lamination in the parent material
11.7.2.9 CRATER PIPES & CRATER CRACKS
These occur due to shrinkage at the end of a weld run where the source of heat
was removed too suddenly causing the weld pool to freeze too rapidly. This defect is
quite common when the welding process is gas tungsten arc but it may also occur
with shielded metallic arc and other welding processes.
A crater pipe will appear in the radiograph with an image very similar to that of
a wormhole. It can only be distinguished from a wormhole by its position in the weld.
Crater cracks are shrinkage cracks and as such have a relatively greater volume than
do most other cracks. They often have a star like appearance in a radiograph. Their
radiographic image rarely measures more than 3 or 4 mm.
11.8 INTERPRETATION OF CASTING RADIOGRAPHS

Five groups of defect images may be seen in radiographs of metal castings,
these being:
(i) Voids.
(ii) Cracks.
(iii) Cold Shuts.
(iv) Segregation.
(v) Inclusions.
11.8.1 VOIDS
Voids in castings are formed by gases dissolved in the molten material
precipitating from solution during the solidification process or by shrinkage caused by
inadequate feeding.


11.8.1.1 MACROSHRINKAGE
This is a large cavity formed during the solidification process that occurs to lack
of sufficient feed material. With good mould design macroshrinkage (also called
piping) should be confined to the feeder heads.
Macroshrinkage appears on the radiograph as a dark continuous or semi-

continuous area of varying film density with diffuse edges.
11.8.1.2 FILAMENTARY SHRINKAGE (ALSO CALLED

SPONGINESS)
This is a coarse form of shrinkage that has smaller physical dimensions than a
macroshrinkage cavity. These cavities may be extensive and branching in nature.
Filamentary shrinkage occurs at the point in a casting that freezes last. Theoretically
this should always be at the centre of a section but this is not always the case. On
some occasions the defect may actually extend to the surface of the casting.
Filamentary shrinkage has diffuse branched appearance on the radiograph of

variable film density.
11.8.1.3 MICROPOROSITY / MICROSHRINKAGE
This is a very fine form of filamentary shrinkage due to lack of sufficient feed
metal or gas or both, in which numbers of cavities occur either round the grain
boundaries or between the dendrite arms (a dendrite is a material crystal which in the
initial stages of growth is tree-like). These cavities tend to link up in a three
dimensional network throughout the material.
In the radiograph the images of these cavities are superimposed and generally
produce a mottled or cloudy effect. In non-ferrous alloys, particularly magnesium
based alloys, microshrinkage may occur in layers and produce dark streaks in the
radiograph.
11.8.1.4 PINHOLE POROSITY

Pinhole porosity consists of small cavities less than 1.5 mm diameter which are
formed due to the evolution of gas from the molten material The defect may be evenly
distributed throughout the casting or localised to a particular area. When it occurs
local to the surface of the casting, due to gas evolved at the mould face, it is known as
subcutaneous pinhole porosity.
The defect appears in the radiograph as an assemblage of small, rounded,

widely distributed dark images. This condition is distinguished from microporosity by
the size and also by the rounded nature of the images that do not show the same

tendency to interconnect. This defect can arise from the accidental injection of air
during pressure die casting.
11.8.1.5 GASHOLES
A gashole is a discrete cavity greater than about 1.5 mm diameter caused by
gas evolved from the material as it freezes. It may also arise from gas evolved from
the core or mould (in which case the defects are called blowholes).
The radiographic image appears as a dark area of smooth outline that may be
circular or elongated and can be associated with pinhole porosity. Gasholes
occasionally become elongated as they try to rise to the surface of the molten material
during cooling, in this form they are known as wormholes. The radiographic image of a
wormhole may vary from a circular to an extremely elongated image depending upon
the angle of view.
11.8.1.6 AIRLOCKS (ENTRAPPED AIR)

These are cavities formed by air that has been trapped in the mould by the
material during pouring. The defect appears in the radiograph as dark area with an
outline which is generally smooth but which may have irregularities. An airlock cannot
always be distinguished radiographically from a gas hole but a helpful guide to
identification is the shape, size and position in the casting.
In pressure die casting air may be injected with the material. In this instance the
defect is usually more severe in the runners and may assume an angular form. In
pressure and gravity die castings this defect may occur in clusters or as strings of
small voids. In investment casting it may appear as small rounded voids.
11.8.2 CRACKS
Cracks are discontinuities caused by fracture of the material at the point of

solidification or at some time thereafter. Cracks appear on the radiograph as one or
more dark lines. The width and form of the indication depends on the type of crack
and on the radiographic technique used.
11.8.2.1 HOT TEARS
These are discontinuities of a decidedly ragged form resulting from stress

developed near the solidification temperature when a material has low mechanical
strength.


These stresses usually arise when the natural contraction of the casting is
restrained by the mould or core. The defect occurs mainly at or near to a change of
section.
The defects are not necessarily continuous, they may exist in groups and will
often terminate at the surface. Hot tears may sometimes be referred to as a pulls.
Radiographically hot tears are revealed as wavy, ragged dark lines which are
often discontinuous, with areas appearing as approximately parallel dark lines which
may possibly be overlapping. Generally the ends of the indication taper to become
fine.
11.8.2.2 STRESS CRACKS
These are well defined and approximately straight cracks formed after the
material has become completely solid, quite large stresses being required to cause
fracture. Distinctions are sometimes drawn between types depending upon the time at
which fracture occurred.
In the radiograph stress cracks are often revealed as clearly defined smooth
dark lines - thus differing from the ragged appearance of a hot tears.
11.8.3 COLD SHUTS
These are discontinuities caused by the failure of a stream of molten material to

unite with either a confluent stream, or solid material, such as a chaplet or internal chill
or pouring splash.
In the radiograph these defects usually appear as a dark lines. They may be difficult to
distinguish from a hot tears except by the typical involute appearance of the end of the
defects. The shape of an unfused chaplet or unfused chill in a radiograph is
dependent upon orientation of the beam. A cold shut resulting from a splash may
appear as a dark crescent or circle.
11.8.4 INCLUSIONS
These consist of foreign matter entrapped in the casting. This may be of many
types including sand, slag, flux, or dross.
As an inclusion may be of greater or less opacity then the surrounding material

it may appear radiographically as a light or dark area (e.g. a sand inclusion will appear
dark in steel and light in aluminium). Slag usually gives a rounded image whereas
material included in the casting as a solid (e.g. dross and sand), will give an irregular
shape. If dross is trapped as an oxide film it will often produce a characteristic folded


appearance in the radiograph. Inclusions may in many respects resemble voids in
radiographic appearance but they will generally exhibit a greater variation in density.
11.8.5 SEGREGATIONS
These result from local concentrations of any of the constituents of an alloy.
They may be classified as general, localised or banded.
Detection of such defects by radiography depends upon the segregating

constituents producing a local variation in the absorption of the radiation.


12.0 LOCALISATION
A radiograph is a two dimensional image of a three-dimensional object. When
a flaw is detected using a standard technique there is no certain way of telling how far
below the surface of the object the flaw is. In some cases it might be desirable to have
three-dimensional information about the position of a flaw. A technique called
‘localisation’ can be used to estimate the through wall position of a volumetric flaw
such as a slag inclusion. It is important to note that localisation of planar flaws such
as cracks or lack of fusion is generally not possible by radiographic methods.
12.1 90° METHOD
This is the simplest method of localisation, but it is rather limited in its field of
application. A typical test object, where this method might be useful would be a small
to medium sized casting that has a fairly simple cross section. The figure below shows
how this method would work on a small cylindrical casting. Two radiographs are taken
with primary beam mutually at 90° to each other. In an ideal situation the component
would be placed on some kind of turntable so that it could be moved accurately
keeping the two exposures in the same plane relative to the axis of the component.
The apparent defect position in each radiograph can be measured relative to
convenient datum point and the results plotted on a sketch. The defect position is then
deduced by triangulation.
12.2 TUBE (SOURCE) SHIFT METHOD
2nd figure below shows how this method could be used to locate a slag
inclusion in a butt weld. In order for this method to work well a high degree of
dimensional accuracy is needed. The source to object distance, the object to film
distance and the distance that the source is moved between the successive
exposures must all be accurately measured and controlled. Two ‘half ‘exposures are
made from different source positions using the same radiographic film to produce two
flaw images. The distance between the two images, ‘m’ is then measured and the flaw
depth is calculated as shown. The source shift, which is usually about one sixth of the
source to film distance, has been exaggerated in the figure.

Localisation MATERIALS JOINING

The 90° method for a small cylindrical casting


Tube shift method
NOTE: Source shift distance exaggerated for clarity
Using similar triangles:
But:
so:


multiply both sides of the equation by Bm:
add dB & subtract Am both sides:
which can be written as:
divide both sides by (B + m):
12.3 TUBE (SOURCE) SHIFT METHOD WITH LEAD MARKERS

Placing lead markers on the component source and film side as shown in figure
below removes the need for accurate measurement of the source to object distance,
the object to film distance and the distance that the source is moved between the
successive exposures.
Refer to same figure below. The three triangles in the enlarged view will be
very close to similar as long as the source or focus to film distance is long in
comparison with the thickness. The calculation below assumes that the triangles are
similar.
if the triangles are similar then:
so it follows that: and:
we also know that: and:
so: and:
therefore we can write: and:
(argument continued below next figure)


Tube shift method with lead markers

we have already established that: and
from this we can see that:
and:
so:
and:
now divide equation 1 by equation 2 to get:
from this it follows that:
t, the thickness of the plate is known and x, y and z can be measured on the
radiograph. Therefore d can be calculated.


13.0 UNITS USED IN RADIOGRAPHY
13.1 IONISATION (EXPOSURE)

The quantity of ionising radiation can be measured in terms of its ionising effect
or exposure on air at standard temperature and pressure (STP).
The SI unit of ionising effect is the ‘coulomb per kilogram’, the quantity of
ionising radiation that produces a total electric charge of 1 coulomb per kilogram (Ckg-
1
) of air at STP.
The centimetre-gram-second (cgs) unit of ionising effect is the ‘roentgen’ (R),

the quantity of ionising radiation that produces an electric charge of 1 electrostatic unit
(esu), which is equivalent to 2.08 x 109 ion pairs, per cubic centimetre of air at STP.
One cubic centimetre of air at STP weighs 0.001293 grams.
One esu is equal to 3.336 x 10-10 coulomb so:
1R = 2.58 x 10-4 Ckg-1
or
1 Ckg-1 = 3876 R
13.2 ABSORBED DOSE
The SI unit of absorbed dose is the ‘gray’ (Gy). The gray is defined as the
quantity of ionising radiation which releases 1 joule of energy per kilogram of
absorber.
The cgs unit of absorbed dose is the ‘roentgen absorbed dose’ (rad). The rad is
defined as the quantity of ionising radiation which releases 100 ergs of energy per
gram of absorber.
1 Gy = 100 rad
The units of radiation absorbed dose can be approximately related to the units
of ionising effect as follows:
1R = 0.88 rad
1 Ckg-1 = 3411 rad = 34.11 Gy
The conversions above are approximate since the relationship between the
roentgen and the rad or the coulomb per kilogram and the gray varies to some extent
with radiation energy.
Units Used in Radiography MATERIALS JOINING

13.3 MAN MAMMAL EQUIVALENT or RADIOBIOLOGICAL
EQUIVALENT
The effect which ionising radiation has on our bodies varies with the type of
radiation and also, to some extent, with radiation energy. In order to compensate for
this a quality factor (QF) is introduced. Quality factors for several types of ionising
radiation are listed in table below.
Type of Radiation Quality Factor

(QF)
x-rays 1.0
gamma rays 1.0
beta particles 1.0*
alpha particles 20
thermal neutrons** 2
fast neutrons*** 10
protons 10
heavy ions 20
* may in some cases exceed 1.0
** energy < 10 keV
*** energy > 10 keV
Quality factors
In the cgs system multiplying the dose in rad by the appropriate quality factor
gives the dose in ‘roentgen equivalent man’ (Rem) where 1 Rem is the amount of
ionising radiation which has the same biological effect as 1 rad of x-rays.
In the SI system multiplying the dose in gray by the appropriate quality factor
gives the dose in ‘sievert’ (Sv) where 1 Sv is the amount of ionising radiation which
has the same biological effect as 1 Gy of x-rays.
Thus:
1 Sv = 100 Rem
or
1 Rem = 0.01 Sv


13.4 DOSE RATE
Dose rate in the SI system is generally measured in microsieverts per hour

( Sv/h), but may also be measured in millisieverts (mSv) or sieverts (Sv) per hour.
Alternatively dose rate can be expressed in micrograys (mGy), milligrays (mGy )or
grays per hour
In the cgs system dose rate is generally measured in millirem per hour
(mRem/h) but may be measured in Rem per hour (Rem/h).
1 mRem/h = 10 Sv/h
or
1 mSv/h = 0.1 mRem
13.5 SOURCE STRENGTH OR ACTIVITY

For radioactive sources the source strength or activity is the number of
disintegrations occurring each second. This is proportional to the number of active
atoms present in the source.
The cgs unit of source strength or activity is the curie (Ci). One curie is equal to
3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per second.
The SI unit of source strength or activity is the becquerel (Bq) or the

gigabecquerel (GBq). One becquerel is equal to one disintegration per second; one
gigabecquerel is equal to 109 disintegrations per second.
1 Ci = 37 GBq
or
1 GBq = 0.027 Ci
13.6 SPECIFIC ACTIVITY
The specific activity of a radioactive source is equal to the source activity

divided by the weight of the source. In the cgs system it is expressed in ‘curies per
gram’ (Ci/g) while in the SI system it is expressed in ‘becquerels per gram’ (Bq/g) or
‘gigabecquerels per gram’ (GBq/g).


13.7 OUTPUT
The output of a source of ionising radiation is the dose rate per hour at some
fixed distance, usually 1 metre, from the source. For radioactive isotopes it is useful to
state output in grays, sieverts, rads or Rems per hour per curie at one metre. Table
below gives some examples.
OUTPUT
ISOTOPE NAME
(mSv per Ci)
Thulium 170 0.026
Ytterbium 169 1.25
Selenium 75 1.8
Iridium 192 4.8
Cobalt 60 13.0
Output of various radioactive isotopes
The output of radiation from a typical 200 kV industrial constant potential x-ray
machine is as much as 1,000 mSv per milliampere of tube current at a distance of 1
metre from the focal spot.


14.0 RADIATION MONITORING DEVICES
Ionising radiation cannot be detected by human senses; it is extremely harmful
to health, therefore it is imperative that we have available to us reliable equipment that
can measure radiation dose. Two basic types of radiation monitoring device exist: (1)
devices which give a read out of the current dose rate and (2) devices which measure
accumulated dose over a given period of time.
14.1 SURVEY METERS
Survey metres give a real time measurement of dose rate. They are of 5 basic
types, ionisation chambers, proportional counters, Geiger counters, scintillation
counters and solid state devices. Each of these is discussed and described in the
sections below.
14.1.1 IONISATION CHAMBERS

An ionisation chamber is part of the family of radiation detectors known as
‘gaseous detectors’. The ionisation chamber can take many forms, but basically it
consists of 2 electrodes separated by a layer of gas. As ionising radiation interacts
with the gas, causing ionisation, it becomes electrically conductive and pulses of
current flow as each photon of ionising radiation is received. Compared with the other
types of gaseous detector the ionisation chamber operates at low electrical voltage,
see first figure below. The actual voltage needed depends on the geometry and size
of the ionisation chamber. Ionisation chambers can detect alpha, beta and gamma or
x-ray radiation but they give no information as to the photon energy of the radiation
detected. Ionisation chambers are occasionally used in conjunction with an electronic
circuit that counts the current pulses but it is more usual that the output is a reading of
the average current flowing across the chamber. The measurement range of
ionisation chamber instruments is comparatively narrow and they tend to be bulky and
fragile when compared to the Geiger counter described in section 14.1.2 below. They
are therefore seldom seen in industrial applications.

Radiation Monitoring Devices MATERIALS JOINING

Gaseous detectors, pulse size versus applied voltage
Simplified lay-out of an ionisation chamber instrument
14.1.2 PROPORTIONAL COUNTERS
Neither the Geiger counter below, nor the ionisation chamber above can give
any information as to the photon energy of the ionising radiation received. The best
that can be achieved with these instruments is to shield the chamber such that alpha
and beta radiation is excluded from the measurement. The gas chamber used in a
proportional counter often contains multiple electrodes. Proportional counters operate
in a voltage range intermediate between the ionisation chamber and the Geiger


counter. In addition to gauging radiation dose rate or intensity they are able to give
information as to the type and photon energy of the radiation received. They are also
able to determine the direction from which the radiation is coming. They are often
used as fixed monitoring instruments within and around nuclear installations, but are
rarely seen in other workaday industrial applications.
14.1.3 GEIGER COUNTERS

Geiger counters operate at higher voltages than the proportional counter;
typical operating voltages vary from 400 to 1,000 volts or more dependent on the size
and geometry of the gas chamber. At such voltages the pulse size is very large and
no amplification is needed. A The original 1928 version of the Geiger tube contained a
special self quenching gas mixture consisting of an inert gas doped with a small
amount of hydrocarbon (e.g. butane). This design was greatly improved upon in 1947
when Liebson designed a tube containing inert gas with a small proportion of halogen
(e.g. bromine). All modern instruments follow the Liebson design. Geiger tubes can
be made very small, a cylinder of less than 6 mm diameter and length 25 mm is not
untypical. Geiger tubes are extremely durable and reliable. A Geiger tube constructed
of a light metal such as aluminium will detect only x or gamma rays. Tubes provided
with a window made from thin glass will also detect beta radiation while those having
a similar window made from mica can detect alpha in addition to beta and gamma.
The measurement range of the instrument can be extended by shielding the tube.
Geiger tube instruments are otherwise insensitive to changes in photon energy. In
general Geiger counter instruments give little information as to the direction from
which the detected radiation is coming. Geiger counters may give a reading in counts
per second, but usually the average current flowing across the tube is measured with
the ammeter scale being calibrated to read microsieverts or millisieverts per hour. As
radiation intensity increases to high levels a Geiger counter will become increasingly
inaccurate. This is because the instrument suffers from a short dead time after a
pulsing event has occurred – if another photon of radiation arrives during the dead
time it will not be detected. Some instruments will cease to function at all if exposed to
a very high dose rate.
14.1.4 SOLID STATE RADIATION DETECTORS

Solid state radiation detectors have been available since the 1950s. Various
types of semiconductor are available which begin to conduct electricity under the
influence of ionising radiation. Instruments based on this type of semiconductor are
able to differentiate between different photon energies. Thus in addition to measuring
dose rate they can provide information as to the spectrum of radiation that is present.
14.1.5 SCINTILLATION COUNTERS

Various materials known as phosphors will emit flashes of light when placed in
a beam of ionising radiation. Phosphors can be manufactured to respond to one or

more types of ionising radiation. The table just below lists some common
phosphorescent materials. Many other phosphors exist, including a number of organic
liquids and solids.
Phosphors have been used as radiation detectors since the very early days of
the discovery of ionising radiation, both Roentgen and Becquerel used them. The
amount of light produced can be quite small so phosphors are always used in
conjunction with a light amplification system such as the photomultiplier tube. Modern
instruments use ‘charge coupled devices’ or CCDs in conjunction with a radiation
sensitive phosphor. A CCD is at the heart of any modern digital camera. The CCDs
used for radiation detection measure the intensity of light emitted from the
phosphorescent layer under the influence of ionising radiation. Whichever system is
used scintillation counters relate the intensity of light produced by the phosphor to the
intensity of the ionising radiation received. In general they give a reading in counts per
second but occasionally they will be calibrated to read directly in microsieverts or
millisieverts per hour.
Scintillation counters are extremely sensitive, they can detect very low levels of
ionising radiation. They are direction sensitive instruments and are very useful when
searching for radioactive contamination. They are used in industrial radiography to
check for leakage of fissile material from a sealed source.
PHOSPHOR (ACTIVATOR) SENSITIVE TO:

Sodium Iodide (Thallium) Gamma
Lithium Iodide (Europium) Gamma & Neutrons
Zinc Sulphide (Silver) Alpha
Bismuth Germanate (N/A) Gamma
Common phosphorescent materials
14.2 PERSONAL MONITORS
Survey meters, with a few exceptions, give a real time reading of dose rate but
do not integrate this to give a total dose received over a given period of time. Several
types of device exist which are capable of integrating the dose received over a period
of time. One convenient use of such a device is for monitoring the total dose that a
person receives during the course of his or her working day. When used in this way
such devices are referred to as ‘personal monitors’. Four types of personal monitor
are commonly used in industrial radiography.


14.2.1 FILM BADGES
Film Badge
The principle of a film badge is that when exposed to ionising radiation followed
by developing under tightly controlled conditions the film density produced can be
related to the radiation dose received. Film badges (as shown in figure 91) can be
used to detect x, gamma and beta radiation. Coupled with the right type of
intensification screen radiographic film can be used to detect and measure other types
of ionising radiation.
The film badge of the type shown in the figure above contains a section of
carefully manufactured radiographic film having two emulsions, one fast and one slow.
The use of two emulsions extends the measurement range of the badge. The badge
holder is equipped with various filters that extend the range of measurement and
additionally enable the badge to give some information as to the type and photon
energy of the ionising radiation received.
The film badge has in large part, been replaced by the thermoluminescent
dosimeter (TLD) (see below). This table gives a comparison of typical film badge and
TLD specifications.


FILM BADGES
Radiation Type Gamma X-ray Beta
Measuring Range 700 keV to 3.5
10 keV to 7 MeV 10 keV to 7 MeV
(photon energy) MeV
Measuring Range 0.1 mSv to 400
0.1 mSv to 10 Sv 0.1 mSv to 10 Sv
(dose) mSv
Typical period of 2 to 4 weeks
use
THERMOLUMINESCENT DOSIMETERS
Radiation Type Gamma X-ray Beta
Measuring Range 700 keV to 3.5
10 keV to 10 MeV 10 keV to 10 MeV
(photon energy) MeV
Measuring Range
0.05 mSv to 10 Sv 0.05 mSv to 10 Sv 0.05 mSv to 10 Sv
(dose)
Typical period of 4 weeks
use
Film badge & thermoluminescent dosimeter specifications
14.2.2 THERMOLUMINESCENT DOSIMETERS (TLD)
The thermoluminescent dosimeter or TLD offers several significant advantages

over the film badge:
(a) A TLD is much less easily damaged than a film badge.

(b) The TLD has slightly wider measurement range than the film badge.
(c) The TLD is much less subject to possible errors or failures in processing – the
measurements obtained have a better degree of accuracy.
(d) The TLD can be reused many times.
(e) The absorption characteristics of the TLD more closely resemble those of the
human body, thus dose calculations are simplified.
Most TLD badges contain two or more discs of a thermoluminescent material.

This material is usually lithium fluoride but occasionally other materials are used.
During exposure to ionising radiation lithium fluoride stores energy. When
subsequently heated to a temperature of around 250°C the stored energy is released
as flashes of light. The number of flashes can be counted and this is directly related to
radiation dose received.
TLD badges are worn in specially designed plastic holders similar to those used
for film badges. The addition of plastic or aluminium filters extends the measurement
range of the badge facilitates the obtaining of information concerning the photon
energy and type of radiation.


14.2.3 THE QUARTZ FIBRE ELECTROMETER (PERSONAL
DOSIMETER)
These devices are still widely used in the USA where in many states they are
mandatory wear for all personnel involved in working with ionising radiation. In the UK
they used to be popular for use inside nuclear power plants but they have now largely
been replaced by more reliable, more accurate solid state devices.
Quartz Fibre Electrometer
The quartz fibre electrometer (QFE) is a gaseous detector like the ionisation
chamber, proportional counter and Geiger counter described above. When raised to
the light a scale like the one on the left of figure above can be seen through the lens of
the instrument. The vertical line is the quartz fibre. When a static electrical charge is
applied to the instrument the quartz fibre moves to the zero point of the scale. As the
gas inside the QFE becomes ionised the static charge is gradually dissipated and the
fibre begins to move to the right. The corresponding total dose received can be read
on the upper scale.
The QFE has quite a narrow measuring range, typically 0 to 50 mSv or less.
The example shown above has a measurement range of 0 to 200 mRem which is
equivalent to 0 to 2 mSv. The QFE is sensitive to x and gamma radiation in the photon
energy range 45 keV to 3.5 MeV. The QFE is a very convenient means for checking
how radiation doses are accumulating during a working day but it suffers from fragility
and is very easily damaged.
14.2.4 SOLID STATE INTEGRATING DOSIMETERS

The QFE has largely been replaced by solid state integrating dosimeters.
These devices are extremely shock proof and have a wider measuring range than the
QFE. They are typically combined with an audible warning device which bleeps if the
wearer unwittingly enters a high radiation area.


15.0 RADIATION SAFETY
All personnel working with ionising radiation should be aware that such
radiation is injurious to the human body (or any other biological tissue). Anyone
working at a place where radiography is carried out should make himself fully aware of
the safety procedures and regulations that are in force and take care observe all
warning barriers. Ionising radiation cannot be detected by the five human senses.
Ionising radiation has cumulative effects upon the human metabolism. Ionising
radiation causes genetic damage to the human body the full effects of which may not
be apparent until as much as 15-35 years after the initial exposure. Regardless of
any nominal safe limits it is always prudent to avoid exposure to radiation
whenever possible.
N.B. Where industrial radiography is concerned there is little or no danger from

contamination because all gamma sources in use are of the sealed variety. X or
gamma rays are not capable of producing any residual radioactivity in the items
subjected to exposure.
15.1 PRECAUTIONS
15.1.1 EXPOSURE BOOTHS

At locations where a large volume of industrial radiography is carried out
exposure booths of various shapes and sizes will generally be available. These
usually consist of enclosures having lead lined walls. Some exposure booths have
walls filled with spent casting sand or other radiation absorbing material.
Such exposure booths should be regularly monitored to ensure that the radiation
dose rate is within safe limits in the areas outside the booth where personnel can
move freely.
Safety switches are usually fitted to doors of exposure booths in order to

prevent the operation of x-ray sets or gamma ray equipment whilst the door is open.
In cases where overhead cranes might have to pass over an open topped exposure
booth similar safety switches are normally installed so as to trip out the x-ray set, or
wind back the gamma ray source, should the crane encroach upon the irradiated area
during exposure.
In many countries (including Britain) it is a legal requirement that an audible

warning is given before any exposure takes place.
Exposure booths should be equipped with switches inside the x-ray compound
which can be operated in order to prevent the operation of the x-ray or gamma ray
equipment should any personnel be accidentally trapped inside.

Radiation Safety MATERIALS JOINING

Radiation detectors should be installed inside the exposure booth to indicate
when gamma ray sources are being used.
15.1.2 SITE WORK

A demarcation barrier is required showing the zone where radiation is in excess
of the legally permitted limit (in Britain this is 7.5 Sv/h). The barrier is usually consists
of brightly coloured rope or tape suspended at about 1 metre above the ground, with
warning signs at 5 metre intervals.
Areas which will be irradiated at greater than the legal limit must be cleared of
all non classified personnel prior to any exposure. Audible and visible warnings must
be given before any exposure takes place.
The barrier should be monitored with an efficient radiation detector and should
be guarded by classified personnel during exposure.
15.1.3 SCATTER
Personnel should be aware that radiation can be scattered by structures.

Apparently safe locations may be subject to stray scattered radiation.
15.2 EXPOSURE LIMITS FOR RADIATION WORKERS

In Britain classified workers are allowed to receive an accumulated dose of 20
millisieverts (20 mSv) per year from the age of 18 yrs to 65 yrs. A formal investigation
is required if a classified worker receives a dose of 15 mSv or more within any single
calendar year. The investigation has to establish the source of the dose received. The
investigation may or may not include a thorough medical check for the person
receiving the dose. These requirements are typical for all countries within the
European Union, but requirements in other countries may differ widely.
15.2.1 DOSIMETERS
For work in radioactive environments (i.e. nuclear reactors) personnel must be
equipped with direct reading dosimeters which will display immediately the
accumulated dose received. Personnel working in these locations must take particular
care to avoid ingesting radioactive particles. Tightly fitting breathing masks are
required and protective clothing should be worn.


15.3 PERMITTED LEVELS
The figures given in the paragraphs below relate to Statutory Instrument 1999
Number 3232, ‘Ionising Radiation Regulations 1999’. These regulations exclude
radiation doses received due to medical reasons.
15.3.1 CLASSIFIED WORKERS
The maximum permitted dose rate for personnel equipped with film badges (or
TLDs) is 20 mSv per year. This is approximately equivalent to a constant dose rate of
10 Sv/hr for a 40 hour working week if a 48 working week year is assumed.
15.3.2 UNCLASSIFIED PERSONNEL, CONTROLLED &

SUPERVISED AREAS
Controlled area
Unclassified personnel must be excluded from any area where radiation dose is
deemed likely to exceed three tenths of the annual allowable dose for a classified
worker (6 mSv). The maximum permissible dose rate at the boundary of a controlled
area is 7.5 Sv/hr.
Supervised area
A supervised area is defined as an area where the annual dose is expected to

equal or exceed 1 mSv. Such areas should be clearly signed. Unclassified persons
are permitted to pass through such areas but they must not remain in them for
extended periods. Where possible verbal warnings should be given by the
radiographer.
15.4 ‘SAFE’ WORKING DISTANCES
The dose rate from a source of ionising radiation reduces in proportion to the
reciprocal of the square of the distance from the source.
For any source of ionising radiation:


If the source of ionising radiation is x-ray then it will not be possible to calculate
the dose rate at one metre although the dose rate will be proportional to the tube
current. Halving the tube current at a given tube voltage will halve the radiation dose
rate. If the source is gamma ray then the dose rate at one metre can be calculated if
the source strength (curies or gigabecquerels and ‘output’ of the source are known.
Output for any given isotope is the dose rate per curie or gigabecquerel at one metre
from the source.
Thus:
Output for the various radioactive isotopes used in industrial radiography is

tabulated below:
If we take 7.5 Sv/hr to be the ‘safe’ dose rate then we can calculate the ‘safe’
distance using the formula below:
The above formula can be simplified to:
Where ‘C’ is a constant for each isotope. For Thulium 170 C = 1.86, for Ytterbium 169
C = 12.91, for Selenium 75 C = 15.49, for Iridium 192 C = 25.30 and for Cobalt 60 C =
41.63.
15.4.1 SHIELDING
If shielding is introduced then the reduction in the minimum safe working

distance can be calculated if the magnitude of the ‘half value layer’ or ‘tenth value
layer’ of the shielding material is known. The half value layer for any material is the
thickness of material that will reduce the radiation dose rate, for a given radiation
energy, by a factor of two. The tenth value layer is similarly the thickness of material
that will reduce the dose rate by a factor of ten. For example the half value layer of
lead for cobalt 60 is about 12.5 mm while for iridium 192 it is about 4.8 mm. The tenth
value layer of lead for cobalt 60 is about 41.5 mm while for iridium 192 it is about 16
mm. If the shielding thickness is an exact multiple of the half or tenth value layer then


the dose rate after shielding can be found simply by dividing the unshielded rate by
two for each half value layer or by ten for each tenth value layer. Where this is not the
case the formulae given below can be used.
Where:
Ru = the unshielded dose rate

Rs = shielded dose rate
t = the thickness of shielding material
hvl = the half value layer
tvl = the tenth value layer


16.0 GLOSSARY OF TERMS (USED IN RADIOGRAPHIC
TESTING)
The following is a compilation of the more common terms used in connection
with radiographic testing. Other lists can be found in BS EN 1330-3 and ASME V,
Appendix A.
Absorbed Dose
(of ionising radiation) The energy per unit mass imparted to the irradiated material.
Absorbed dose is measured in Grays [Gy] (1 Gy = J kg-1)
Absorption
The reduction in intensity of a beam of radiation during its passage through matter.
Absorption Coefficient
usually abbreviated as ‘ ’. Where I = I0 x e- t and I is the shielded radiation intensity,

I0 is the unshielded radiation intensity while t is the thickness of the absorber.
Alpha Radiation
A type of ionising radiation consisting of high velocity charged particles emitted from
the nucleus of heavy radioactive isotopes. The alpha particle consists of 2 protons
and 2 electrons – a helium nucleus, and has a positive charge of 2. Alpha radiation
has very low penetrating power, but it is very strongly ionising.
Anode
The positive electrode of a discharge tube. In an x-ray tube the anode carries the
target. (see ‘target’)
Atom
The smallest indivisible part of a chemical element, it consists of a nucleus formed

from positively charged protons and neutrons surrounded by orbiting negatively
charged electrons.
Atomic Mass Number
The total number of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus of an atom, standard
abbreviation A.

A Glossary of Terms (Used in Radiographic Testing) MATERIALS JOINING

Atomic Mass Unit (amu)
A measure of atomic weight, roughly speaking the proton has a weight of 1 amu while
that of the neutron is marginally greater than 1 amu. The weight of the electron is
roughly 0.00054 amu.
Atomic Number
The number of protons in an atomic nucleus, standard abbreviation Z.
Atomic weight
The weight of an atom expressed in atomic mass units, it is approximately equal to the
atomic mass number.
Back-Scatter
Scattered radiation caused by the presence of objects behind the film or radiation
detector. (see ‘scatter’)
Background Count
The ionising radiation dose rate due to natural causes (see ‘background radiation’).
Background Radiation
Ionising radiation which is present at any given site which is due to natural causes:
sunlight contains a proportion of ionising radiation; some natural rocks such as
granite are weakly radioactive.
Base Fog Level
The film density of a radiographic film prior to exposure to ionising radiation

(measured by processing a sample of unexposed film). Base fog level increases with
the age of the film. Poor storage conditions – temperature too high, humidity too high
are a common cause of excessive base fog level. Other possible causes of high base
fog level are exposure to chemical or solvent fumes, exposure to ionising radiation
and exposure to light. Most international standards specify a maximum base fog level
of 0.3.
Becquerel
The SI unit of radioactivity which is defined as 1 disintegration per second (1 curie =

37 GBq. (Gigabecquerels)) (see ‘curie’).


Beta Radiation
Ionising radiation consisting of very high velocity electrons emitted from the nucleus of
a radioactive isotope. In beta emission a neutron converts to a proton while emitting a
very high speed electron. Beta radiation has low penetrating power but must not be
ignored when assessing radiation safety. Beta radiation causes severe skin burns
and can lead to fatality.
Betatron
An apparatus in which electrons are accelerated along a spiral path by means of the
electric force associated with a varying magnetic field.
Bunsen – Roscoe Law
The reciprocity law, which basically states that the film density produced by a dose of
ionising radiation is independent of the radiation dose rate (i.e. a low dose rate for a
long exposure time will produce the same film density as a high dose rate for a short
exposure time so long as [dose rate] x [time] remains constant).
Build-up
As ionising radiation is scattered the majority of the scattered radiation continues in

approximately the same direction as the primary beam. When working with radiation
shielding thicknesses amounting to several half value layers this causes the
transmitted radiation intensity to be higher than would be expected based on the
number of half value layers. The problem of build-up increases as radiation energy
increases.
Calcium Tungstate
A complex salt of calcium which fluoresces in the blue part of the visible light spectrum
during exposure to ionising radiation. Calcium tungstate is the common base material
for salt or fluorometallic intensifying screens.
Cassette
A light proof container for holding an x-ray film during exposure. Cassettes may be
rigid or flexible. They must be designed so as to maintain good contact between the
x-ray film and intensifying screens.
Casting
The formation, by pouring molten base material into a mould, of a useful product
shape, or any component produced by such a process. The great majority of metallic
components begin life as a casting.


Cathode
The negative electrode of a discharge tube which usually consists of a heated

tungsten filament.
Characteristic Curve
The curve, for a given photographic film (or x-ray film) which relates the logarithm to
the base of 10 of the relative amount of radiation exposure (i.e. radiation intensity x
exposure time) to the achieved photographic density under specified processing
conditions. Also known as Hunter & Driffield curve, H&D curve or sensiometric curve.
The process by which a characteristic curve is produced is called sensiometry.
Compton Scattering
An important scattering mechanism in industrial radiography which is predominant for

x-ray photon energies between 0.6 and 6 MeV.
Constant Potential
A uni-directional voltage of constant (or nearly constant) magnitude
Contrast:
The difference in brightness to the human eye of two adjacent areas in a radiographic
image.
Curie
The unit of radioactivity for any radioactive isotope. A radioactive isotope with a
source strength of 1 Curie is decaying at the rate of 3.7 x 1010 disintegrations per
second. (abbreviation: Ci). The SI unit of radioactivity is the Becquerel. (see
‘Becquerel’)
Curie-Hours or Curie-Minutes
gamma ray exposures are usually expressed in curie hours or curie minutes because
the intensity of radiation is proportional to the source strength and the total amount of
radiation received is proportional to the source strength multiplied by the exposure
time.
Definition
The degree of sharpness of delineation of image detail in a radiograph. (see

‘geometric unsharpness’, ‘inherent unsharpness’ and ‘penumbra’)
Densitometer
The instrument used for measuring radiographic density. (see ‘density’)


Density
The degree of darkness of a radiograph. This is expressed as the logarithm to the

base 10 of the ratio of the intensity of incident light to intensity of the light transmitted
through the film.
Density Strip
A strip of film exposed to form gradations of film density. Once calibrated using a
suitable densitometer density strips form a convenient means of comparing film
densities. Alternatively density strips of known density can be used to check the
calibration of densitometers.
Developer
The chemical solution used in the development of a radiographic film. All developers
are reducing agents which reduce the sensitised silver halide grains in the film
emulsion to metallic silver thereby producing an image on the film.
Development
The chemical process by which a latent image is converted to form a visible image.
(see ‘developer’).
Die Casting
A casting process for producing small to medium sized components, mainly applicable
to low melting point alloys, involving the use of a reusable mould generally
constructed from steel. In pressure die casting the molten charge is forced into the
mould under pressure. Die castings have a better surface finish and better
mechanical properties than equivalent sand castings.
Dose Rate
The total quantity of radiation energy per unit time. It usually is expressed in Sieverts
or Rems per unit time. (see ‘sievert’ and ‘Rem’)
Electromagnetic Radiation
Light waves, radio waves and ionising radiation (x or gamma rays) are all forms of
‘electromagnetic radiation’. All electromagnetic radiation travels at the same velocity
(299,274,000 metres per second in a vacuum), the different types of electromagnetic
radiation differ only in their wavelengths.
Electron
Very tiny, negatively charged fundamental particle. The mass of the electron is
roughly 0.00054 times that of a proton.


Electron Volt
A unit of energy which is equal to the amount kinetic energy acquired by an electron
when it is accelerated through a potential difference of one volt. (abbreviated as eV 1
keV = 1,000 eV, 1 MeV = 1,000,000 eV). Electron volts are a convenient unit for
expressing ionising radiation energies.
Emulsion
Photographic emulsion; a suspension of photo-sensitive material (silver halide grains)

in a matrix such as gelatine.
Exposure Chart
A chart which relates the required radiographic exposure for a given radiographic film
and film density to the penetrated thickness of a specified material.
Filament
(in an x-ray tube) The heated cathode which usually consists of a thin tungsten wire
through which a heating current is passed in order to stimulate the thermionic
emission of electrons.
Film Badge
A piece of photographic film used as a radiation monitor. Film badges are usually
partially shielded so as to increase the effective measuring range.
Film Contrast
This is the degree to which a particular radiographic film when viewed by the human
eye can differentiate between two adjacent areas of different radiation exposure. Film
contrast is related to the change in film density per unit increase in radiation exposure.
This increases with the achieved film density.
Filter
Material (usually thin copper sheet) interposed in the path of radiation in order to
reduce selectively the intensity of radiation of a certain range of wavelengths or
energies (usually the lower range of energies). Filters are useful for reducing the
effect of scattered radiation in x-radiography.
Fixer
The chemical solution containing principally sodium or ammonium thiosulphate which

takes into solution the excess silver halides in a film emulsion which remain after the
development process has been completed.


Fixing
The chemical removal of unused silver halides from an emulsion after development.
(see ‘fixer’)
Flaw Sensitivity
The ability of a radiographic technique to detect flaws. This is not easy to quantify but
is expressed as the minimum detectable thickness of a specific flaw measured in the
direction of the radiation beam, expressed as a percentage of the total thickness of a
specimen of specified homogeneous material.
Fluorescence
The ability of certain chemical compounds to convert invisible incident radiation to a

visible radiation emission. Calcium tungstate is useful in radiography because it
fluoresces in the blue part of the light spectrum under the action of ionising radiation.
Fluorescent Screen
A suitably mounted layer of material (e.g. calcium tungstate, barium platino-cyanide or

zinc sulphide) which fluoresces in the visible region of the spectrum under the action
of ionising radiation: Fluorescent screens can be used to produce a radiographic
image directly or to produce an intensifying effect when used in conjunction with
radiographic film.
Fluorometallic Screen
An intensifying screen used in radiography which combines the scatter reducing

properties of a lead screen with the image intensification properties of a salt screen.
Focal Spot
The area of the target on which the electron stream impinges and from which X-rays
are emitted. The effective focal spot size in an x-ray tube is usually less than the
actual focal spot size.
Focus-to-film Distance
The distance from the focus of an x-ray tube to a film set up for radiographic
exposure. (abbreviation: FFD).
Gamma Radiation
Electromagnetic radiation emitted during the decay of some radioactive isotopes.

Gamma photons are by-product of some alpha or beta decay events. All gamma
emitters used in industrial radiography emit gamma as a by-product of beta decay.


Gamma Radiography
Radiography by means of gamma rays.
Gray
The SI unit of absorbed dose.
Half-Life
A fixed property of any radioactive isotope. Half-life is the time taken for the number
of radioactive atoms in a given sample to reduce by half. It can be anything from a
few seconds to millions of years dependent on the isotope. The decay process itself
is random but the half-life is fixed because each radioactive atom has the same
probability of decay – averaged over a very large number of radioactive atoms this
gives rise to a fixed half-life.
Half-value Thickness
(half-value layer)
The thickness of a specified substance which when introduced into the path of a given
beam of radiation, reduces the radiation intensity by half. It may be used as an
indication of the quality of the beam or the opacity of the substance. (abbreviation:
HVL)
Identification Marker
A marker, usually of heavy material (lead), used to provide a reference point or

identification mark in a radiograph.
Image Intensifier
A device used in fluoroscopy (a form of real time radiography), incorporating a

vacuum tube in which electrons released by X-rays from a special type of screen, are
accelerated and focused onto a fluorescent screen thus producing a brighter image
than that produced directly using a fluorescent screen.
Image Quality Indicator
Any device which gives an indication of radiographic quality. The commonest

varieties are wire type, step hole type and plaque type. The quality (or sensitivity) of
the image is defined as the smallest discernible wire diameter or step thickness
expressed as a percentage of the total thickness.


Inherent Fog
Unwanted blackening of an emulsion caused by the development of grains which are

inherently developable without exposure. This type of fog varies with the age of the
emulsion and with conditions of storage. (see base fog level)
Intensifying Factor
The ratio of the exposure time without intensifying screens to that when screens are
used, all other conditions being the same.
Intensifying Screen
A layer of suitable material, e.g. lead foil, which when placed in close contact with
photographic emulsion, adds to the photographic effect of the incident radiation.
Injection Moulding
Die casting process whereby molten raw material is forced into a mould under
pressure. The process of injection moulding is common for plastics and low melting
point metal alloys, especially those of zinc, magnesium and aluminium.
Investment Casting
Also called the lost wax process. In investment casting a wax model of the required
item is made and mould is formed around this using some type of refractory material.
After firing to harden the mould and burn out the wax molten metal is poured to
produce the desired component. Investment casting is an expensive method but it
produces the best surface finish and the best material properties of all of the casting
processes.
Isotopes
Nuclides having the same atomic number but different mass number (i.e. the nucleus
contains the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons). Some
isotopes are stable while others undergo nuclear fission thus producing emissions of
radiation.
Latitude
The ability of a radiographic technique to display a wide range of material thickness at

an acceptable film density. In general latitude will be reduced if a high contrast
ultrafine grain film is used.
Macroradiography
Radiography of thin sections of material in such a way that the resulting image may be
enlarged to reveal microstructure.

MAG
Metal active gas welding, often referred to as CO2 welding, mainly applicable to
carbon steel. MAG is an automatic or semi-automatic arc welding process involving a
reel fed consumable electrode; the arc is shielded by an active gas, usually carbon
dioxide. Porosity and lack of sidewall fusion are common defects in the MAG process.
MIG
Metal inert gas welding. MIG is an automatic or semi-automatic arc welding process
involving a reel fed consumable electrode; the arc is shielded by an inert gas, usually
argon. MIG welding is applicable to most metals and alloys. Porosity and lack of
sidewall fusion are common defects in the MIG process.
Milliampere hours, minutes or seconds
A measure of X-ray exposure expressed as the product of the milliammeter reading

(i.e. tube current) and the of exposure time in hours, minutes or seconds.
MMA
Manual metallic arc welding. An arc is struck between a flux coated consumable
electrode and the work piece. The flux coating decomposes to form a shielding gas,
usually carbon dioxide and a molten slag which protects the hot metal.
Neutron
The fundamental particle having a mass slightly greater than 1 amu and zero electrical
charge.
Neutron Radiography
Neutrons emitted by nuclear reactors and some radioactive isotopes are a form of
penetrating radiation and can be used to perform radiography. Neutrons are heavily
absorbed by substances such as water or plastic which contain significant amounts of
hydrogen. Neutrons pass easily through metals such as steel or aluminium. Neutron
radiography is useful for the detection of water ingress into aeroplane wing structures
and other similar applications.
Pair Production
Pair production is the scattering mechanism which predominates at x-ray photon

energies exceeding 6 MeV. Pair production does not occur until the threshold photon
energy of 1.02 MeV is exceeded.


Penumbra
The partial shadow extending beyond the edges of the main shadow (umbra) of an
object due to the finite size of the radiation source: the width of this partial shadow.
Photoelectric effect
An important scattering mechanism in industrial radiography which is predominant a

radiation photon energies of below 0.6 MeV.
Positron
Basically an electron but with opposite electrical charge. Positrons are emitted during
pair production which is an important scattering mechanism in high energy x-
radiography.
Pressure Mark
A variation in photographic density caused by the application of local pressure to the

emulsion; the mark may be light or dark according to circumstances.
Primary Radiation
Radiation which is incident on the absorber and which continues unaltered in photon
energy and in direction after passing through the absorber.
Processing
A series of operations, such as developing, fixing and washing, associated with the
conversion of a latent image into a stable, visible image.
Quality Factor
In order to take account of the fact that for instance 1 Gy or 100 R of alpha radiation is
biologically much more damaging than 1 Gy or 100 R of x or gamma radiation a
quality factor is used. The dose in Sieverts or Rem is then equal to the dose in Grays
or Rads multiplied by the quality factor, 1 Sievert or 100 Rem of any type of ionising
radiation has the same biological effect.
Rad
The old unit of radiation absorbed dose. The SI equivalent is the Gray.
Radiograph
A photographic image produced by a beam of penetrating ionising radiation which has

passed through an object.


Radiographic Contrast
Contrast in radiograph; usually expressed in terms of density difference. The ability of

the combination of a radiograph and the human eye to differentiate between two areas
of different subject thickness. Radiographic contrast is the combined effect of subject
contrast and film contrast.
Radiographic Exposure
The subjection of an emulsion to radiation for the purpose of producing a latent image;
commonly expressed in milliampere-minutes or curie-hours.
Radiographic Range (latitude)
The maximum range of thickness of a specified homogeneous material which can be

recorded satisfactorily in a single radiograph with a specified technique.
Reciprocity Law
A law which states that, all other conditions remaining constant, the time of exposure
required to produce a given density is inversely proportional to the intensity of the
radiation. (see Bunsen-Roscoe Law)
Rem
Roentgen Equivalent Mammal: The old unit of man mammal equivalent absorbed
radiation dose. 1 Roentgen of alpha radiation has a much greater biological effect
than does 1 Roentgen of x or gamma rays whereas 1 Rem has the same biological
effect whatever the type of ionising radiation. Despite the name the Rem is arrived at
by multiplying the dose in rad (radiation absorbed dose) by a quality factor. The SI
equivalent of this unit is the Sievert.
Resolution
The smallest distance between recognisable images on a film or screen. It may be

expressed as the number of lines per millimetre which can be seen as discrete
images.
Reticulation
An effect due to rupture of an emulsion coating, usually caused by a rapid change of

temperature. It gives an appearance similar to the grain of leather.
Rod-Anode Tube
A type of unipolar (grounded anode) X-ray tube in which the target is situated near the
end of a long tubular anode.


Roentgen
The old unit of exposure or ionising effect. The SI equivalent is the coulomb per
kilogram.
Salt Screen
An intensifying screen consisting of a material such as calcium tungstate, which

fluoresces in the visible or ultra-violet region of the spectrum under the action of
ionising radiation. Salt screens are seldom used in industrial radiography.
Sand Casting
Casting process where a molten charge is poured into a mould formed from
compressed sand. Sand casting is the most versatile of all the casting processes, but
suffers from coarse grain structure and poor surface finish.
SAW
Submerged arc welding. An automatic or semi-automatic arc welding process that

offers deep penetration and a high deposition rate. A consumable wire is reel fed and
the arc is struck under a layer of powdered flux.
Scattering
The redirection of radiation, with or without a change in photon energy (but usually
with a reduction in photon energy), during its passage through matter.
Screen-Type Film
X-ray film designed for use with salt screens. It is sensitive to the fluorescent light
emitted by such screens under the action of x-rays.
Secondary Radiation
Radiation, other than primary radiation, emerging from the absorber.
Sievert
The SI unit of Man/mammal equivalent dose. (abbreviation: Sv)
Source-to-Film Distance
The distance from a source of radiation to a film set up for a radiographic exposure.
(abbreviation: SFD)


Specific Activity
The amount of radioactive material per unit mass of a sample. Usually expressed in
Curies/gram.
Speed
The relative rate at which a photographic emulsion reacts to exposure to radiation.
TIG
Tungsten inert gas welding. A manual or fully automatic arc welding process. TIG is
extremely versatile but requires a high degree of operator skill. The heat source is an
arc struck under a shield of argon or helium gas between a non-consumable tungsten
electrode and the work piece. Filler wire may be fed into the arc, or in some
circumstances a weld may be produced without the need for filler wire.


17.0 APPENDIX 1
APPENDIX 1 IONISING RADIATION REGULATIONS
IONISING RADIATION REGULATIONS 1999 (SI 1999 N. 3232) – SUMMARY

Item Details Requirement(s)
1) CONTROLLED AREA A controlled area is one to 1) ALL AREAS WHERE
which access is restricted THE ANNUAL
due to the possibility of high RADIATION DOSE IS
radiation dose rates. EXPECTED TO
Controlled areas must have EXCEED
well signed physical 6 mSv SHALL BE
boundaries. Flashing lights DESIGNATED AS
shall be used to warn of an CONTROLLED AREAS.
exposed source or energised
x-ray tube. Flashing lights 2) THE RADIATION DOSE
and a clear audible warning RATE AT THE
shall be used to warn of BOUNDARY OF A
imminent exposure of a CONTROLLED AREA
source or energising of an x- SHALL NOT EXCEED
ray tube. Access to a 7.5 Sv/h.
controlled area is generally
limited to classified
personnel, but other persons
may enter under strict
supervision.
2) SUPERVISED AREA A supervised area is one in 1) ALL AREAS WHERE
which the ionising radiation THE ANNUAL
dose is likely to significantly RADIATION DOSE IS
exceed natural background LIKELY TO EXCEED
radiation levels. There are 1 mSv SHALL BE
no specific requirements for DESIGNATED AS
signposting supervised SUPERVISED AREAS.
areas. Physical barriers are
not required. Persons should 2) THE RADIATION DOSE
not be allowed to linger in, RATE WITHIN A
but they are not restricted SUPERVISED AREA
from passing through a SHALL NOT EXCEED
supervised area 7.5 Sv/h

Appendix 1 MATERIALS JOINING

3) CLASSIFICATION OF Personnel who are likely to 1) ALL PERSONNEL AGE
PERSONNEL receive a significantly higher 18 OR OVER WHO ARE
than normal ionising radiation LIKELY TO EXCEED AN
dose in the course of their IONISING RADIATION
work duties should be DOSE OF 6 mSv PER
classified. Classified YEAR SHALL BE
personnel have their CLASSIFIED.
exposure to radiation
monitored by an approved 2) ALL RADIOGRAPHERS
dosimetry service (e.g. the SHALL BE CLASSIFIED.
NRPB); in addition some
employers operate their own 3) A PERSON UNDER THE
internal dose monitoring AGE OF 18 CANNOT BE
schemes. Employers are CLASSIFIED AND
required to investigate where CANNOT WORK AS A
the recorded dose of any RADIOGRAPHER.
classified worker exceeds 15
mSv in one year; employers 4) CLASSIFIED
are encouraged to set their PERSONNEL SHALL BE
own investigation level some DECLARED FIT BY THE
way below 15 mSv per year. APPOINTED DOCTOR
All classified personnel shall ON AN ANNUAL BASIS.
annually be declared fit by
the appointed doctor. The 5) THE RECORDED
appointed doctor may carry WHOLE BODY DOSE
out a full medical or he may OF A CLASSIFIED
consider it sufficient to base WORKER SHALL NOT
this declaration on dose EXCEED 20 mSv.
records alone. There is no
specific requirement for blood 6) A FORMAL
tests; such things are at the INVESTIGATION IS
discretion of the appointed REQUIRED IF THE
doctor. RECORDED WHOLE
BODY DOSE FOR A
CLASSIFIED PERSON
EXCEEDS 15 mSv IN
ANY PERIOD OF ONE
YEAR.
4) TRAINEES The annual dose of a trainee 1) THE ANNUAL IONISING
under the age of 18 must not RADIATION WHOLE
exceed the stated limit of BODY DOSE FOR A
6 mSv, but it is likely to be TRAINEE UNDER THE
higher than that of a general AGE OF 18 SHALL NOT
member of the public. EXCEED 6 mSv.
Typically a trainee would be
spending a higher than 2) A PERSON UNDER THE
average amount of time AGE OF 18 CANNOT BE
within a supervised area. CLASSIFIED



5) GENERAL PUBLIC In setting the dose limit for 1) THE ANNUAL IONISING
members of the public (and RADIATION WHOLE
other mammals) it is taken BODY DOSE FOR A
into consideration that such MEMBER OF THE
members of the public (or GENERAL PUBLIC
other mammals) could be SHALL NOT EXCEED
pregnant. A developing 1 mSv.
foetus is particularly sensitive
to ionising radiation.
6) ANNUAL DOSE LIMITATIONS – SUMMARY (SI 1999 N0. 3232 SCHEDULE 4)
DESCRIPTION CLASSIFIED TRAINEE GENERAL PUBLIC
WORKER
WHOLE BODY 20 mSv (1.) (2.) (3.) 6 mSv 1 mSv(4.)
LENS OF THE EYE 150 mSv 50 mSv 15 mSv
SKIN 500 mSv 150 mSv 50 mSv
HANDS, ANKLES
500 mSv 150 mSv 50 mSv
FOREARMS, FEET
NOTES
1) Where special circumstances apply – an employer is able to show that the annual limit of 20 mSv is
impractical, up to 50 mSv can be received in a single calendar year but not more than 100 mSv
over any five year period. Any employee exceeding these limits is likely to be suspended from work
pending an investigation by the HSE.
2) Where person in question – note 1 above, is a pregnant female the dose shall not exceed 13 mSv
in any period of 3 months.
3) Where the recorded dose exceeds 20 mSv in one year the employer is required to make a formal
investigation to determine whether the dose limitations of note 1 are likely to be complied with. The
employer must report the matter to the HSE and must put in place a program to ensure that the
dose limitations of note 1 are not exceeded.
4) For persons who act as carers to others who receiving exposure to ionising radiation for medical
purposes the dose limit is 5 mSv in any five year period.
7) ANNUAL DOSE The dose limitations, items 1 to 6 above are additional to
LIMITATIONS – exposure to radiation for medical purposes.
GENERAL.
8) RADIATION MONITORS Radiation monitors must be 1) RADIATION
checked before use to MONITORING
ensure correct functioning; EQUIPMENT SHALL BE
typically this would involve a PROPERLY
battery check and a check to MAINTAINED.
see that a reading is
produced when the 2) RADIATION
instrument is exposed to a MONITORING
source of ionising radiation. EQUIPMENT SHALL BE
Radiation monitors must FIT FOR THE
have a scale appropriate to DESIGNATED
the magnitude of the doses PURPOSE.
being measured. General
good practice is to have 3) RADIATION
portable monitors calibrated MONITORING
on an annual basis. EQUIPMENT SHALL BE
Appropriate calibration CALIBRATED AT
periods can vary dependent APPROPRIATE
on the type and usage of the INTERVALS.
radiation monitor in question.



9) RADIATION Usually a person, but may be 1) ALL ORGANISATIONS
PROTECTION ADVISER an organisation, meeting the WORKING WITH
HSE’s criteria of IONISING RADIATION
competence. In general the SHALL APPOINT A
RPA must be fully aware of RADIATION
the company’s activities PROTECTION
involving ionising radiation. ADVISER.
The local rules should be
approved by, if not written by
the RPA. The RPA is often
called upon to undertake
training of the radiation
protection supervisors.
10) RADIATION A person appointed by the 1) ALL COMPANIES
PROTECTION employer and named in the WORKING WITH
SUPERVISOR local rules to act as such. IONISING RADIATION
The RPS has in depth MUST APPOINT AT
knowledge of the local rules. LEAST ONE RPS.
The RPS would generally
take control where an 2) THE NAMES AND
emergency situation occurs CONTACT DETAILS OF
and carry out initial ALL RPS SHALL BE
investigation of any recorded LISTED IN THE LOCAL
or suspected overdose. RULES
General good practice
requires the presence of at
least one RPS where
radiography is performed at
an on-site location.
11) APPOINTED DOCTOR A registered medical 1) ONCE A YEAR ALL
practitioner appointed in CLASSIFIED
writing by the HSE. PERSONNEL SHALL BE
CERTIFIED FIT BY AN
APPOINTED DOCTOR.
12) APPROVED An organisation, approved in 1) ALL COMPANIES
DOSIMETRY SERVICE writing by the HSE, which EMPLOYING
monitors and records the CLASSIFIED
ionising radiation doses of PERSONNEL MUST
classified personnel. CONTRACT OUT THEIR
DOSE MONITORING TO
AN APPROVED
DOSIMETRY SERVICE
COMPANY.
13) MINIMUM Under most circumstances all 1) THE MINIMUM
NOTIFICATION PERIOD work involving the use of NOTIFICATION PERIOD
ionising radiation must be IS 28 DAYS PRIOR TO
notified to the HSE THE PLANNED
COMMENCEMENT OF
WORK.



14) LOCAL RULES The local rules are employer 1) A COPY OF THE LOCAL
specific and describe in detail RULES MUST BE
how the employer will control PRESENT AT ALL
ionising radiation work such WORK SITES.
that the ionising radiation
regulations are fully complied 2) THE LOCAL RULES
with. MUST BE REGULARLY
UPDATED TO REFLECT
REGULATORY
CHANGES, CHANGES
IN WORKING
CONDITIONS AND
CHANGES IN
PERSONNEL.


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1.0 INTRODUCTION & HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

2.0 SIMPLE ATOMIC THEORY

3.0 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

4.0 IONISING RADIATION

5.0 X-RAYS or BREMSTRAHLUNG

6.0 GAMMA RAYS

6.4 QUANTITY OF GAMMA RADIATION

7.0 METHODS OF PRODUCING A RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE

8.0 PRODUCTION OF A RADIOGRAPH (FILM RADIOGRAPHY)

Practical Radiography. Rev 2 Oct 2005 WORLD CENTRE FOR

8.1.1.3 BASE FOG LEVEL (AFFECTS FILM

10.0 RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES (FOR WELDS IN PLATE AND PIPE)

10.6.2 SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE TECHNIQUE:

11.0 INTERPRETATION OF RADIOGRAPHS

Practical Radiography. Rev 2 Oct 2005 WORLD CENTRE FOR

13.0 UNITS USED IN RADIOGRAPHY

14.0 RADIATION MONITORING DEVICES

15.0 RADIATION SAFETY

15.1.1 EXPOSURE BOOTHS

16.0 A GLOSSARY OF TERMS (USED IN RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING)

Practical Radiography. Rev 2 Oct 2005 WORLD CENTRE FOR

In ‘Industrial Radiography’ x-rays or gamma rays [and sometimes other types of

INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY - TIMELINE

Timeline of Industrial Radiography

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Timeline of Industrial Radiography (continued)

1.1 PROPERTIES OF PENETRATING RADIATION

Penetrating radiation can be used in non-destructive examination because:

(1) Penetrating radiation travels in a straight line.

(2) Penetrating radiation is absorbed as it passes through matter. The extent to

The thickness of the absorber.

The wavelength or “photon energy” of the radiation itself.

Practical Radiography. Rev 2 Oct 2005 1.2 WORLD CENTRE FOR

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Penetrating radiation passing through an object

Practical Radiography. Rev 2 Oct 2005 1.3 WORLD CENTRE FOR

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The radiograph resulting from the set-up in figure just above.

(1) A radiograph is a two-dimensional image of a three-dimensional object: The

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(a) the defect causes a local difference in radiation absorption

(b) the method used for detecting the radiation is capable of

For example, suppose that a chosen radiographic technique is capable of

(1) The gas pore will readily be detected because A - (B + C) = 3 mm.

Practical Radiography. Rev 2 Oct 2005 1.5 WORLD CENTRE FOR

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Simple model of atomic structure

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90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Periodic table of elements

X-rays result from ionisation and de-ionisation events: when a positively

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Where 59 is the number of protons + neutrons (the atomic mass number), 27 is

Radioactive isotopes undergo fission as they ‘decay’ towards a more stable

Gamma rays are an occasional by product of this process of nuclear fission.

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Practical Radiography. Rev 2 Oct 2005 3.1 WORLD CENTRE FOR