Mechanical Properties and

Materials Testing

MENJANA MINDA KREATIF DAN INOVATIF

 Dislocation
1. Line defects : Dislocation
…move by glide

i. Edge Dislocation
Movement of an Edge Dislocation

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 Dislocation

ii. Screw dislocations

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 Deformation mechanisam

i. Elastic deformation
( F<y)

ii. Plastic deformation

(F > y )

Brittle material F<y F>y

Ductile material

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 Slip

Dislocations do not move in any direction, but in preferred

crystallographic directions or slip direction.

The set of slip planes and directions constitute slip systems.

The slip planes are those of highest packing density.

BCC and FCC crystals have more slip systems

more ways for dislocation to propagate.
more ductile than HCP crystals

(HCP crystals are more brittle).

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 Slip System
Slip plane
• Plane on which easiest slippage occurs
• Highest planar densities (and large interplanar spacings)

Slip directions
• Directions of movement
• Highest linear densities

FCC : Al, Cu, Au

Slip plane : (111)(111)(111)(111)
Slip direction : [110][010][110]
Slip system = 4 x 3 = 12
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 Slip System

HCP : Zn, Cd, Mg, Ti, Co

Slip plane : (0001)

Slip direction : [1200], [1210], [2110]
Slip system = 1 x 3
Low ductility

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 Twinning

Causes atomic displacements on one side of a plane mirror the

atoms on the other side.
Occurs in BCC or HCP metals
Occurs at low temperatures and high rates of shear loading
(shock loading)

Small amount of
deformation when compared
with slip.

eg: BCC twinning occurs on

the 112)[111] system

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 Comparison between Slip & Twinning

Slip Twinning
Orientation of atoms remains the Reorientation of atomic direction
same across twin plane

Displacement takes place in exact Atomic displacement is less than

atomic spacings interatomic (fraction) spacing

Occur at high T (low strain rate) Occur at low T (high strain rate)

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 Strengthening Mechanism

Strength is linked to dislocation mobility

If dislocation mobility is easy, low forces will lead to easy
movement

If dislocations can't move, plastic deformation doesn't

occur!

If dislocations are pinned, higher stresses are

required

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Strengthening Mechanism

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 Strengthening Mechanism

Plastic deformation is due to the motion of a

large number of dislocations. The motion is
called slip.

Thus, the strength (resistance to deformation)

can be improved by putting obstacles to slip.

The number of dislocations per unit volume is the

dislocation density, in a plane they are measured
per unit area.

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Strengthening Mechanism

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 Strengthening Mechanism

1. Solid Solution Strengthening

2. Grain Size Reduction

3. Strain Hardening

4. Precipitation Hardening

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 Strengthening Mechanism

1. Solid Solution Strengthening

The impurity atoms cause lattice strain which can

"anchor" dislocations.

Pure metals are almost always softer than their alloys.

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 Strengthening Mechanism

Interstitial
Impurities
Substitutional
Impurities

• Alloying increases sy and TS.

• Tensile strength & yield strength increase w/wt% Ni.

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 Strengthening Mechanism

2. Grain Size Reduction

Materials with finer grain size are
stronger than the coarser one

Grain boundaries are barriers

to slip.
Barrier "strength“ increases
with misorientation.

Smaller grain size:more barriers to slip.

The Hall-Petch Equation : Ys = Ys0 + kyd-1/2
Relating the yield strength to the diameter of
the average grain

Smaller grain size also can increase toughness

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 Strengthening mechanism

3. Strain Hardening

Ao  Ad
%CW  x 100
Ao

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 Strengthening Mechanism

Dislocations entangle with one another during

cold work.
Dislocation motion becomes more difficult.

total dislocation length

Dislocation density =
unit volume

Carefully grown single crystals  103 mm-2

Deforming sample increases density  109-1010 mm-2
Heat treatment reduces density  105-106 mm-2

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 Strengthening Mechanism
Dislocation Multiplication Theory Frank-Read Source

B-C Dislocation line

B-C New Dislocation line

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 Strengthening Mechanism

Ao  Ad
%CW  x 100
Ao

Copper
Do2 Dd2
Cold 
Work %CW  4 4 x 100
Do2
4

Do = 15.2 mm Dd = 12.2 mm Do2  Dd2

 x 100
Do2
(15 .2 mm) 2  (12 .2 mm) 2
%CW  x 100  35 .6%
2
(15 .2 mm)

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 Strengthening Mechanism

4. Precipitation Hardening

Produces a uniform dispersion of Fine & Hard in a softer, more

ductile matrix
i. Solution Treatment
ii. Quenching
iii. Ageing Proces
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 Strengthening Mechanism

1. Solution Treatment
Reheat the alloy up to a temperature where only one solid phase (α) exists
(above the solvus)
This dissolves the second solid phase 3 . Aging
(β for example) into the primary phase
Reheat to a temperature
Don’t exceed the eutectic temperature
Diffusion a short distance
2 . Quenching Results in a fine precipitate

Rapidly cool to room temperature or There is an optimum aging time

below
Artificial aging – elevated temp
This results in a supersaturated – non-
equilibrium structure Natural aging – room temperature

The second phase does not form,

because diffusion is so slow!!
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Strengthening Mechanism

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Strengthening Mechanism

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 Cold Working Hot working

COLD WORKING HOT WORKING

Deformation at T < Trec Deformation at T >Trec

More Energy/power consumption Less Energy/power consumption

Grain become elongated in one Grain equiaxed
direction and contract in the other
Bad surface finish : high temp.
Good surface finish oxidation

Increase in strength but Ductile

decrease in ductility

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COLD WORKING

HOT WORKING
 Deformation Process

Example of COLD or HOT WORKING process

-Forging force
die -Rolling
Ao blank Ad

force

-Drawing -Extrusion
die Ad
tensile
Ao force

die

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 Annealing Process
The effect of strain hardening can be removed by annealing heat
treatment
During annealing three stages take place
consecutively during heating :

i. Recovery Recrystallisation Grain growth

After cold
working

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Annealing Process

i. Recovery
Below Trec
Stress relieve
No changes in MPs

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 Annealing Process

ii. Recrystallization

Occurs between (0.3Tm- 0.5Tm(K)

New equiaxed and stress free
grain are formed
Lowers the strength
Raises the ductility
Decreases the density of
dislocation

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Annealing Process

iii. Grain growth

Increases with temp.

Large grains produces a
rough appearance on
sheet metal, when they
are stretch to form a part.

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 Annealing Process

(a) (b) (c)

Stages of recrystallisation and grain growth of brass

(d) (e) (f)

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 Mechanical Properties

Properties are the way the material responds to the

environment and external forces

Mechanical Properties

Response to mechanical forces, such as

Strength (……….)
Toughness
Hardness
Ductility
Elasticity
Fatigue, Creep…etc

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 Mechanical Properties

Basic Mechanical Properties

Strength:
Ability to support load tension, compression, shear
Hardness:
Resistance to penetration/ scratches
Ductility:
Ability to change shape. Opposed to brittleness.
Stiffness:
Ratio of load to elastic deformation
Toughness:
Ability to resist impact force

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 Mechanical Properties

MP are useful to estimate how parts will behave when

they are subjected to mechanical loads

Type of loading

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Tensile test
Tensile Test

extensometer specimen

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Tensile Test

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Tensile Test

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 Tensile Test

Engineering Stress :  = F/Ao

F is load applied perpendicular to

specimen cross section
Ao is cross-sectional area (perpendicular
to the force) before application of the
load
Ft

Ao
original area
Engineering Strain :  = l/lo before loading

l is change in length lo is the original Stress has

length units:
N/m2 or lb/in2
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 Tensile Test

Stress-Strain Behavior : Elastic deformation

In tensile test, if the deformation is elastic, the stress-strain

relationship is called Hooke’s Law
tensile stress, 
y

engineering strain, 
p = 0.002

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Tensile Test

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 Tensile Test

In tensile test, if the deformation is elastic, the stress-

strain relationship is called Hooke’s Law

In some materials (many polymers, concrete..) elastic

deformation is not linear, but it is still reversible

E is Youngs’s Modulus or Modulus of elasticity has the

same units as  : N/m2 or Pa.

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 Mechanical Properties

Young’s Moduli :
Comparison

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 Tensile Test

Tensile Strength
• Maximum possible engineering stress in tension.

• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.

• Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are aligned and
about to break.
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 Mechanical Properties

Poisson Ratio
When pulled in tension (Z), a sample gets longer and
thinner, i.e. a contraction in the width (X) and breadth (Y)

Poisson’s ratio defines how much strain occurs in

the lateral directions (x & y ) when strained in the
(z) direction

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 Mechanical Properties

Ductility
Ductility is a measure of the deformation at fracture
Define by % elongation : % EL= (lf-lo/lo) x 100
or % reduction in area : % RA = (Ao-Af/Ao) x 100

Ductility increases with temp.

YS, TS, E decrease with increasing
temperature

% AR (area reduction)
and % EL are often
comparable
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 Mechanical Properties

Plastic Deformation
Strain and stress are not proportional
The deformation is not reversible
Deformation occurs by breaking and re
arrangement of atomic bonds (in crystalline
materials primarily motion by dislocations)

Plastic means permanent!

Yield stress is a measure of

resistance to plastic deformation

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Mechanical Properties

Yield Strength :
Comparison

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Mechanical Properties

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 Mechanical Properties

Toughness
Toughness = the ability to absorb energy up to fracture
= the total area under the stress-strain curve up
to fracture
Unit : the energy per unit volume eg : J/m3

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 Mechanical Properties
Typical Mechanical Properties of Metal

Metal YS(MPa) TS(MPa) % EL

Al 35 90 40
Cu 69 200 45
Brass 75 300 68
Iron 130 262 45
Ni 138 380 25
Steel 180 380 25
Ti 450 520 25
Mo 565 655 35

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 Hardness

Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Large hardness means:
resistance to plastic deformation or cracking
better wear properties.

Commonly used
hardness test ;
Rockwell, Brinell,
Vickers, Knoop….

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 Hardness

A qualitative Moh’s scale : the ability of a material

to scratch another material
1 (softest) to 10 (hard = diamond)

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