M208 Pure Mathematics

Handbook

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First published 2006.

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SUP 86903 5
1.1
 This Handbook may be taken into the examination, and unrestricted
handwritten annotation to it is allowed, but you are not permitted to
add further sheets of notes, inserts or ‘post-its’.

Contents
Notation 5

Greek alphabet 5

Notation introduced in Introduction Block 5

Notation introduced in Group Theory Block A 6

Notation introduced in Linear Algebra Block 7

Notation introduced in Analysis Block A 7

Notation introduced in Group Theory Block B 8

Notation introduced in Analysis Block B 8

Introduction Block 9

Unit I1 Real functions and graphs 9

Unit I2 Mathematical language 13

Unit I3 Number systems 18

Group Theory Block A 23

Unit GTA1 Symmetry 23

Unit GTA2 Groups and subgroups 27

Unit GTA3 Permutations 31

Unit GTA4 Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem 35

Linear Algebra Block 39

Unit LA1 Vectors and conics 39

Unit LA2 Linear equations and matrices 43

Unit LA3 Vector spaces 48

Unit LA4 Linear transformations 52

Unit LA5 Eigenvectors 56

Analysis Block A 60

Unit AA1 Numbers 60

Unit AA2 Sequences 63

Unit AA3 Series 66

Unit AA4 Continuity 69

Group Theory Block B 73

Unit GTB1 Conjugacy 73

Unit GTB2 Homomorphisms 75

Unit GTB3 Group actions 78

Analysis Block B 81

Unit AB1 Limits 81

Unit AB2 Differentiation 85

Unit AB3 Integration 88

Unit AB4 Power series 92

3
Appendix 95
Sketches of graphs of basic functions 95
Sketches of graphs of standard inverse functions 96
Properties of trigonometric and hyperbolic functions 97
Standard derivatives 98
Standard Taylor series 98
Standard primitives 99
Group tables of symmetry groups 100
Groups of small order 100
Three types of non-degenerate conic 101
Six types of non-degenerate quadric 101

Index 102

Wording of questions
In the wording of TMA and Examination questions:

write down or state means ‘write down without justification’;

find, determine, calculate, explain, derive, evaluate or solve means ‘show all

your working’;

prove, show or deduce means ‘justify each step’.

In particular, if you use a definition, result or theorem to go from one line

to the next, then you must state clearly which fact it is that you are using.

Also, remember that when you use a theorem, you must demonstrate that

all the conditions of the theorem are satisfied.

4
 Notation

Greek alphabet
α A alpha ι I iota ρ P rho
β B beta κ K kappa σ Σ sigma
γ Γ gamma λ Λ lambda τ T tau
δ ∆ delta µ M mu υ Υ upsilon
ε E epsilon ν N nu φ Φ phi
ζ Z zeta ξ Ξ xi χ X chi
η H eta o O omicron ψ Ψ psi
θ Θ theta π Π pi ω Ω omega

Notation introduced in Introduction Block

(a, b) open interval, excluding endpoints a, b, {x : a < x < b}

[a, b] closed interval, including endpoints a, b, {x : a ≤ x ≤ b}

(a, b] half-open interval, excluding a, including b, {x : a < x ≤ b}

[a, b) half-open interval, including a, excluding b, {x : a ≤ x < b}

(−∞, a) open interval, {x : x < a}

(−∞, a] closed interval, {x : x ≤ a}

(a, ∞) open interval, {x : x > a}

[a, ∞) closed interval, {x : x ≥ a}

∞ infinity

R set of real numbers

R+ set of positive real numbers

R∗ set of non-zero real numbers

R2 set of points in the plane
Q set of rational numbers
Z set of integers, {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . .}
N set of natural numbers, {1, 2, 3, . . .}
C set of complex numbers
|x| modulus of number x
[x] integer part of number x
→ tends to (for asymptotic behaviour and limits)
f  (x), f  (x) first and second derivatives of function f at x
∅ empty set
a∈A a is an element of the set A
A⊆B A is a subset of the set B
A⊂B A is a proper subset of the set B
A∪B union of sets A and B, {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
A∩B intersection of sets A and B, {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
A−B difference between sets A and B, {x : x ∈ A, x ∈ / B}
n! 

n factorial, equal to n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × · · · × 3 × 2 × 1
n n!
binomial coefficient , also denoted by n Ck
k k! (n − k)!
−→ maps to, for sets

−→ maps to, for variables
f −1 inverse of function f
g◦f composite function with rule x −  → g(f (x)), where f and g are functions

5
P ⇒Q if P , then Q (P implies Q)

P ⇔Q P if and only if Q (P is equivalent to Q)

x + iy a complex number, where i2 = −1

Re z real part of complex number z

Im z imaginary part of complex number z

z complex conjugate of complex number z

|z| modulus of complex number z

arg z an argument of complex number z

Arg z principal argument of complex number z

a≡b a is congruent to b (with respect to a particular modulus)

Zn set of integers modulo n, {0, 1, . . . , n − 1}

a +n b remainder of a + b on division by n

a ×n b remainder of a × b on division by n

x∼y x is related to y (by a particular relation)

[[x]] equivalence class of x (with respect to a particular equivalence relation)

x·y alternative notation for x × y, rarely used in this course

Notation introduced in Group Theory Block A

S(F ) set of symmetries of plane figure F
S + (F ) set of direct symmetries of plane figure F
rθ rotation through θ (anticlockwise) about the centre of a disc (or the origin)
qφ reflection in line through the centre of a disc (or the origin) at angle φ to the horizontal
(G, ◦) set G with binary operation ◦
x−1 inverse of group element x, in multiplicative notation
−x inverse of group element x, in additive notation
e identity element of a group (or the constant e = 2.718 281 . . .)
|G| order of group G
|x| order of group element x
R3 set of points in three-dimensional space
x cyclic group generated by x
∼
= is isomorphic to
Cn typical cyclic group of order n, generated by x
Z∗n set of non-zero integers modulo n, {1, 2, 3, . . . , n − 1}
Sn symmetric group of order n
An alternating group of order n
K4 Klein group (of order 4)
gH, Hg left and right cosets of subgroup H in a particular group
A.B composite, under set composition, of subsets A, B of a group (G, ◦), {a ◦ b : a ∈ A, b ∈ B}
G/N quotient group of G by N
nZ set of multiples of integer n
Z+ set of positive integers

6
Notation introduced in Linear Algebra Block
v magnitude of vector v
0 zero vector (or zero matrix)
i, j, k unit vectors in the directions of x-, y-, z-axes, respectively
(a, b, c) a vector in R3 written in component form
u.v dot product of vectors u and v

v unit vector in the same direction as vector v
e eccentricity of a conic
(A | I) matrix A augmented by matrix I
(aij ) matrix with (i, j)-entry aij
In identity matrix of size n × n
AT transpose of matrix A
A−1 inverse of matrix A
det A determinant of matrix A
Aij cofactor associated with entry aij of matrix A
Rn set of all ordered n-tuples, called n-dimensional space
Pn set of all real polynomials of degree less than n
Mm,n set of all m × n matrices with real entries
R∞ set of all infinite sequences of real numbers
S span of finite set S of vectors
vE E-coordinate representation of vector v (coordinates with respect to basis E)
dim V dimension of vector space V
iV identity linear transformation of vector space V
Im(t) image of linear transformation t
Ker(t) kernel of linear transformation t
S(λ) eigenspace corresponding to eigenvalue λ

Notation introduced in Analysis Block A

max E maximum element of set E
min E minimum element of set E
sup E supremum (least upper bound) of set E
inf E infimum (greatest lower bound) of set E
{an } sequence of numbers, a1 , a2 , . . . .
lim an limit of sequence {an } as n tends to ∞
n→∞
∞
an sum of series a1 + a2 + · · ·
n=1

−1
sin inverse of function sin (similarly for cos, tan, sinh, etc.)

 does not tend to

7
Notation introduced in Group Theory Block B
gHg −1 a conjugate subgroup of subgroup H

M group of invertible 2 × 2 matrices under matrix multiplication

U group of invertible 2 × 2 upper-triangular matrices under matrix multiplication

L group of invertible 2 × 2 lower-triangular matrices under matrix multiplication

V group of 2 × 2 matrices with determinant 1 under matrix multiplication

Im(φ) image of homomorphism φ

Ker(φ) kernel of homomorphism φ

g∧x set element obtained when group element g acts on set element x

Orb(x) orbit of x

Stab(x) stabiliser of x

Fix(g) fixed set (or fixed point set) of g

←→ corresponds to

C∗ set of non-zero complex numbers

Notation introduced in Analysis Block B

Nr (c) punctured neighbourhood, (c − r, c) ∪ (c, c + r), r > 0

lim limit as x tends to c

x→c
lim limit as x tends to c from the right
x→c+
lim limit as x tends to c from the left
x→c−
dy
Leibniz notation for derivative of y = f (x) with respect to x
dx

f (n)
nth derivative of function f

fL
(c) left derivative of f at c

fR
(c) right derivative of f at c

Int(I) interior of interval I, i.e. largest open subinterval of I

P partition of an interval

P  mesh of partition P , length of longest subinterval

mi inf{f (x) : xi−1 ≤ x ≤ xi }, where f is a function on [xi−1 , xi ]

Mi sup{f (x) : xi−1 ≤ x ≤ xi }, where f is a function on [xi−1 , xi ]

L(f, P ) lower Riemann sum of function f over partition P

U (f, P ) upper Riemann sum of function f over partition P

 b
f lower integral of function f over interval [a, b]
−a
−b
f upper integral of function f over interval [a, b]
a

 b

f integral of function f over interval [a, b]

 a

f (x) dx a primitive of function f

 a
F (x) b primitive F evaluated between a and b, F (b) − F (a)

∼ f (n) ∼ g(n) as n → ∞ means f (n)/g(n) → 1 as n → ∞

Tn (x) Taylor polynomial of degree n

Rn (x) remainder term for Taylor polynomial of degree n

R

 radius of convergence of a power
series



α α α α(α − 1)(α − 2) · · · (α − n + 1)
generalised binomial coefficient, = 1, = ,n∈N
n 0 n n!

8
 I1

Introduction Block
I1 Real functions and graphs
1 Real functions
1 A real function f is defined by specifying
• a set of real numbers A, called the domain of f ;
• a set of real numbers B, called the codomain
of f ;
• a rule that associates with each real number x in
the set A a unique real number f (x) in the set B.
The number f (x) is the image of x under f or the
value of f at x.
Convention When a real function is specified only
3 A linear function has rule of the form
f (x) = ax + b, where a =  0.
A quadratic function has rule of the form
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a = 0.
In completed-square form this is written as
f (x) = a(x − α)2 + β,
where
b 4ac − b2
α=− , β= .
2a 4a
The graph of this function is a parabola with vertex
at (α, β) and axis x = α.
A cubic function has rule of the form
f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, where a = 0.
The graph of a cubic function crosses the x-axis

by a rule, it is to be understood that the domain of either once or three times.

the function is the set of all real numbers for which A linear rational function has rule of the form

the rule is applicable, and the codomain of the ax + b

f (x) = , where ad − bc = 0.
function is R. cx + d
The graph of a linear rational function is a hyperbola
2 Intervals are denoted as follows.
lying between the asymptotes y = a/c and
In the diagrams, an open circle ◦ indicates that an x = −d/c.
endpoint is excluded, and a solid circle • indicates
The reciprocal function has rule
that an endpoint is included.
f (x) = 1/x, for x = 0.
open intervals
An exponential function has rule of the form
(a, b) (a, ∞) f (x) = ax , where a > 0.
c c c
a b a The modulus function has rule
a<x<b x>a 
x, x ≥ 0,
(−∞, b) (−∞, ∞) f (x) = |x| =
c −x, x ≤ 0.
b The graph of the modulus function has a ‘corner’ at

x<b R
the origin.

closed intervals The integer part function has rule

[a, b] [a, ∞) f (x) = [x] = largest integer less than or equal to x.

s s s
The graph of the integer part function has a ‘jump’
aa≤x≤b b a x≥a at each integer value of x.
(−∞, b] (−∞, ∞) 4 The translation (x, y) −  → (x + α, y + β) applied
s
b to the graph with equation y = f (x) gives the graph
x≤b R with equation
y − β = f (x − α); that is, y = f (x − α) + β.
half-open (or half-closed) intervals
The graph is shifted by α units to the right, and by β

[a, b) (a, b] units upwards. (0, 0) is shifted to (α, β).

s c c s
aa≤x<b b aa<x≤b b The scaling (x, y) 
−→ (λx, µy) applied to the graph
with equation y = f (x) gives the graph with equation
y/µ = f (x/λ); that is, y = µf (x/λ).
The graph is scaled by λ in the x-direction, and by µ
in the y-direction. (1, 1) is shifted to (λ, µ), and (0, 0)
remains fixed.

9
I1

2 Graph sketching
Increasing/decreasing criterion
1 Determining features of a graph
1. If f
(x) > 0 for all x in an interval I, then f
Domain is (strictly) increasing on I.
The domain of a real function specified just by a rule 2. If f
(x) < 0 for all x in an interval I, then f
is the set of all real numbers, excluding any numbers is (strictly) decreasing on I.
which give an expression which is not defined—for
example, a zero in the denominator of a rational
function, or the square root of a negative number. A stationary point of f is a value a such that the
tangent to the graph of f is horizontal at the point
Symmetry features
(a, f (a)).
A graph may possess certain types of symmetry.
• For a periodic function, such as a
trigonometric function, the graph is unchanged First Derivative Test Suppose that a is a
by a translation along the x-axis through the stationary point of a differentiable function f ;
period, p say: that is, f
(a) = 0.
f (x + p) = f (x). • If f
(x) changes from positive to negative
• For an even function, the graph is unchanged as x increases through a, then f has a
by reflection in the y-axis:
local maximum at a.
f (−x) = f (x).
• If f
(x) changes from negative to positive
as x increases through a, then f has a
• For an odd function, the graph is unchanged by
local minimum at a.
rotation through an angle π about the origin:
• If f
(x) remains positive or remains
f (−x) = −f (x).
negative as x increases through a (except
Intercepts at a itself, where f
(a) = 0), then f has a
An intercept is a value of x or y at which the graph horizontal point of inflection at a.
y = f (x) of a function f meets the x- or y-axis,
respectively. The x-intercepts are the solutions (if
2 Asymptotic behaviour
any) of the equation f (x) = 0 and are also known as
the zeros of f . The y-intercept is the value f (0), if An asymptote for the graph of a function is a
this exists. straight line which is approached more and more
closely by the graph when the domain variable x or
Intervals on which a function has constant sign the codomain variable y (or both) takes very large
Let f be a real function with domain A. Then:
(positive or negative) values.
f is positive on an interval I in A if f (x) > 0

for all x in I;

f is negative on an interval I in A if f (x) < 0

for all x in I;

f has a zero at the point a in A if f (a) = 0.

Sometimes we can find the intervals on which a

function has constant sign by using a sign table.

Intervals on which a function is increasing/decreasing

A function f is increasing on an interval I if for all
x1 , x2 ∈ I,
if x1 < x2 , then f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ).
A function f is strictly increasing on an interval I An asymptote with an equation of the form x = a is

if for all x1 , x2 ∈ I, a vertical asymptote.

if x1 < x2 , then f (x1 ) < f (x2 ). An asymptote with an equation of the form y = b is a

horizontal asymptote.

A function f is decreasing on an interval I if for all

x1 , x2 ∈ I, The behaviour of a function f near a vertical

asymptote x = a may take various forms. We

if x1 < x2 , then f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ).

describe the behaviour shown in the above diagram

A function f is strictly decreasing on an interval I near the vertical asymptote x = a as follows.

if for all x1 , x2 ∈ I,
if x1 < x2 , then f (x1 ) > f (x2 ).

10

f (x) takes arbitrarily large values
as x tends to a from the right;
we write this in symbols as
f (x) → ∞ as x → a+ ,
and read it as
f (x) tends to infinity
as x tends to a from the right.
Similarly,
f (x) takes arbitrarily large negative values
as x tends to a from the left;
we write this in symbols as
f (x) → −∞ as x → a− ,
and read it as
f (x) tends to minus infinity
as x tends to a from the left.
3 Polynomial and rational functions
In general, the behaviour of a polynomial function
of degree n,
f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 ,
where an = 0,
for large values of x, is similar to that of the
term an xn . We call xn the dominant term. This
behaviour is summarised in the following tables.
an > 0 x → ∞ x → −∞
n even f (x) → ∞ f (x) → ∞
n odd f (x) → ∞ f (x) → −∞
an < 0 x → ∞ x → −∞
n even f (x) → −∞ f (x) → −∞
n odd f (x) → −∞ f (x) → ∞
A rational function is a function defined by a rule
of the form
p(x)
x− → , 1 Further graph-sketching techniques
q(x)
where both p and q are polynomial functions.
Locating vertical and horizontal asymptotes is an
important step in sketching the graph of any rational
function. Vertical asymptotes occur at the values
of x for which q(x) = 0 and p(x) = 0, and horizontal
asymptotes may occur when x → ∞ or x → −∞.
To find the behaviour of a rational function for large
values of x, we divide both the numerator and the
denominator by the dominant term of the
denominator and consider the value of f (x) as
x → ±∞.
I1
Strategy 2.1 Graph-sketching strategy
To sketch the graph of a given function f ,
determine the following features of f (where
possible), and show these features in your
sketch.
1. The domain of f .
2. Whether f is even, odd or periodic (or none
of these).
3. The x-intercepts and y-intercept of f .
4. The intervals on which f is positive or
negative.
5. The intervals on which f is increasing or
decreasing, the nature of any stationary
points, and the value of f at each of these
points.
6. The asymptotic behaviour of f .
For some graphs, we can obtain sufficient information
from only some of the steps.
4 There is an alternative test for a local maximum
or local minimum, using the second derivative of the
function f .
Second Derivative Test Suppose that a is
a stationary point of a differentiable function f ;
that is, f
(a) = 0.
1. If f

(a) < 0, then f has a local maximum
at a.
2. If f

(a) > 0, then f has a local minimum
at a.
3 New graphs from old
To sketch the graph of a combination of two
functions, one of which is a trigonometric function, it
is often convenient to use other simple graphs as
‘construction lines’, and to exploit known properties
of the sine and cosine functions.
Strategy 3.1
Extended graph-sketching strategy
To sketch the graph of a given function f ,
determine the features of f listed in steps 1–6 of
Strategy 2.1, and the following features.
7. Any appropriate construction lines, and the
points where f meets these lines.
11
I1

2 A composite function is a function obtained by 5 Curves from parameters

applying first one function and then another.
A hybrid function is defined by different formulas
on different parts of its domain.
4 Hyperbolic functions
1 Properties of the exponential function
The function exp with rule f (x) = ex has the
following properties.
1. The domain of exp is R.
2. exp is not even, odd or periodic.
3. ex > 0 for all x in R, so exp is positive on R.
4. exp is its own derivative; that is, if f (x) = ex ,
then f
(x) = ex .
1 Parametric equations for a curve have the
form
x = f (t), y = g(t),
where f and g are real functions of the parameter t.
Both f and g have the same domain, which is usually
an interval I of the real line.
The corresponding parametrisation is the function
α(t) = (f (t), g(t)), for t in I.
A parametrisation of a given curve need not be
unique. Different parametrisations of a curve may
correspond to different modes of traversing the curve.
2 A cycloid is the path traced out by a point on
the edge of a wheel as the wheel rolls along a

horizontal surface without slipping. The standard

Since ex > 0 for all x in R, exp is increasing on R.
parametrisation of a cycloid corresponding to a wheel
5. e0 = 1, ex > 1 for all x > 0, and ex < 1 for all of unit radius is
x < 0; e x+y = ex × ey for all x, y in R. x = t − sin t, y = 1 − cos t, for t in R.
6. For each positive integer n, ex /xn → ∞ as
x → ∞. (We sometimes express this property by 3 Below, we summarise the standard
saying that ex grows faster than any polynomial parametrisations for lines, conics and two other
when x is large.) curves.
7. ex → ∞ as x → ∞ and Line through (p, q) and (r, s):
ex → 0 as x → −∞. s−q
y−q = (x − p),
r−p
2 Hyperbolic functions
α(t) = (p + (r − p)t, q + (s − q)t), for t in R.
• cosh is the hyperbolic cosine function,
with rule
ex + e−x

cosh x = .

2
• sinh is the hyperbolic sine function,
with rule
ex − e−x

sinh x = .
Circle with centre (0, 0), radius a:
2
• tanh is the hyperbolic tangent function, x2 + y 2 = a2 ,
with rule
α(t) = (a cos t, a sin t),
for t in [0, 2π].

sinh x

tanh x = .
cosh x
• sech is the hyperbolic secant function,
with rule

sech x = .
cosh x
• cosech is the hyperbolic cosecant function,
with rule

1
Ellipse in standard form:
cosech x = .
sinh x x2 y2
• coth is the hyperbolic cotangent function, 2
+ 2 = 1,
a b
with rule
α(t) = (a cos t, b sin t), for t in [0, 2π].

coth x = .
tanh x
Some properties of the trigonometric and hyperbolic
functions are given in a table on page 97.

12
 I2

Parabola in standard form: I2 Mathematical language

y 2 = 4ax,
α(t) = (at2 , 2at), for t in R.
1 What is a set?

1 A set is a collection of objects, such as numbers,

points, functions, or even other sets. Each object in a
set is an element or member of the set, and the
elements belong to the set, or are in the set.
Hyperbola in standard form: We can illustrate a set S by a diagram called a Venn
x2 y2 diagram, as in the example below.
− = 1,
a2 b2
α(t) = (a sec t, b tan t),
for t in [−π, π], excluding −π/2 and π/2,
or
α(t) = (a cosh t, b sinh t),
for t in R (right-hand part only).
2 Sets of numbers

R is the set of real numbers.

R∗ is the set of non-zero real numbers.
Q is the set of rational numbers.
Z is the set of integers . . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . . .
N is the set of natural numbers 1, 2, 3, . . . .
A prime number is an integer n, greater than 1,

whose only positive factors are 1 and n; the first few

primes are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17.

Cardioid in standard form:

3 To indicate that a is an element of the set A, we

α(t) = (2 cos t + cos 2t, 2 sin t + sin 2t),

write a ∈ A.

for t in [−π, π].

To indicate that b is not an element of the set A, we

write b ∈
/ A.
4 A set with only one element, such as the set {2},
is called a singleton.

The empty set has no elements, and is denoted

by ∅.

5 The solution set of an equation, or a system of

equations, is the set of its solutions. It depends on

the set from which the solutions are taken.

6 Plane sets

A set of points in R2 is called a plane set or a

Trisectrix in standard form:

plane figure. Simple examples of plane sets are

α(t) = (cos t + cos 2t, sin t + sin 2t), lines and circles.

for t in [−π, π].

A straight line l with slope a and y-intercept b is

written as
l = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : y = ax + b}.
We sometimes refer to ‘the line y = ax + b’ as a

shorthand way of specifying this set.

The set of points on one side of a line, possibly

together with all the points on the line itself, is

known as a half-plane.
The unit circle U is written as
{(x, y) ∈ R2 : x2 + y 2 = 1}.

13
I2

A circle C of radius r centred at the point (a, b) is 11 Set operations

written as Let A and B be any two sets.
C = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r2 }. The union of A and B is the set
The set of points inside a circle, possibly together A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.
with all the points on the circle, is known as a disc.
In a diagram of a plane set, when the set illustrated
does not include a boundary line, we denote the
boundary by a broken line.
7 The graph of a real function f : A −→ R is the The intersection of A and B is the set
set A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.
{(x, f (x)) : x ∈ A}.
8 Two sets A and B are equal if they have exactly
the same elements; we write A = B.
A set A is a subset of a set B if each element of A is Two sets with no element in common are disjoint.
also an element of B. We also say that A is
contained in B, and we write A ⊆ B. The difference between A and B is the set
We sometimes indicate that a set A is a subset of a A − B = {x : x ∈ A, x ∈
/ B}.
set B by reversing the symbol ⊆ and writing B ⊇ A,
which we read as ‘B contains A’.
To indicate that A is not a subset of B, we write
A  B. We may also write this as B  A, which we
read as ‘B does not contain A’. Note that A − B is different from B − A, when
A = B.
If a set A is a subset of a set B that is not equal
to B, then we say that A is a proper subset of B,
and we write A ⊂ B or B ⊃ A. 2 Functions
1 Functions
Strategy 1.1 To show that two sets A and
B are equal: A function f is defined by specifying:
show that A ⊆ B; • a set A, called the domain of f ;
show that B ⊆ A. • a set B, called the codomain of f ;
• a rule x −→ f (x) that associates with each
element x ∈ A a unique element f (x) ∈ B.
9 A finite set is a set which has a finite number of
elements; that is, the number of elements is some The element f (x) is the image of x under f .
natural number, or 0. Symbolically, we write
A set with n elements has 2n subsets. f : A −→ B

10 For any positive integer n, we define n! (read as x 

−→ f (x).
‘n factorial’) by We often refer to a function as a mapping, and say

n! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × · · · × 3 × 2 × 1. that f maps A to B and x to f (x).

Also, 0! = 1. 2 A function of the form f : I −→ R2 , where I is an

interval of R, can be used to parametrise a curve in

For any non-negative integers n and k with k ≤ n,

 the plane.
n n!
= . 3 The identity function on a set A is the function
k k! (n − k)!
This expression is called a binomial coefficient. iA : A −→ A
It is the number of subsets with k elements of a set

x −→ x.
with n elements.
4 Given a function f : A −→ B and a subset S of A,
If n and k are positive integers with 1 ≤ k ≤ n, then
the image, or image set, of S under f , written




n n n+1 f (S), is the set
+ = .
k−1 k k f (S) = {f (x) : x ∈ S}.
If n and k are positive integers with 0 ≤ k ≤ n, then The image, or image set, of the function f is the



n n image of its whole domain,
= .
n−k k f (A) = {f (x) : x ∈ A}.

14

5 A function f : A −→ B is onto if f (A) = B.
6 A function f : A −→ B is one-one if each
element of f (A) is the image of exactly one element
of A; that is,
if x1 , x2 ∈ A and f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), then x1 = x2 .
A function that is not one-one is many-one.
7 Inverse functions
Let f : A −→ B be a one-one function. Then f has
an inverse function f −1 : f (A) −→ A, with rule
f −1 (y) = x, where y = f (x).
A function f : A −→ B that is both one-one and onto
has an inverse function f −1 : B −→ A. Such a
function f is said to be a one-one correspondence,
or bijection, between the sets A and B.
Sometimes we can obtain an inverse function for a
function which is not one-one by restricting the
domain. Let f : A −→ B and let C be a subset of the
domain A. Then the function g : C −→ B defined by
g(x) = f (x), for x ∈ C,
is the restriction of f to C.
8 Composite functions
Let f : A −→ B and g : C −→ D be any two
functions; then the composite function g ◦ f has
domain {x ∈ A : f (x) ∈ C},
codomain D,
rule (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)).
This definition allows us to consider the composite of
any two functions, although in some cases the
domain may turn out to be the empty set ∅.
I2
Strategy 2.1 To show that the function
g : B −→ A is the inverse function of the
function f : A −→ B.
1. Show that f (g(x)) = x for each x ∈ B; that
is, f ◦ g = iB .
2. Show that g(f (x)) = x for each x ∈ A; that
is, g ◦ f = iA .
3 The language of proof
1 Mathematical statements
A mathematical statement (sometimes called a
proposition) is an assertion that is either true or
false, although we may not know which.
Every statement has a related statement, called its
negation, which is true when the original statement
is false, and false when the original statement is true.
A theorem is a true mathematical statement
(usually important). A lemma is a less important
theorem that is useful when proving other theorems.
A corollary is a theorem that follows from another
theorem by a short additional argument.
2 Implications
An implication is a statement of the form
if P, then Q,
where P is a statement, called the hypothesis, and
Q is a statement, called the conclusion.
Ways of writing the implication ‘if P , then Q’:
P implies Q
P ⇒ Q
Q whenever P
Q follows from P
P is sufficient for Q
Q is necessary for P
P only if Q
The converse of the implication ‘if P , then Q’ is the
implication ‘if Q, then P ’.
3 Equivalences
The statement ‘if P , then Q, and if Q, then P ’ is
usually expressed more concisely as
P if and only if Q.
Such a statement is called an equivalence.
Ways of writing ‘P if and only if Q’:
P ⇔Q
P is equivalent to Q
P is necessary and sufficient for Q
15
I2
4 A proof of a mathematical statement is a logical
argument that establishes that the statement is true.
5 Proof by exhaustion If there are only a small
number of possibilities to consider, we may be able to
prove a statement by considering each possibility in
turn.
6 Direct proof In general, to prove that the
implication P ⇒ Q is true, we start by assuming
that P is true, and build up a sequence of statements
P, P1 , P2 , . . . , Q, each of which follows from one or
more statements further back in the sequence or from
previous mathematical knowledge.
To prove that the equivalence P ⇔ Q is true, we have
to prove both of the implications P ⇒ Q and Q ⇒ P .
A statement Q that is not an implication can be
proved in a similar way to an implication P ⇒ Q, by
constructing a sequence of statements as above, but
the initial statement P will be not an assumption but
instead a statement that we know to be true from
our previous knowledge.
7 To prove that an implication P ⇒ Q is false, we
give one example of a case where the statement P is
true but the statement Q is false. Such an example is
called a counter-example to the implication.
8 Proof by induction
Principle of Mathematical Induction
To prove that a statement P (n) is true for
n = 1, 2, . . . .
1. Show that P (1) is true.
2. Show that the implication P (k) ⇒ P (k + 1)
is true for k = 1, 2, . . . .
The Principle of Mathematical Induction can be
adapted to prove that a statement P (n) is true for all
integers n greater than or equal to some given integer
other than 1.
9 Proof by contradiction To prove that a
statement Q is true, begin by assuming that Q is
false. Then attempt to deduce, using a sequence of
statements, a statement that is definitely false, which
in this context is called a contradiction. If this can
be achieved, then we can conclude that the
assumption is false—in other words, Q is true.
10 To prove an implication P ⇒ Q using proof by
contradiction, begin by assuming that P is true and
Q is false, and deduce a contradiction.
16
11 Proof by contraposition Given any
implication, we can form another implication, called
its contrapositive, which is equivalent to the
original implication. The contrapositive of the
implication ‘if P , then Q’ is ‘if not Q, then not P ’,
where ‘not P ’ and ‘not Q’ denote the negations of
the statements P and Q, respectively.
Sometimes the easiest way to prove an implication is
to prove its contrapositive instead.
12 Proof by splitting into cases Sometimes it
can be helpful to consider different cases separately.
For example, to prove a statement for all integers n,
we could consider the cases n < 0, n = 0 and n > 0
separately.
13 Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
Every integer greater than 1 has a unique expression
as a product of primes.
14 Some properties of numbers
For n = 1, 2, . . . ,
1 + 3 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2 ,
1 + 2 + · · · + n = 12 n(n + 1),
12 + 22 + · · · + n2 = 16 n(n + 1)(2n + 1),
13 + 23 + · · · + n3 = 14 n2 (n + 1)2 .
For any real number x, and n = 1, 2, . . . ,
xn − 1 = (x − 1)(xn−1 + xn−2 + · · · + x + 1).
There are infinitely many prime numbers.
If an integer n > 1 is not divisible
√ by any of the
primes less than or equal to n, then n is a prime
number.
15 Statements of the type
x2 ≥ 0 for all real numbers x.
Every multiple of 6 is divisible by 3.
1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2 for each n ∈ N.
Any rational number is a real number.
are known as universal statements, and the phrase
‘for all’ (and its equivalents) is referred to as the
universal quantifier, sometimes denoted by the
symbol ∀.
16 Statements of the type
There exists a real number . . .
There is a real number x such that . . .
Some multiples of 3 are not divisible by 6.
The equation x3 = c has at least one real solution.
are known as existential statements, and the phrase
‘there exists’ (and its equivalents) is referred to as
the existential quantifier, sometimes denoted by
the symbol ∃.
17 The negation of a universal statement is an
existential statement, and vice-versa.
 I2

4 Two identities 4 Factorising polynomials

A polynomial in x of degree n is an expression of
1 An identity is an equation involving variables the form
which is true for all possible values of the variables. an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 ,
2 The coefficients that appear in the expansions of where an = 0.
(a + b)n , for n = 1, 2, . . . , can be arranged as a
triangular table, in which 1s appear on the left and
right edges, and the remaining entries can be
Theorem 4.3
generated by using the rule that each inner entry is
Polynomial Factorisation Theorem
the sum of the two nearest entries in the row above. Let p be a polynomial of degree n and let
α ∈ R. Then p(α) = 0 if and only if
This table is known as Pascal’s triangle. The first
few rows are shown below. p(x) = (x − α)q(x),
1 where q is a polynomial of degree n − 1.
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1 Corollary Let
1 4 6 4 1
p(x) = x + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , (∗)
n
1 5 10 10 5 1
and suppose that p(x) has n distinct real roots,
α1 , α2 , . . . , αn . Then
Theorem 4.1 Binomial Theorem p(x) = (x − α1 )(x − α2 ) · · · (x − αn ).
Let a, b ∈ R and let n be a positive integer.
Then

 It can be shown that every polynomial of the
n n n n
(a + b) = a + an−1 b + · · · form (∗) has a factorisation of the above form,
0 1 although the roots need not be distinct and may



n n n include non-real complex numbers.
+ an−k bk + · · · + b .
k n Two useful consequences of this factorisation are
an−1 = −(α1 + α2 + · · · + αn )
3 Geometric series and
a0 = (−1)n α1 α2 · · · αn .
Theorem 4.2 Geometric Series Identity
Let a, b ∈ R and let n be a positive integer.
Then
an − bn = (a − b)(an−1 + an−2 b + · · ·
+ abn−2 + bn−1 ).

Corollary

Sum of a finite geometric series

Let a, r ∈ R and let n be a positive integer.

Then
a +⎧ar + ar2 + · · · + arn−1


⎨ 1 − rn
a , if r = 1,
= 1−r
⎩
na, if r = 1.

17
I3

I3 Number systems In properties A3 and M3, the numbers −a and a−1

1 Real numbers
1 Real numbers and rational numbers
Each real number can be represented as a point on
a number line, known as the real line. Conversely,
each point on the real line represents a real number.
Each real number can be expressed as a (possibly
infinite) decimal, such as 1.75 or −0.333 . . . , and each
such decimal expresses a real number.
The rational numbers are the real numbers that
can be expressed as fractions. Rational numbers have
decimals that are either finite or recurring (have a
repeating pattern of digits).
The real numbers that are not rational are called
irrational numbers. These numbers have √ decimals
with no repeating patterns. The numbers 2, π
and e are irrational.
The set of real numbers and the set of rational
are known as the additive inverse (or negative)
of a and the multiplicative inverse
(or reciprocal) of a, respectively.
The rational numbers Q also satisfy all the above
properties; that is, the properties still hold if R is
replaced by Q throughout.
A set satisfying all these properties is known as
a field.
3 A polynomial equation in x of degree n is an
equation of the form p(x) = 0, where p(x) is a
polynomial of degree n.
Polynomial equations (and polynomials) of degrees
1, 2 and 3 are called linear, quadratic and cubic,
respectively.
2 Complex numbers
1 Complex numbers
A complex number is an expression of the form
x + iy, where x and y are real numbers and i2 = −1.

numbers are denoted by R and Q, respectively. Thus The set of all complex numbers is denoted by C.

Q ⊆ R.
A complex number z = x + iy has real part x and

2 Arithmetic in R imaginary part y; we write

Addition Re z = x and Im z = y.
A1 If a, b ∈ R, then a + b ∈ R. closure Two complex numbers are equal when their real

A2 If a ∈ R, then parts and their imaginary parts are equal.

a + 0 = 0 + a = a. identity The zero complex number, 0 + 0i, is written as 0.

A3 If a ∈ R, then there is a number A complex number of the form 0 + iy (where y 

= 0)
−a ∈ R such that is sometimes called an imaginary number.
a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0. inverses
2 The complex plane
A4 If a, b, c ∈ R, then
There is a one-one correspondence between the
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c). associativity
complex numbers and the points in the plane, given
A5 If a, b ∈ R, then by
a + b = b + a. commutativity f : C −→ R2

Multiplication x + iy 
−→ (x, y).
M1 If a, b ∈ R, then a × b ∈ R. closure When we represent complex numbers by points in
M2 If a ∈ R, then the plane, we refer to the plane as the complex
a × 1 = 1 × a = a. identity plane, and we often refer to the complex numbers as
M3 If a ∈ R − {0}, then there is a points in the complex plane. Such a representation is

number a−1 ∈ R such that called an Argand diagram.

a × a−1 = a−1 × a = 1. inverses Real numbers are represented in the complex plane

M4 If a, b, c ∈ R, then by points on the x-axis; this axis is called the real

(a × b) × c = a × (b × c). associativity axis. Similarly, numbers of the form iy are

represented by points on the y-axis; this axis is called

M5 If a, b ∈ R, then
the imaginary axis.

a × b = b × a. commutativity
Addition and multiplication
D If a, b, c ∈ R, then
a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c. distributivity

18
 I3

3 Complex arithmetic 7 Arithmetic in C

Arithmetical operations on complex numbers are The set of complex numbers C satisfies all the

carried out as for real numbers, except that we properties previously given for arithmetic in R.

replace i2 by −1 wherever it occurs. (See page 18.)

Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 be any complex In particular, 0 = 0 + 0i plays the same role in C as

numbers. Then the following operations can be the real number 0 does in R, and 1 = 1 + 0i plays the

applied. same role as 1. These numbers are called the

Addition z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + y2 ) identities for addition and multiplication,

respectively.

Subtraction z1 − z2 = (x1 − x2 ) + i(y1 − y2 )

The additive inverse (or negative) of z = x + iy is
Multiplication z1 z2 = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + y1 x2 )
−z = −x − iy, and the multiplicative inverse
4 Complex conjugates (or reciprocal) of z = x + iy is
The complex conjugate z of the complex number z x − iy
= 2 , for z = 0.
z = x + iy is the complex number x − iy. |z|2 x + y2
Properties of complex conjugates Let z1 , z2 Unlike the real numbers, the complex numbers are
and z be any complex numbers. Then: not ordered.
1. z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 ; 8 Polar form
2. z1 z2 = z1 × z2 ; A non-zero complex number z = x + iy is in polar
3. z + z = 2 Re z; form if it is expressed as
4. z − z = 2i Im z. r(cos θ + i sin θ),
5 The modulus of a complex number where r = |z| and θ is any angle (measured in radians
The modulus |z| of a complex number z is the anticlockwise) between the positive direction of the
distance from the point z in the complex plane to the
x-axis and the line joining z to the origin.
origin.
Such an angle θ is called an argument of the
Thus the modulus of the complex number z = x + iy
complex number z, and is denoted by arg z. The
is
principal argument of z is the value of arg z that
 lies in the interval (−π, π], and is denoted by Arg z.
|z| = x2 + y 2 .
Sometimes we refer to z = x + iy as the Cartesian
Properties of modulus form of z, to distinguish it from the polar form.
1. |z| ≥ 0 for any z ∈ C, with equality only when 9 Converting from and to polar form
z = 0.
The values in the table below will help you in some
2. |z1 z2 | = |z1 | |z2 | for any z1 , z2 ∈ C.
special cases.
Distance Formula The distance between the
points z1 and z2 in the complex plane is |z1 − z2 |. θ 0 π/6 π/4 π/3 π/2
Conjugate–modulus properties √
1 √1 3
sin θ 0 1
1. |z | = |z | for all z ∈ C. √
2 2 2
3 √1 1
2. zz = |z |2 for all z ∈ C. cos θ 1 2 2 2 0

6 Division of complex numbers The following formulas are also helpful:

The second of the conjugate–modulus properties sin(π − θ) = sin θ, cos(π − θ) = − cos θ;

enables us to find reciprocals of complex numbers sin(−θ) = − sin θ, cos(−θ) = cos θ.
and to divide one complex number by another. As
To convert a complex number from polar form to
for real numbers, we cannot find a reciprocal of zero,
Cartesian form, use the equations
nor divide any complex number by zero.
1 1×z z x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ.
Reciprocal = = 2 , for z =  0.
z z×z |z| (Conversion from Cartesian form to polar form
z1 z1 × z 2 z1 z2 follows.)
Quotient = = , for z2 = 0.
z2 z2 × z 2 |z2 |2

19
I3

To convert a non-zero complex number z from 11 Roots of a complex number

Cartesian form x + iy to polar form r(cos θ + i sin θ), If a is a complex number, then the solutions of the
first find the modulus r using the formula
 equation z n = a are called the nth roots of a.
r = x2 + y 2 . Let a = ρ(cos φ + i sin φ) be a complex number in
If z is either real or imaginary, then it lies on one of polar form. Then, for any n ∈ N, the equation z n = a
the axes and has principal argument 0, π/2, π or has n solutions, given by




−π/2. Otherwise, to find the principal argument θ, 1/n φ 2kπ φ 2kπ
first find the first-quadrant angle φ that satisfies the z=ρ cos + + i sin + ,
n n n n
equation for k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1.
|x|
cos φ = . The nth roots of a complex number are equally
r spaced around a circle with centre the origin. The
Then determine the quadrant in which z lies (from nth roots of 1 are known as the nth roots of unity.
the values of x and y; it may be helpful to sketch z on
an Argand diagram), and calculate θ from φ by using 12 Roots of polynomials
the appropriate equation from the diagram below. If p(z) is a polynomial, then the solutions of the
polynomial equation p(z) = 0 are called the roots
(or zeros) of p(z).
(Thus the nth roots of the complex number a are the
roots of the polynomial z n − a.)
Every polynomial equation with complex coefficients
has a complex solution; this is the Fundamental
Theorem of Algebra.

Theorem 2.2

Polynomial Factorisation Theorem

10 If
Let p(z) be a polynomial of degree n with
z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ), z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ), coefficients in C and let α ∈ C. Then p(α) = 0 if
then and only if
z1 z2 = r1 r2 (cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )) p(z) = (z − α)q(z),
and where q(z) is a polynomial of degree n − 1 with
z1 r1
= (cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 − θ2 )),
coefficients in C.
z2 r2

provided that z2 = 0.
In particular, if z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) with r = 0, then
the reciprocal of z is
Corollary Every polynomial
p(z) = an z n + an−1 z n−1 + · · · + a1 z + a0 , where
1 1
= (cos(−θ) + i sin(−θ)). n ≥ 1, ai ∈ C for each i and an = 0, has a

z r factorisation

Strategy 2.1/2.2
To multiply two or more complex numbers
given in polar form, multiply their moduli and
add their arguments.
To divide a complex number z1 by a non-zero
complex number z2 when both are given in
polar form, divide the modulus of z1 by the
modulus of z2 , and subtract the argument of z2
from the argument of z1 .
iθ is
Theorem 2.1 de Moivre’s Theorem
p(z) = an (z − α1 )(z − α2 ) · · · (z − αn ),
where the complex numbers α1 , α2 , . . . , αn are
the roots (not necessarily distinct) of p(z).
13 The complex exponential function
If z = x + iy, then
ez = ex eiy = ex (cos y + i sin y).
Euler’s formula If y ∈ R, then
eiy = cos y + i sin y.
A complex number expressed in the form z = re
said to be in exponential form.

If z = cos θ + i sin θ, then, for any n ∈ Z, Using this notation, de Moivre’s Theorem

z n = (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ. becomes the simple result

(eiθ )n = einθ , for all θ ∈ R and all n ∈ Z.

20
 I3

3 Modular arithmetic 4 Arithmetic in Zn

Addition
1 The Division Algorithm describes the result of A1 If a, b ∈ Zn , then
dividing an integer a by a positive integer n. a +n b ∈ Zn . closure
A2 If a ∈ Zn , then
Theorem 3.1 Division Algorithm a +n 0 = 0 +n a = a. identity
Let a and n be integers, with n > 0. Then there A3 If a ∈ Zn , then there is a
are unique integers q and r such that number b ∈ Zn such that
a +n b = b +n a = 0. inverses
a = qn + r, with 0 ≤ r < n.
A4 If a, b, c ∈ Zn , then
(a +n b) +n c = a +n (b +n c). associativity
We say that dividing a by the divisor n gives A5 If a, b ∈ Zn , then
quotient q and remainder r.
a +n b = b +n a. commutativity
2 Congruence Multiplication
Let n be a positive integer. Two integers a and b are M1 If a, b ∈ Zn , then
congruent modulo n if a − b is a multiple of n; a ×n b ∈ Zn . closure
that is, if a and b have the same remainder on M2 If a ∈ Zn , then
division by n.
a ×n 1 = 1 ×n a = a. identity
In symbols, we write
M4 If a, b, c ∈ Zn , then
a ≡ b (mod n). (a ×n b) ×n c = a ×n (b ×n c). associativity
Such a statement is called a congruence, and n is M5 If a, b ∈ Zn , then
called the modulus of the congruence.
a ×n b = b ×n a. commutativity
Addition and multiplication
Theorem 3.2 Properties of congruences D If a, b, c ∈ Zn , then
Let n and k be positive integers, and let a, b, c a ×n (b +n c) = a ×n b +n a ×n c.
and d be integers. Then distributivity
(a) a ≡ a (mod n); If a, b ∈ Zn and a +n b = 0, then we say that b is the
(b) if a ≡ b (mod n), then b ≡ a (mod n); additive inverse of a in Zn , sometimes denoted
(c) if a ≡ b (mod n) and b ≡ c (mod n), then by −n a.
a ≡ c (mod n); If a, b ∈ Zn and a ×n b = b ×n a = 1, then we say
(d) if a ≡ b (mod n) and c ≡ d (mod n), then that b is the multiplicative inverse of a in Zn ,
a + c ≡ b + d (mod n); denoted by a−1 .
(e) if a ≡ b (mod n) and c ≡ d (mod n), then For some n, the set Zn contains non-zero elements
ac ≡ bd (mod n); that do not have multiplicative inverses, so in general
the inverses property M3 does not hold for
(f) if a ≡ b (mod n), then ak ≡ bk (mod n).
multiplication in Zn .

3 For any integer n ≥ 2, 5 Two positive integers a and b have a common

Zn = {0, 1, . . . , n − 1}.
For a and b in Zn , the operations +n and ×n are
defined by:
a +n b is the remainder of a + b on division by n;
a ×n b is the remainder of a × b on division by n.
The integer n is called the modulus for this
arithmetic.
factor c, where c is a positive integer, if a and b are
both divisible by c.
The largest common factor of a and b is usually
called their greatest common factor.
Two positive integers a and b are said to be
coprime, or relatively prime, if their only
common factor is 1.
6 Multiplicative inverses

Theorem 3.3 Let n and a be positive

integers, with a in Zn . Then a has a
multiplicative inverse in Zn if and only if a and
n are coprime.

21
I3

4 Equivalence relations
Corollary to Theorem 3.3 Let p be a
prime number. Then every non-zero element in 1 Relations
Zp has a multiplicative inverse in Zp . We say that ∼ is a relation on a set X if whenever

x, y ∈ X, the statement x ∼ y is either true or false.

If x ∼ y is true, then x is related to y.

If p is prime, then for Zp we can add the following

property to the list of properties for multiplication If x ∼ y is false, then x is not related to y and we

in Zn . write x  y.

M3 If a ∈ Zp , and a =
 0, then a has a An equivalence relation on a set X is a relation ∼

multiplicative inverse a−1 ∈ Zp such that on X which satisfies the following three properties.

a ×p a−1 = a−1 ×p a = 1. inverses E1 reflexive For all x ∈ X,

This property does not hold for Zn if n is not prime. x ∼ x.

7 The multiplicative inverse of a in Zn , where a
and n are coprime, can be found by using Euclid’s
Algorithm as follows.
1. Apply the Division Algorithm repeatedly,
starting by dividing n by a, then a by the
remainder of the first division, then the
remainder of the first division by the remainder
of the second division, and so on, until the
remainder 1 is reached.
2. Use the final equation from step 1 to express the
final remainder 1 in terms of the previous two
remainders.
3. In this expression, substitute for the second-last
remainder using the second-last equation from
step 1, and rearrange to express 1 in terms of the
two remainders previous to the second-last one.
Then substitute for the third-last remainder
using the third-last equation, and so on, until 1 is
E2 symmetric For all x, y ∈ X,
if x ∼ y, then y ∼ x.
E3 transitive For all x, y, z ∈ X,
if x ∼ y and y ∼ z, then x ∼ z.
A collection of non-empty subsets of a set is a
partition of the set if every two subsets in the
collection are disjoint (have no elements in common)
and the union of all the subsets in the collection is
the whole set.
Let ∼ be an equivalence relation defined on a set X;
then the equivalence class of x ∈ X, denoted
by [[x]], is the set
[[x]] = {y ∈ X : x ∼ y}.
Thus [[x]] is the set of all elements in X related to x.
Theorem 4.1 The equivalence classes

expressed in terms of a and n. associated with an equivalence relation on a

set X have the following properties.

4. Rearrange the equation obtained in step 3 to

express a multiple of a as a multiple of n plus 1,
and deduce the inverse of a in Zn .
In the above steps, ‘in terms of’ two numbers means
‘as a multiple of one of the numbers plus a multiple
(a) Each x ∈ X is in an equivalence class.
(b) For all x, y ∈ X, the equivalence classes [[x]]
and [[y]] are either equal or disjoint.
Thus the equivalence classes form a partition

of the other number’. of X.

8 Linear equations in modular arithmetic

The linear equation It is sometimes useful to choose a particular element
x in each equivalence class and denote the class
a ×n x = c,
by [[x]]. The element x that we choose is called a
where a, c ∈ Zn , can have no solutions, exactly one representative of the class.
solution, or more than one solution x in Zn , as
follows.
If a and n are coprime, then the equation has exactly
one solution in Zn , namely x = a−1 ×n c.
If a and n have a common factor d ≥ 2 that is not
also a factor of c, then the equation has no solutions
in Zn .
If a and n have greatest common factor d ≥ 2, and d
is a factor of c, then the equation has d solutions
in Zn , namely
x = b, x = b + n/d, . . . , x = b + (d − 1)n/d,
where b is the smallest solution.

22
 GTA1

Group Theory Block A

GTA1 Symmetry Composition of rotations and reflections follows a

standard pattern, as follows.
◦ rotation reflection

1 Symmetry in R2 rotation rotation reflection

reflection reflection rotation
1 A plane figure is any subset of the plane R2 . Composing a reflection with itself gives the identity.
A bounded figure in R is a figure that can be

2
4 Properties of symmetries
surrounded by a circle (of finite radius).
Let F be a plane figure.

An isometry of the plane is a function f : R2 −→ R2

The set of symmetries S(F ) of F is closed under

that preserves distances; that is, for all x, y ∈ R2 , the

composition of functions; that is, for all f, g ∈ S(F ),

distance between f (x) and f (y) is the same as the

g ◦ f ∈ S(F ).

distance between x and y.

The set S(F ) contains an identity symmetry e

A symmetry of a figure F is an isometry mapping

such that, for each symmetry f ∈ S(F ),
F to itself—that is, an isometry f : R2 −→ R2 such

f ◦ e = f = e ◦ f.
that f (F ) = F .

For each symmetry f ∈ S(F ), there is an inverse

A symmetry of a plane figure is a one-one and onto

symmetry f −1 ∈ S(F ) such that

function.

f ◦ f −1 = e = f −1 ◦ f.
The set of all symmetries of a plane figure F is

denoted by S(F ).
Composition of symmetries is associative; that is,
for all f, g, h ∈ S(F ),
2 Each symmetry of a bounded plane figure is of

h ◦ (g ◦ f ) = (h ◦ g) ◦ f.
one of the following types.

• The identity : equivalent to doing nothing to a 5 If f ◦ f = e, then f −1 = f , and we say that f is

figure.
• A rotation: specified by a centre and an angle of
rotation.
• A reflection : specified by a line—the axis of
symmetry.
The identity is sometimes called the trivial
symmetry. It can be regarded as a zero rotation (or
zero translation).
We always measure angles anticlockwise, and
interpret negative angles as clockwise.
Although a translation is an isometry, a non-trivial
translation cannot be a symmetry of a bounded
figure because it does not map the figure onto itself.
However, a translation can be a symmetry of an
unbounded figure.
Two symmetries f and g of a figure F are equal if
they have the same effect on F ; that is, f (x) = g(x)
for all x ∈ F .
3 Composition of symmetries
Order of composition is important. If f, g ∈ S(F ),
then g ◦ f may not be equal to f ◦ g. That is, in
general, composition of symmetries is not
commutative.
self-inverse. All reflections are self-inverse.
6 A regular n-gon is a polygon with n equal edges
and n equal angles. In general, a regular n-gon has
2n symmetries: n rotations (through multiples
of 2π/n) and n reflections in the axes of symmetry
through the centre.
7 Symmetries of the disc
Rotation about the centre through any angle is a
symmetry of the disc. Likewise, reflection in any axis
through the centre is a symmetry of the disc. Thus
the disc has infinitely many rotational and infinitely
many reflectional symmetries.
We denote a rotation about the centre through an
angle θ by rθ , and a reflection in the axis of
symmetry making an angle φ with the horizontal axis
by qφ , as shown below.

23
GTA1
We restrict the angles for rotations to the interval
[0, 2π), and the angles for axes of symmetry to the
interval [0, π). So our symmetries are:
rθ : rotation through an angle θ about the
centre, for θ ∈ [0, 2π);
qφ : reflection in the line through the centre
at an angle φ to the horizontal
(measured anticlockwise), for φ ∈ [0, π).
We denote the set of all symmetries of the disc by
S(
), read as ‘S-disc’:
S(
) = {rθ : θ ∈ [0, 2π)} ∪ {qφ : φ ∈ [0, π)}.
General formulas for the composition of elements in
S(
) are given in the following table.
◦ rθ qθ
rφ r(φ+θ) (mod 2π) q( 12 φ+θ) (mod π)
qφ q(φ− 12 θ) (mod π) r2(φ−θ) (mod 2π)
8 Direct and indirect symmetries The
symmetries of a plane figure F that we can physically
demonstrate without lifting a model out of the plane
to turn it over are called direct symmetries. We
denote the set of direct symmetries of a figure F by
S + (F ).
The remaining symmetries are called indirect
symmetries: they are the symmetries that cannot be
demonstrated physically without lifting a model out
of the plane, turning it over and then replacing it in
the plane.
Rotations and translations are direct symmetries,
whereas reflections are indirect symmetries.
Composition of direct and indirect symmetries
follows a standard pattern, as follows.
◦ direct indirect
direct direct indirect
indirect indirect direct
Further properties of direct and indirect symmetries
are given in item 5 on page 26.
A glide-reflection is a type of indirect symmetry of
an unbounded plane figure. It is a composite of a
reflection and a translation.
Rotations, reflections, translations and
glide-reflections are the only possible symmetries of
plane figures.
2 Representing symmetries
1 Let f be a symmetry of a polygonal figure F
which moves the vertices of the figure F originally at
the locations labelled 1, 2, 3, . . . , n to the locations
labelled f (1), f (2), f (3), . . . , f (n), respectively.
24
The two-line symbol representing f is


1 2 3 ··· n
.
f (1) f (2) f (3) · · · f (n)
The order of the columns in the symbol is not
important, although we usually use the natural order
to aid recognition.
To determine g ◦ f , the composite of two
symmetries g and f written as two-line symbols, we
reorder the columns of the symbol for g to make its
top line match the order of the bottom line of the
symbol for f . We then read off the two-line symbol
for the composite g ◦ f as the top line of the symbol
for f and the bottom line of the symbol for g.
To find the inverse of f , we interchange the rows of
its two-line symbol. Reordering the columns in the
symbol into the natural order is optional but may
make the inverse easier to recognise.
2 To form the Cayley table for the elements of a
set S(F ) of symmetries, we list the elements of S(F )
across the top and down the left-hand side of a
square array, using the same ordering across the top
and down the side. Normally we put the identity
symmetry e first, as shown below.
For any two elements x and y of S(F ), the composite
x ◦ y is recorded in the cell in the row labelled x and
the column labelled y.
e ··· x ··· y ···
e
.. ..
. .
x ··· x ◦ y ···
.. ..
. .
y
..
.
Note that x is on the left both in the composite and
in the border of the table.
The leading diagonal of a Cayley table is the
diagonal from top left to bottom right.
3 Group axioms
1 A binary operation is a means of combining
two elements.
Let G be a set and let ◦ be a binary operation
defined on G. Then (G, ◦) is a group if the following
four axioms G1–G4 hold.
G1 closure For all g1 , g2 ∈ G,
g1 ◦ g2 ∈ G.
G2 identity There exists an identity
element e ∈ G such that, for all
g ∈ G,
g ◦ e = g = e ◦ g.

G3 inverses For each g ∈ G, there exists an
inverse element g −1 ∈ G such
that
g ◦ g −1 = e = g −1 ◦ g.
G4 associativity For all g1 , g2 , g3 ∈ G,
g1 ◦ (g2 ◦ g3 ) = (g1 ◦ g2 ) ◦ g3 .
A group (G, ◦) that has the additional property that
for all g1 , g2 ∈ G,
g1 ◦ g2 = g2 ◦ g1 ,
is an Abelian group (or commutative group).
A group that is not Abelian is called non-Abelian.
Strategy 3.1 To determine whether (G, ◦) is
a group.
guess behaviour, . . . check definition.
To show that (G, ◦) is a group, show that each
of the axioms G1, G2, G3 and G4 holds.
To show that (G, ◦) is not a group, show that
any one of the axioms G1, G2, G3 or G4 fails;
that is,
show that ◦ is not closed on G,
or show that there is no identity element in G,
or find one element in G with no inverse in G,
or show that ◦ is not associative.
2 A group (G, ◦) is a finite group if G is a finite
set; otherwise, G is an infinite group.
function f is the inverse function f −1 .
If G is a finite set with exactly n (distinct) elements,
For addition of real and complex numbers, the
then the group (G, ◦) has order n and we denote
inverse of x is −x.
this by writing
For multiplication of real and complex numbers, the
|G| = n;
otherwise, (G, ◦) has infinite order.
Examples of finite groups
(Z4 , +4 ), (Z5 , +5 ), (Z∗5 , ×5 ) where Z∗5 = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
Examples of infinite groups
(Z, +), (R∗ , ×) where R∗ = R − {0}.
3 Uniqueness properties In any group:
the identity element is unique;
each element has a unique inverse.
4 We can form a Cayley table for any small set G
and binary operation ◦ defined on G in the same way
as for sets of symmetries. (See page 24.)
A group table is a Cayley table that represents a
group.
A Cayley table for (G, ◦) is a group table if it has all
of the following properties.
(G1) The table contains only the elements of the
set G; that is, no new elements appear in the
body of the table.
GTA1
(G2) A row and a column with the same label
repeat the borders of the table. The
corresponding element is an identity element,
e say.
(G3) The identity element e occurs exactly once in
each row and column, and e also occurs
symmetrically about the leading diagonal.
(This ensures that each element of G has an
inverse in G.)
(To find the inverse of the element x, look
along the row labelled x until you meet the
identity e; then x−1 is the label of this
column.)
(G4) The operation ◦ is associative.
(This property is not easy to check from a
Cayley table.)
If a group table has the following property, then the
group is Abelian:
the table is symmetrical about the leading
diagonal.
5 Standard identities
For composition of functions, the identity is x −→ x.
For addition of real and complex numbers, the
identity is 0.
For multiplication of real and complex numbers, the
identity is 1.
6 Standard inverses
For composition of functions, the inverse of the
inverse of x is x−1 = 1/x, provided that x = 0.
7 Standard associative operations
The following operations are associative and may be
quoted as such:
composition of functions;
addition of real and complex numbers,
modular addition;
multiplication of real and complex numbers,
modular multiplication.
(See also page 75, Section 5, item 3.)
8 For four elements a, b, c, d and an associative
operation ◦, an expression such as a ◦ b ◦ c ◦ d is
unambiguous, and this is true for composites of any
finite number of elements. We need not consider the
order in which the compositions are carried out, but
the order in which the elements appear must be
maintained.
25
GTA1

4 Proofs in group theory 2 An isometry of R3 is a distance-preserving map

1 Properties of inverses In any group (G, ◦),
if g ∈ G and g has inverse g −1 ∈ G,
then g −1 has inverse g.
In symbols, we write
(g −1 )−1 = g.
In any group (G, ◦), with x, y ∈ G,
(x ◦ y)−1 = y −1 ◦ x−1 .
2 Properties of group tables
In a group table:
• the identity e occurs exactly once in each row
and each column of the table, and in symmetrical
positions with respect to the leading diagonal;
• each element of the group occurs exactly once in
each row and exactly once in each column.
Warning A Cayley table with the above properties
is not necessarily a group table (because the
associativity axiom may fail).
3 A group element x is self-inverse if and only if the
element on the leading diagonal in the row labelled x
in the group table is the identity e.
4 Cancellation laws In any group (G, ◦) with
elements a, b and x:
if x ◦ a = x ◦ b, then a = b;
if a ◦ x = b ◦ x, then a = b.
f : R3 −→ R3 .
A symmetry of a figure F in R3 is an isometry
mapping F onto itself—that is, an isometry
f : R3 −→ R3 such that f (F ) = F .
Two symmetries of a figure F are equal if they have
the same effect on F .
3 A rotation of of a figure F in R3 is a symmetry
specified by an axis of symmetry (also called axis of
rotation), a direction of rotation and the angle
through which the figure is rotated.
A reflection of F is a symmetry specified by the
plane in which the reflection takes place.
4 Direct and indirect symmetries Symmetries
of a figure in R3 that we can demonstrate physically
with a model (for polyhedra, this means rotations)
are called direct symmetries, whereas those that we
cannot show physically with the model are called
indirect symmetries.
5 Properties of direct and indirect
symmetries
The following results apply to figures in R3 , and also
to figures in R2 .
1. Composition of direct and indirect symmetries
follows a standard pattern, as follows.
◦ direct indirect
direct direct indirect

indirect indirect direct

2. The set S(F ) of all symmetries of a figure F

5 Symmetry in R3 forms a group under composition.
3. The set S + (F ) of all direct symmetries of a
1 A figure in R3 is any subset of R3 . figure F forms a group under composition.
4. If the group S(F ) is finite, then it comprises
A bounded figure in R3 is a figure that can be
either
surrounded by a sphere (of finite radius).
• all direct symmetries, or
A bounded non-planar figure with polygonal faces is
called a polyhedron. • half direct symmetries and half indirect
symmetries.
A convex polyhedron is a polyhedron without dents,

dimples or spikes.
5. If the group S(F ) contains n direct and n
A regular polyhedron (Platonic solid) is a convex
indirect symmetries, then the n indirect
polyhedron in which all the faces are congruent
symmetries may be obtained by composing each
regular polygons and each vertex is the junction of
of the n direct symmetries with any one fixed
the same numbers of edges and faces, arranged in the
indirect symmetry.
same way.

There are precisely five regular polyhedra:

the tetrahedron, which has four triangular faces;

the cube, which has six square faces;

the octahedron, which has eight triangular faces;

the dodecahedron, which has twelve pentagonal

faces;

the icosahedron, which has twenty triangular faces.

26
 GTA2

6 Counting symmetries of polyhedra GTA2 Groups and subgroups

The order of the symmetry group of a polyhedron can
be calculated by using one of the following strategies.

1 Groups and subgroups

Strategy 5.1 To determine the number of
symmetries of a regular polyhedron. 1 A subgroup of a group (G, ◦) is a group (H, ◦),

1. Count the number of faces. where H is a subset of G.

2. Count the number of symmetries of a face. A subgroup has the same binary operation as the

Then parent group, and the same identity element.

⎛ ⎞
number of

⎝ symmetries of
⎠
regular polyhedron
Theorem 1.1 Let (G, ◦) be a group with


 identity e and let H be a subset of G. Then

=
number of
×
number of

.
(H, ◦) is a subgroup of (G, ◦) if and only if the
faces symmetries of face following three properties hold.
SG1 closure For all h1 , h2 ∈ H, the
composite h1 ◦ h2 ∈ H.
Strategy 5.2 To determine the number of
SG2 identity The identity element e ∈ H.
symmetries of a non-regular polyhedron. SG3 inverses For each h ∈ H, the inverse

1. Select one type of face and count the element h−1 ∈ H.

number of similar faces which are similarly

placed in the polyhedron.
Every group with more than one element has at least
2. Count the symmetries of the face within the
two subgroups: the group (G, ◦) itself, and the
polyhedron (that is, the symmetries of the
trivial subgroup ({e}, ◦) consisting of the identity
face that are also symmetries of the
element alone. A subgroup other than the whole
polyhedron).
group (G, ◦) is called a proper subgroup.
Then
⎛ ⎞
number of
⎝
symmetries of
⎠ Strategy 1.2 To determine whether (H, ◦) is
polyhedron
a subgroup of (G, ◦), where H ⊆ G.
⎛ ⎞
guess behaviour, . . . check definition.
⎛ ⎞ number of
number of ⎜ symmetries of face ⎟ To show that (H, ◦) is a subgroup, show that

⎜ ⎟
= ⎝ faces of ⎠ × ⎜ that are also ⎟ . each of the properties SG1, SG2 and SG3
selected type ⎝
symmetries of ⎠
holds.
polyhedron
To show that (H, ◦) is not a subgroup, show
that any one of the properties SG1, SG2 or
SG3 fails; that is,
show that ◦ is not closed on H,
or show that e ∈ / H,
or find one element h ∈ H for which h−1 ∈ / H.

If H is not a subset of G, then (H, ◦) cannot be a

subgroup of (G, ◦).
2 The symmetry group S(F ) of a figure F has a
subgroup S + (F ), the subgroup of direct symmetries
of F . (For a figure F with no indirect symmetries,
S + (F ) = S(F ).)

27
GTA2

Strategy 1.3 To find a subgroup of a given Theorem 2.1 Let x be an element of a

symmetry group of a figure, carry out one of the group G. If x has order n, then x has exactly
following. n distinct elements.
• Modify the figure to restrict its symmetry, In multiplicative notation,
for example, by introducing a pattern of x = {e, x, x2 , . . . , xn−1 }.

lines or shapes, and then determine which of

In additive notation,

the symmetries of the original figure are

symmetries of the new figure. x = {0, x, 2x, . . . , (n − 1)x}.

• Find the symmetries of the figure that fix a

particular vertex (or particular vertices).
Theorem 2.2 Let x be an element of a

group (G, ◦), which may be a finite or an

infinite group. Then

2 Cyclic groups (x, ◦) is a subgroup of (G, ◦).

1 Let x be an element of a group (G, ◦). Powers of Usually, we omit the symbol ‘◦’ and write just
x are defined inductively, as follows:
x is a subgroup of G.
x0 = e, the identity element;
 5 Let x be an element of a group (G, ◦); then
xn = xn−1
 ◦x
n where n ∈ Z+ .
x−n = x−1 x is a cyclic subgroup of G;
The set of all powers of x is written as x is generated by x;
x = {xk : k ∈ Z}; x is a generator of x.
this is the subset of G generated by x. If x has order n, then x has finite order, and x is
a finite cyclic subgroup of order n.
2 The previous statements may be ‘translated’ into
additive notation. 6 A group (G, ◦) is a cyclic group if there exists
an element x ∈ G such that x = G; if there is no
Multiplicative notation Additive notation such x, then G is non-cyclic.
identity e or 1 identity 0

x × x = x2 x + x = 2x
Theorem 2.3 Let G be a finite group of

inverse x−1 inverse −x

order n. Then G is cyclic if and only if G

x n nx contains an element of order n.

x
−n −nx
x × xt = xs+t

s
sx + tx = (s + t)x
x = {xk : k ∈ Z}
x = {kx : k ∈ Z} All cyclic groups are Abelian (but not all Abelian

(powers)
(multiples) groups are cyclic).

7 Let x be an element of a group (G, ◦). If there is

3 Generated sets have the following properties: no positive integer n such that xn = e, then x has

e = {e}; infinite order, and all the powers of x are distinct.

x−1  = x; In this case, x is the infinite cyclic subgroup

if x is self-inverse (i.e. x2 = e), then x = {e, x}. generated by x.

4 Let x be an element of a group (G, ◦). If n is the In multiplicative notation,

least positive integer such that xn = e, then x has
order n.
Thus the term ‘order’ has two (related) meanings in
group theory: the order of an element is defined here,
and the order of a group, defined earlier, is the
number of its elements.
x = {. . . , x−k , . . . , x−2 , x−1 , x0 , x, x2 , . . . , xk , . . .}
(where x0 = e).
In additive notation,
x = {. . . , −kx, . . . , −2x, −x, 0, x, 2x, . . . , kx, . . .}
8 The infinite group (S(
), ◦) has both finite and
infinite cyclic subgroups. For example,
qφ  = {e, qφ } has order 2, for any φ ∈ [0, π);
r2π/n  = {e, r2π/n , r4π/n , . . . , r2(n−1)π/n } has order n,
for any n ∈ N;
r1  has infinite order.

28

3 Isomorphisms
1 For any positive integer n, the group table for
(Zn , +n ) exhibits a pattern of diagonal stripes when
we list the elements in the border in the natural
order.
2 Two groups (G, ◦) and (H, ∗) are isomorphic if
there exists a mapping φ : G −→ H such that both
the following statements hold.
(a) φ is one-one and onto.
(b) For all g1 , g2 ∈ G,
φ(g1 ◦ g2 ) = φ(g1 ) ∗ φ(g2 ).
Such a function φ is called an isomorphism.
We write (G, ◦) ∼
= (H, ∗) to denote that the groups
(G, ◦) and (H, ∗) are isomorphic. (We sometimes
abbreviate this to G ∼
= H, with the group operations
being understood.)
There may be more than one isomorphism mapping
G onto H.
3 An isomorphism is one-one and onto, so
isomorphic groups (G, ◦) and (H, ∗) have the same
order:
either (G, ◦) and (H, ∗) are both infinite groups,
= |H|, then (G, ◦)  (H, ∗).
or (G, ◦) and (H, ∗) are both finite groups
and |G| = |H|.
Two finite groups are isomorphic if and only if their
other is not, or if one group is cyclic and the
group tables can be arranged to exhibit the same
pattern.
4 Isomorphic groups have the same structure; for
example, any group isomorphic to an Abelian group
is Abelian, and any group isomorphic to a cyclic
group is cyclic.
GTA2
5 The set of all groups can be divided into classes,
called isomorphism classes, as follows. Two groups
belong to the same isomorphism class if they are
isomorphic, but to different classes otherwise; each
group belongs to exactly one class.
There are exactly two isomorphism classes for groups
of order 4: one contains cyclic groups; the other
contains groups in which each element is self-inverse.
C4 denotes a typical cyclic group of order 4;
K4 denotes a typical group of order 4 in which
each element is self-inverse (referred to as the
Klein group).
Strategy 3.1 To show that two groups
(G, ◦) and (H, ∗) are isomorphic, show that
there is a mapping φ : G −→ H such that:
1. φ is one-one and onto;
2. for all g1 , g2 ∈ G,
φ(g1 ◦ g2 ) = φ(g1 ) ∗ φ(g2 ).
If (G, ◦) and (H, ∗) are finite groups of (the
same) small order, it is sufficient to construct
the Cayley tables for the two groups and to
rearrange one of them to exhibit the same
pattern as the other. Then write down a
one-one onto mapping φ : G −→ H which
matches up the Cayley tables.
If (G, ◦) and (H, ∗) are infinite groups or finite
groups of (the same) large order, find a suitable
mapping φ and show that it has properties 1
and 2.
Strategy 3.2 To show that two finite groups
(G, ◦) and (H, ∗) are not isomorphic, try any of
the following methods.
• Compare the orders |G| and |H|: if
|G| 
• Ascertain whether G and H are cyclic or
Abelian: if one group is Abelian and the
other is not, then (G, ◦)  (H, ∗).
• If the order is small, compare the entries in
the leading diagonals of the group tables for
G and H. For example, count the number
of times the identity element appears and
count the number of different elements that
appear. If either of these counts differs
between the two groups, then
(G, ◦)  (H, ∗).
29
GTA2

6 Isomorphisms of cyclic groups

Theorem 3.1 Two cyclic groups of the same
order are isomorphic.
Theorem 4.3 The group (Zn , +n ) has
exactly one cyclic subgroup of order m for each
divisor m ∈ N of n. This subgroup is either 0
(in the case where m = 1), or is generated by q,
where mq = n.

Strategy 3.3 To find an isomorphism

between two finite cyclic groups G and H of the
same order. Theorem 4.4 Let (G, ◦) be a cyclic group
1. Find a generator g of G and a generator h (finite or infinite). Then all the subgroups of
of H. (G, ◦) are cyclic.
2. Construct the following isomorphism φ:
φ : G −→ H
Theorems 4.3 and 4.4 together give us a way of
g− 
→ h finding all the subgroups of a given finite cyclic
k
g −→
 hk , for k = 2, 3, . . . . group: we just find all its distinct cyclic subgroups.
2 Multiplicative modular arithmetics
We define
7 The symbol Cn denotes a typical cyclic group of
order n, generated by x: Z ∗n = Zn − {0} = {1, 2, 3, . . . , n − 1}.
 
Cn = x = e, x, x2 , . . . , xn−1 : xn = e .
Theorem 4.5 Let p be a prime number.
8 Properties of isomorphisms
Then (Z∗p , ×p ) is a group of order p − 1.
The relation is isomorphic to, denoted by ∼ =, is an
equivalence relation on the set of all groups.
If (G, ◦) and (H, ∗) are groups with identities eG
and eH , respectively, and φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗) is an Theorem 4.6 For each n ∈ N, the set of all
isomorphism, then φ has the following properties. numbers in Zn that are coprime to n forms a
group under ×n .
1. identity φ matches the identity elements:
φ(eG ) = eH .
2. inverses φ matches inverses:
for each g ∈ G,
 
φ g −1 = (φ(g))−1 .
3. powers φ matches ‘powers’:
for each g ∈ G and each k ∈ Z,
 
φ g k = (φ(g))k .

4 Groups from modular arithmetics

1 Additive modular arithmetics

Theorem 4.1 For each n ∈ N, (Zn , +n ) is a

cyclic group of order n and 1 is a generator.

Theorem 4.2 Let r be a non-zero element

of Zn . Then r is a generator of (Zn , +n ) if and
only if r is coprime to n.

30

GTA3 Permutations
1 Permutations
1 A permutation of a finite set S is a one-one
function from S onto S.
We refer to the elements of S as the ‘symbols being
3 When a cycle consists of a single symbol, the
permuted’. Usually we take S = {1, 2, . . . , n}.
permutation maps that symbol to itself. We say that
2 A permutation can be written as a two-line
example,
symbol. An example of a permutation of
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} written in this way is
f = (1 6 3)(2)(4 7)(5) fixes both 2 and 5.


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
f= . written as a product of disjoint cycles.
4 6 8 3 1 2 7 5
Here 1 maps to 4, 2 maps to 6, and so on.
The same permutation f can also be written in
cycle form:
f = (1 4 3 8 5)(2 6)(7).
This notation indicates that f maps the symbols as
follows.
We say that f is the product of the disjoint cycles
(1 4 3 8 5), (2 6) and (7). Here disjoint means that
each symbol belongs to only one cycle.
As a cycle has no particular starting point, we can
write any of its symbols down first. Also, disjoint
cycles can be written in any order. Thus, for
example,
f = (6 2)(7)(3 8 5 1 4) or f = (7)(5 1 4 3 8)(2 6).
However, we usually write the smallest symbol in
each cycle first, and arrange the cycles with their
smallest symbols in increasing order.
Strategy 1.1 To find the cycle form of a
permutation f .
1. Choose any symbol (such as 1) and find its
successive images under f until you
encounter the starting symbol again.
2. Write these symbols as a cycle.
3. Repeat the process starting with any
symbol which has not yet been used, until
there are no symbols left.
GTA3
Theorem 1.1 Any permutation can be
broken down into disjoint cycles. This cycle
form is unique, apart from the choice of starting
symbol in each cycle and the order in which the
cycles are written.
the symbol is fixed by the permutation. For
A permutation is written in cycle form when it is
When there is no ambiguity concerning which set of
symbols is being permuted, it is customary to omit
fixed symbols from the cycle form. For example, we
write the above permutation f as
f = (1 6 3)(4 7).
When working with permutations in cycle form, it is
customary to denote the identity permutation,
which fixes every symbol, by e.
4 The order in which permutations are composed is
important: if f and g are permutations of
{1, 2, . . . , n}, then in general f ◦ g and g ◦ f are
different permutations.
Strategy 1.2 To find the composite g ◦ f
of two permutations given in cycle form.
1. Consider the smallest symbol, 1 say. Find
f (1) and g(f (1)), and write the result,
x say, next to 1 in a cycle:
(1 x . . .), where x = g(f (1)).
2. Starting with the symbol x, repeat the
process to obtain the next symbol g(f (x))
in the cycle.
3. Continue repeating the process until the
next symbol found is the original symbol 1.
This completes the cycle.
4. Starting with the smallest symbol not yet
placed in a cycle, repeat steps 1 to 3 until
no more unplaced symbols remain.
Any permutation is equal to the composite of its
disjoint cycles; for example, if f = (1 3)(2 5 6)(7 8),
then f = (1 3) ◦ (2 5 6) ◦ (7 8).
31
GTA3

5 The inverse f −1 of a permutation f undoes 9 Two permutations in Sn have the same cycle
what f does; that is, if f maps x to y, then f −1 structure if, for each r ≥ 1, they have the same
maps y to x. number of disjoint r-cycles.
There are three different cycle structures in S3 .
Strategy 1.3 To find the inverse of a Cycle structure Elements of S3 Description
permutation which is given in cycle form,
reverse the order of the symbols in each cycle. (–)(–)(–) (1)(2)(3) = e identity
(– –)(–) (1 2), (1 3), (2 3) transpositions
For example, if f = (1 3 5 6)(2 4), then (– – –) (1 2 3), (1 3 2) 3-cycles
f −1 = (6 5 3 1)(4 2) = (1 6 5 3)(2 4). There are five different cycle structures in S4 .
6 The symmetric group Sn Cycle Elements of S4 Description
structure
Theorem 1.2 The set Sn of all (–)(–)(–)(–) (1)(2)(3)(4) = e identity
permutations of the set {1, 2, 3, . . . , n} is a
(– –)(–)(–) (1 2), (1 3), (1 4), transpositions
group under composition.
(2 3), (2 4), (3 4)
(– – –)(–) (1 2 3), (1 2 4), 3-cycles
The group Sn is called the symmetric group of (1 3 4), (1 3 2),
degree n. (1 4 2), (1 4 3),
(2 3 4), (2 4 3)
(– – – –) (1 2 3 4), (1 2 4 3), 4-cycles
Theorem 1.3 The symmetric group Sn has
(1 3 2 4), (1 3 4 2),
order n!.
(1 4 2 3), (1 4 3 2)
(– –)(– –) (1 2)(3 4), (1 3)(2 4), products of
7 A permutation group is a subgroup of Sn , for (1 4)(2 3) 2-cycles
some positive integer n. The number of symbols
involved, n, is called the degree of the permutation
group.
8 A permutation whose cycle form consists of a 2 Even and odd permutations
single cycle permuting r symbols (with all other
symbols fixed) is called an r-cycle, or a cycle of 1 When we write a permutation in cycle form, the
length r. order in which the cycles are written does not
A 2-cycle is also called a transposition. matter, because they are disjoint. However, we
For example, in S6 , cannot reorder cycles in composites in general,
because composition of permutations is not a
(1 3 5 6) is a 4-cycle,
commutative operation.
(4 6) is a transposition.
2 Any permutation may be expressed as a
composite of transpositions; such an expression is not
Theorem 1.4 An r-cycle has order r. unique.

The least common multiple of a set of positive Strategy 2.1 To express a cycle

integers is the smallest positive integer divisible by (a1 a2 a3 . . . ar ) as a composite of

each number in the set. For example, 12 is the least transpositions, write the transpositions

common multiple of {2, 3, 4}.

(a1 a2 ), (a1 a3 ), (a1 a4 ), . . . , (a1 ar )
in reverse order and form their composite. Thus
Theorem 1.5 The order of a permutation is (a1 a2 a3 . . . ar )

the least common multiple of the lengths of its

= (a1 ar ) ◦ (a1 ar−1 ) ◦ · · · ◦ (a1 a3 ) ◦ (a1 a2 ).

cycles.

To express a permutation as a composite of

transpositions, write it in cycle form, use the fact
that it is equal to the composite of its disjoint cycles,
and apply Strategy 2.1 to each of the cycles.

32

Theorem 2.1 Parity Theorem
A permutation cannot be written both as a
composite of an even number of transpositions
and as a composite of an odd number of
transpositions.
3 A permutation is even if it can be expressed as a
composite of an even number of transpositions; a
permutation is odd if it can be expressed as a
composite of an odd number of transpositions.
The evenness/oddness of a permutation is called its
parity.
Theorem 2.2 In the group Sn , an r-cycle is
an even permutation, if r is odd,
conjugate g ◦ x ◦ g −1 of x by g can be obtained by
an odd permutation, if r is even.
‘renaming’ each symbol in x using g; that is, we
In particular, a transposition is an odd
replace each symbol in the cycle form of x by its
permutation and the identity element is an even
permutation.
Strategy 2.2 To determine the parity of a
permutation.
1. Express the permutation as a composite of
cycles (either disjoint or not).
2. Find the parity of each cycle, using the rule:

even, if r is odd,
an r-cycle is
odd, if r is even.
3. Combine the even and odd parities using
the following table.
+ even odd
even even odd
odd odd even
4 Alternating group An
Theorem 2.3 The set An of all even
permutations of the set {1, 2, 3, . . . , n} is a
subgroup of the symmetric group Sn .
The group An of all even permutations of
{1, 2, . . . , n} is called the alternating group of
degree n.
Theorem 2.4 For n ≥ 2, the alternating
group An has order 12 (n!).
GTA3
The group A4 comprises the twelve elements
e, (1 2 3), (1 3 2), (1 4)(2 3),
(2 4 3), (1 3 4), (1 4 2), (1 3)(2 4),
(2 3 4), (1 4 3), (1 2 4), (1 2)(3 4).
These correspond to the twelve rotations of the
regular tetrahedron.
3 Conjugacy in Sn
1 The elements x, y ∈ Sn are conjugate in Sn if
there exists an element g ∈ Sn such that
y = g ◦ x ◦ g −1 .
The element g is a conjugating element that
conjugates x to y, and y is the conjugate of x by g.
2 If x and g are permutations in Sn , then the
image under g. For example, for x = (1 4 3)(2 6) and
g = (1 3 2 4 5), the renaming is as follows:
(1 4 3) (2 6)
g ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
(g(1) g(4) g(3)) (g(2) g(6))
= (3 5 2) (4 6)
so
g ◦ x ◦ g −1 = (3 5 2)(4 6) = (2 3 5)(4 6).
3 If x and y are elements of Sn with the same cycle
structure, then there is an element g ∈ Sn which
conjugates x to y.
Strategy 3.1 To find g ∈ Sn such that
y = g ◦ x ◦ g −1 , where x, y ∈ Sn have the same
cycle structure.
1. Match up the cycles of x and y so that
cycles of equal lengths correspond.
x = (∗∗ . . . ∗) (∗∗ . . . ∗) . . . (∗) (∗)
g↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
y = (∗∗ . . . ∗) (∗∗ . . . ∗) . . . (∗) (∗)
2. Read off the ‘renaming permutation’ g from
the above ‘two-line symbol’.
For example, with x = (1 2 4)(3 5) and
y = (1 4)(2 5 3) in S5 , we obtain
(1 2 4) (3 5)
g ↓↓↓ ↓↓
(2 5 3) (1 4)
which gives g = (1 2 5 4 3).
In general, there are many possible matchings and
therefore many possibilities for g.
33
GTA3

A useful way to find a non-cyclic subgroup of Sn is to

Theorem 3.1 Two elements of Sn are
conjugate in Sn if and only if they have the
same cycle structure.
4 Let H be a subgroup of Sn and let g ∈ Sn . Then
the set of elements of G of the form g ◦ h ◦ g −1 is
denoted by gHg −1 . That is,
gHg −1 = {g ◦ h ◦ g −1 : h ∈ H}.
Theorem 3.2
draw a figure, labelled at suitable locations with
some or all of the symbols 1, 2, . . . , n, such that the
symmetries of the figure can be represented by
permutations of the labels. The symmetry group of
the figure is then a subgroup of Sn .
Once we have found a subgroup of a symmetric
group by realising it as the symmetry group of a
figure, we can often find another subgroup of the
same symmetric group, isomorphic to the first
subgroup, by relabelling the figure. (Here we are
finding subgroups conjugate to the first subgroup.)

Conjugate Subgroups Theorem

Let H be a subgroup of Sn and let g ∈ Sn ; then 5 Cayley’s Theorem

gHg −1 is also a subgroup of Sn .
The groups H and gHg −1 are conjugate
subgroups in Sn .
Strategy 3.2 To find the subgroup gHg −1 ,
given H and g, calculate g ◦ h ◦ g −1 , for each
h ∈ H, by using g to ‘rename’ the symbols in h.
4 Subgroups of S4
1 The following table gives the number of
subgroups of S4 of each order.
Order Number of Description
subgroups
Theorem 5.1 Cayley’s Theorem
Every finite group is isomorphic to a
permutation group.
To determine a permutation group isomorphic to a
given finite group G = {g1 , g2 , g3 , . . . , gn }, do the
following. (The symbol ◦ in composites is omitted
here.)
1. Write down the Cayley table of G.
2. With each element x ∈ G, associate the two-line
symbol Px obtained from the group table of G by
taking the top row of the table as the top line of the
symbol and the row of x as the bottom line of the
symbol.
◦ g1 g2 g3 ... gn

1 1 {e} g1
.. ..
2 9 all cyclic . .
3 4 all cyclic x xg1 xg2 xg3 . . . xgn
4 7 3 cyclic; 4 Klein .. ..
. .
6 4 all isomorphic to S() gn
8 3 all isomorphic to S(�)
12 1 A4 3. This gives a permutation with the two-line
24 1 S4 symbol


g1 g2 g3 . . . gn column headings
If the vertices of the tetrahedron are labelled 1, 2, 3 Px =
xg1 xg2 xg3 . . . xgn row of x.
and 4, then each element of S4 represents a
4. The composite of two such permutations is given
symmetry of the tetrahedron. Thus S4 and S(tet)
by
are isomorphic groups.
Px ◦ Py = Pxy ,
2 An efficient way to find all the cyclic subgroups which shows that the constructed permutations
of any reasonably small group is to first list the
combine in the same way as the corresponding
elements of the group according to their orders, and
original elements: the group table for the constructed
then find the distinct cyclic subgroups that they
group has the same pattern as the original group
generate.
table, with each element g replaced by Pg .
Thus the mapping g −→ Pg is an isomorphism
between the two groups, and the set of permutations
{Pg : g ∈ G} forms a group isomorphic to G.

34

GTA4 Cosets and Lagrange’s
Theorem
1 Cosets
1 Let H be a subgroup of a group (G, ◦) and let g
be an element of G. The coset gH of H in G is the
set of elements of G of the form g ◦ h, where h ∈ H.
That is,
gH = {g ◦ h : h ∈ H},
which is the set obtained by composing each element
then we write the coset of H in G containing the
of H with g on the left.
element g as g + H rather than gH. Thus
If H is finite, say
g + H = {g + h : h ∈ H}.
H = {h1 , h2 , . . . , hm },
then
gH = {g ◦ h1 , g ◦ h2 , . . . , g ◦ hm }.
2 Properties of cosets
1. For each element g and each subgroup H of a
finite group, the coset gH has the same number
of elements as H.
2. For each element g and each subgroup H, the
element g lies in the coset gH.
3. One of the cosets gH is H itself.
4. Any two cosets g1 H and g2 H are either the same
set or are disjoint.
Theorem 1.1 Let H be a subgroup of a
group G. Then the cosets of H form a
partition of G.
Two cosets g1 H and g2 H are either the same or have
no elements in common, thus:
if g2 ∈ g1 H, then g2 H = g1 H;
if g2 H = g1 H, then g2 ∈ g1 H and g1 ∈ g2 H.
GTA4
Strategy 1.1 To partition a finite group G
into cosets of a given subgroup H.
1. Take H as the first coset.
2. Choose any element g not yet assigned to a
coset and determine the coset gH to which
g belongs.
3. Repeat step 2 until every element of G has
been assigned to a coset.
3 If (G, +) is an additive group with subgroup H,
4 The definition of coset and Theorem 1.1 are
applicable to any group, finite or infinite. A partition
of an infinite group into cosets may involve infinitely
many cosets. In that case, Strategy 1.1 can be used
to discover more and more cosets, but not all of
them. However, it may be possible to find a general
form for them.
2 Lagrange’s Theorem for finite
groups
1 Cosets can be used to prove the following result.
Theorem 2.1 Lagrange’s Theorem
Let G be a finite group and let H be any
subgroup of G. Then the order of H divides the
order of G.
Lagrange’s Theorem allows us to write down all the
possible orders for subgroups of a finite
group G—namely, all the positive divisors of the
order of G. Thus, if the number m does not divide
the order of G, then G does not have a subgroup of
order m.
Warning The converse of Lagrange’s Theorem is
false. Lagrange’s Theorem does not assert that if m
is a positive divisor of the order of a group G, then G
has a subgroup of order m.
2 Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Then the
number of distinct cosets of H in G is called the
index of H in G.
A subgroup H of an infinite group may have finite
index; otherwise, H is said to have infinite index.
If G is a finite group, then the index k of H in G is
the order of G divided by the order of H:
k = |G|/|H|.
35
GTA4

3 Consequences of Lagrange’s Theorem Let G be a group of order 4.

If G contains an element of order 4 (there would be

two such elements), then G ∼

= C4 .
Corollary 1 Let g be an element of a finite
group G. Then the order of g divides the order
of G.
Corollary 2 If G is a group of prime order,
then G is a cyclic group. The only subgroups of
G are {e} and G, and each element of G other
than e generates G.
If all elements are self-inverse, then G ∼
= K4 .
3 There are two isomorphism classes for groups of
order 6:
one contains the cyclic group C6 ;
the other contains the non-Abelian group S().
Let G be a group of order 6.
If the group table is symmetrical about the leading
diagonal (G is Abelian), then G ∼= C6 .
If the group table is not symmetrical about the
leading diagonal (G is non-Abelian), then G ∼= S().

Corollary 3 If G is a group of prime order p, 4 There are five isomorphism classes for groups of
then G is isomorphic to the cyclic group Zp . order 8.
Abelian groups
Class 1 contains the cyclic groups; these have only

one element of order 2.

3 Groups of small order Class 2 contains groups in which all the non-identity

elements have order 2.

Class 3 contains groups with only three elements of

1 There is only one isomorphism class for groups of

order 2.

order 1. The only element of such a group is the

identity element. Non-Abelian groups
For each prime p, there is only one isomorphism class Class 4 contains groups with five elements of order 2
for groups of order p, and all the groups in this class (e.g. S(�)).
are cyclic. Class 5 contains groups with only one element of
order 2.
Theorem 3.1 Let G be a group in which
each element except the identity has order 2. Strategy 3.1 To determine the isomorphism
Then G is Abelian. class of a group G of order 8.
1. Determine whether G is Abelian.
2. Find the number of elements of G which

have order 2.

Theorem 3.2 Let G be a group, with order

greater than 2, in which each element except 3. Identify the class from the following table.
the identity has order 2. Then the order of G is Is G Abelian? Number of Class
a multiple of 4. elements of order 2
Yes 1 1
Yes 7 2
Theorem 3.3 Let G be a group of even Yes 3 3
order. Then G contains an element of order 2. No 5 4
No 1 5
2 There are two isomorphism classes for groups of
order 4:
one contains the cyclic group C4 ;
the other contains the Klein group K4 .
All groups of order 4 are Abelian.

36
 GTA4

4 Normal subgroups 3 Let G be a group and let H be a subgroup of G.

1 Let H be a subgroup of a group (G, ◦) and let g
be an element of G. The right coset Hg is the set
of elements of G of the form h ◦ g, where h ∈ H.
That is,
Hg = {h ◦ g : h ∈ H}.
Then H is a normal subgroup of G if the left and
right partitions of G into cosets of H are the same.
That is, H is normal in G if, for each element g ∈ G,
gH = Hg.
The condition gH = Hg means that the sets gH and
Hg contain the same elements; it does not mean that

It is the set obtained by composing each element

gh = hg for all h ∈ H.

of H with g on the right.

We use the phrases ‘H is a normal subgroup of G’

If H is finite, say
and ‘H is normal in G’ interchangeably.

H = {h1 , h2 , . . . , hm },
then Theorem 4.1 Let G be a group; then
Hg = {h1 ◦ g, h2 ◦ g, . . . , hm ◦ g}. (a) the identity subgroup {e} is a normal

subgroup of G;

Strictly speaking, the sets that we have been calling

(b) the whole group G is a normal subgroup

cosets up to this point should have been called left

of G.

cosets, to distinguish them from right cosets.

In general, left and right cosets are different sets.
If G is an additive group with subgroup H, then we
denote the right coset of H in G containing the Theorem 4.2 In an Abelian group, every
element g by H + g. Thus subgroup is normal.
H + g = {h + g : h ∈ H}.
2 Properties of right cosets
Theorem 4.3 Let H be a subgroup of
1. For each element g and each subgroup H of a
index 2 in a group G. Then H is a normal
finite group, the right coset Hg has the same
subgroup of G.
number of elements as H.
2. For each element g and each subgroup H, the
element g lies in the right coset Hg.
3. One of the right cosets Hg is H itself. Corollary For all n ≥ 2, the alternating
group An is a normal subgroup of the
4. Any two right cosets Hg1 and Hg2 are either the
symmetric group Sn .
same set or are disjoint. That is, the body of the
table splits into ‘blocks’, where each block is an
|N | by |N | array of entries all from a single coset.

Strategy 4.1 To partition a finite group G
into right cosets of a given subgroup H.
1. Take H as the first coset.
2. Choose any element g not yet assigned to a
right coset and determine the right coset
Hg to which g belongs.
3. Repeat step 2 until every element of G has
been assigned to a right coset.
5 Quotient groups
1 Let A and B be subsets of a group (G, ◦). Then
the binary operation ., called set composition, is
defined by
A . B = {a ◦ b : a ∈ A, b ∈ B};
that is, A . B is the subset of G obtained by
composing each element of A with each element of B

on the right.

For an additive group (G, +), we write + rather

than . for set composition. Thus

A + B = {a + b : a ∈ A, b ∈ B}.

37
GTA4

6 Quotient groups of infinite groups

Theorem 5.1 Let N be a normal subgroup
of a group G. Then, for all a, b ∈ G, 1 The subgroups of Z are
aN . bN = (a ◦ b)N. {0}, Z, and
nZ = n = {. . . , −3n, −2n, −n, 0, n, 2n, 3n, . . .},
for each n ≥ 2.
Theorem 5.2 Let N be a normal subgroup They are all cyclic.
of a group G. Then the set of cosets of N in G,
with the operation of set composition, is a
Theorem 6.1 For each integer n ≥ 2, the
group.
quotient group Z/nZ is a cyclic group generated
by 1 + nZ and so
This group is called the quotient group of G by N , Z/nZ ∼ = Zn .
and is denoted by G/N .

The identity element of G/N is the coset eN = N ,

2 Let m be a positive integer. We define addition

and the inverse of gN is g −1 N .

modulo m on the interval [0, m) by

If G is a finite group, then the order of G/N is the

x + y, if x + y < m,
number of cosets of N in G; that is,
x +m y =
x + y − m, if x + y ≥ m.
|G/N | = |G|/|N |.
The interval [0, m) forms a group under +m .
2 Let N be a normal subgroup of a (finite) group G
3 The fractional part of a real number x is
and let the elements of G be listed in the borders of
x − [x], where [x] is the largest integer not
its group table in the following order: elements of N ,
exceeding x. The fractional part of any real number
then elements of another coset of N , then elements of
lies in [0, 1).
a third coset of N , and so on. Then the group table
of G ‘blocks’. That is, the body of the table splits
into ‘blocks’, where each block is an |N | by |N | array Theorem 6.2 The quotient group R/Z is
of entries all from a single coset. The resulting table isomorphic to ([0, 1), +1 ), the group of real
of blocks is essentially the group table of G/N . numbers in the interval [0, 1), under addition
modulo 1.
Strategy 5.1 To find a group isomorphic to
a finite quotient group G/N , where N is a The quotient group R/Z has infinite order.
normal subgroup of a group (G, ◦).
We have
1. Calculate |G/N | = |G|/|N | = k, say.
R/Z = {r + Z : r ∈ [0, 1)},
2. Determine the k cosets aN by choosing

different elements a until all the elements

with binary operation
of G are assigned to cosets.
(x + Z) + (y + Z) = (x +1 y) + Z.
3. Construct the k × k group table of G/N by
composing each pair of cosets, using the rule
aN . bN = (a ◦ b)N
= coset containing a ◦ b.
4. By inspection of the group table, identify a
familiar group (from the course) isomorphic
to G/N .

In the group table of G/N , avoid writing a given

coset in more than one way. For example, if
cN = dN , then denote every occurrence of this coset
by cN (or every occurrence by dN ).

38
 LA1

Linear Algebra Block

LA1 Vectors and conics
1 Coordinate geometry: points, planes
and lines
1 The plane, together with an origin and a pair of
x-, y-axes, is often called two-dimensional Euclidean
space, denoted by R2 .
2 Equation of a line The general equation of a
The zero vector is the vector whose magnitude is
zero, and whose direction is arbitrary. It is denoted
by 0.
Two vectors a and b are equal if
they have the same magnitude (a = b)
and
they are in the same direction.
We write a = b.
The negative of a vector v is the vector with the
same magnitude as v, but the opposite direction.

line in R2 is It is denoted by −v.

ax + by = c, 2 Scalar multiple of a vector Let k be a scalar

where a, b and c are real, and a and b are not both

and v a vector. Then kv is the vector whose

zero.
magnitude is |k| times the magnitude of v, that is,

kv = |k| v, and whose direction is

Two distinct lines with equations y = m1 x + c1 and

y = m2 x + c2 , where m1 and m2 are both non-zero,

the direction of v if k > 0,
are:
the direction of −v if k < 0.
• parallel if and only if m1 = m2 and c1 = c2 ; If k = 0, then kv = 0.
• perpendicular if and only if m1 m2 = −1. 3 Addition of vectors
Two arbitrary lines in R may have a single point of
2

intersection, be parallel, or coincide. Triangle Law for addition of vectors

3 Distance formula in R The distance between
2
The sum p + q of two vectors p and q is

two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) in R2 is obtained as follows.


(x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 . 1. Starting at any point, draw the vector p.
4 Three-dimensional space, together with an origin 2. Starting from the finishing point of the
and a set of x-, y- and z-axes, is often called vector p, draw the vector q.
three-dimensional Euclidean space, denoted by R3 . Then the sum p + q is the vector from the
starting point of p to the finishing point of q.
5 Equation of a plane The general equation of
a plane in R3 is
ax + by + cz = d,
where a, b, c and d are real, and a, b and c are not all
zero.
Two arbitrary planes in R3 may intersect, be
parallel, or coincide.
6 Distance formula in R3 The distance between
two points (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x2 , y2 , z2 ) in R3 is
 Parallelogram Law for addition of
(x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2 . vectors
The sum p + q of two vectors p and q is
obtained as follows.
2 Vectors 1. Starting at the same point, draw the vectors
p and q.
1 Vectors and scalars
2. Complete the parallelogram of which these
A vector is a quantity that is determined by its
are adjacent sides.
magnitude and direction. A scalar is a quantity that

Then the sum p + q is the vector from the

is determined by its magnitude.

starting point of p and q to the opposite corner

The length (magnitude) of a vector v is denoted
of the parallelogram.
by v.

39
LA1

The difference p − q of two vectors p and q is
p − q = p + (−q).
4 A unit vector is a vector of magnitude 1 unit.
In R2 , the vectors i and j are unit vectors in the
positive directions of the x- and y-axes, respectively.
Any vector p in R2 can be expressed as a sum of the
form
p = a1 i + a2 j,
for some real numbers a1 and a2 ;
often we write p = (a1 , a2 ).
The numbers a1 and a2 are the components of p in
the x- and y-directions, respectively.
In R3 , the vectors i, j and k are unit vectors in the
positive directions of the x-, y- and z-axes,
respectively. Any vector p in R3 can be expressed as
a sum of the form
p = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k,
for some real numbers a1 , a2 and a3 ;
often we write p = (a1 , a2 , a3 ).
The numbers a1 , a2 and a3 are the components
of p in the x-, y- and z-directions, respectively.
7 The vector space R2 is the set of ordered pairs
of real numbers with the operations of addition and
multiplication by a scalar defined as follows:
(a1 , a2 ) + (b1 , b2 ) = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 );
k(a1 , a2 ) = (ka1 , ka2 ), where k ∈ R.
Similarly, the vector space R3 is the set of ordered
triples of real numbers with analogous operations of
addition and multiplication by a scalar.
8 The position vector p = a1 i + a2 j (often
written as p = (a1 , a2 ), for brevity) is the vector in
R2 whose starting point is the origin and whose
finishing point is the point with Cartesian
coordinates (a1 , a2 ).
A position vector in R3 is defined similarly.
9 Vector form of the equation of a line
The equation of the line through the points with
position vectors p and q is
r = λp + (1 − λ)q, where λ ∈ R.

Equality Two vectors, both in R2 or both in R3 ,

are equal if and only if their corresponding

components are equal.

Zero vector

The zero vector in R2 is 0 = 0i + 0j = (0, 0).

The zero vector in R3 is 0 = 0i + 0j + 0k = (0, 0, 0).

5 Addition of vectors To add vectors in R2 or

in R3 given in component form, add their

Section Formula The position vector r of the

corresponding components:

point that divides the line joining the points with

(a1 , a2 ) + (b1 , b2 ) = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 ); position vectors p and q in the ratio (1 − λ) : λ is
(a1 , a2 , a3 ) + (b1 , b2 , b3 ) = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 ). r = λp + (1 − λ)q.
Negative of a vector To find the negative of a The position vector of the midpoint of this line
vector in R2 or in R3 given in component form, take segment is r = 12 (p + q).
the negatives of its components:
−(a1 , a2 ) = (−a1 , −a2 );
−(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (−a1 , −a2 , −a3 ). 3 Dot product
Subtraction of vectors To subtract a vector in
R2 or in R3 given in component form, subtract its
1 The dot product of the vectors u and v in R2 or
R3 is
corresponding components:
u . v = u × v × cos θ,
(a1 , a2 ) − (b1 , b2 ) = (a1 − b1 , a2 − b2 );
where u and v denote the lengths of the vectors
(a1 , a2 , a3 ) − (b1 , b2 , b3 ) = (a1 − b1 , a2 − b2 , a3 − b3 ).
u and v, and θ is the angle between them.
6 Multiplication by a scalar To multiply a
2 The length of the vector v in terms of the dot
vector given in component form in R2 or in R3 by a
product is given by
real number k, multiply each component in turn by k: √
v = v . v.
k(a1 , a2 ) = (ka1 , ka2 );

The unit vector in the same direction as v is

k(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (ka1 , ka2 , ka3 ).
v
=
v .
v

40
 LA1

3 If two vectors u and v are orthogonal 4 Conics

(perpendicular), then
u . v = 0. 1 Non-degenerate conic sections are parabolas,

Conversely, if u . v = 0, then ellipses and hyperbolas; degenerate conic sections

either u or v is 0, are a single point, a single line and a pair of lines.

or u is perpendicular to v. The ellipse and hyperbola each have a centre: there

is a point about which rotation through π is a

4 Properties of the dot product symmetry of the conic.

Let u, v and w be vectors, and let α be any real The hyperbola has two lines, called asymptotes,

number. Then the following properties hold. that it approaches.

Symmetry: u.v=v.u (The non-degenerate conics are illustrated on

Multiples: (αu) . v = u . (αv) = α(u . v) page 101.)

Distributivity: u . (v + w) = u . v + u . w, 2 Circles in R2
(u + v) . w = u . w + v . w.
5 The angle θ between two vectors u and v is given
by Theorem 4.1 The equation of a circle in R2
u.v with centre (a, b) and radius r is
cos θ = .
u × v (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r2 .
6 The projection of a vector v onto a vector u is
u.v
v × cos θ = .
u Theorem 4.2 An equation of the form

2 2
7 Dot product of vectors in component form x + y + f x + gy + h = 0

In R2 , let u = (x1 , y1 ) = x1 i + y1 j and represents a circle with

 
v = (x2 , y2 ) = x2 i + y2 j; then centre − 12 f, − 12 g
u . v = x1 x2 + y1 y2 . and 
In R3 , let u = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = x1 i + y1 j + z1 k and radius 14 f 2 + 14 g 2 − h
v = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) = x2 i + y2 j + z2 k; then
if and only if 14 f 2 + 14 g 2 − h > 0.
u . v = x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2 .
8 A vector that is perpendicular to all the vectors in
a given plane is called a normal vector to the plane. 3 The parabola, ellipse and hyperbola can be
defined as the set of points P in the plane that
A normal vector n does not determine a plane satisfy the following condition: the distance of P
uniquely, as there are infinitely many planes that from a fixed point is a constant multiple e of the
have n as a normal; these planes are parallel to one distance of P from a fixed line. The fixed point is the
another. However, if we specify both a normal vector focus of the conic, the fixed line is its directrix, and
and a point that lies in the plane, then the plane is e is its eccentricity.
determined uniquely.
A non-degenerate conic is
9 Vector form of the equation of a plane an ellipse if 0 ≤ e < 1,
a parabola if e = 1,
Theorem 3.1 The equation of the plane a hyperbola if e > 1.
that contains the point (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and has
4 Parabola in standard form
n = (a, b, c) as a normal is
A parabola in standard form has equation
ax + by + cz = d,
y 2 = 4ax, where a > 0.
where d = ax1 + by1 + cz1 .
It can be described by the parametric equations
x = at2 , y = 2at (t ∈ R).
It has focus (a, 0) and directrix x = −a; its axis is

Corollary The equation of the plane that

the x-axis and its vertex is the origin.

contains the point (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and has

n = (a, b, c) as a normal is A chord that passes through the focus is a focal

chord.

x . n = p . n,
See the following diagram.

where x = (x, y, z) and p = (x1 , y1 , z1 ).

41
LA1

√
Rectangular hyperbola (e = 2)
A hyperbola whose asymptotes are at right angles is

5 Ellipse in standard form called a rectangular hyperbola.

An ellipse in standard form has equation If we use the asymptotes as new x- and y-axes

x2 y 2 (instead of the original x- and y-axes), then the

+ 2 = 1, equation of the hyperbola can be written in the form

a2 b
where a ≥ b > 0, b2 = a2 (1 − e2 ), 0 ≤ e < 1. xy = c2 , for some positive number c. A rectangular

It can be described by the parametric equations hyperbola has the origin as its centre, and the x- and

y-axes as its asymptotes. It can be described by the

x = a cos t, y = b sin t (t ∈ R). parametric equations

If e > 0, it has foci (±ae, 0) and directrices c

x = ct, y = , where t = 0.
x = ±a/e; its major axis is the line segment joining t
the points (±a, 0), and its minor axis is the line

segment joining the points (0, ±b).

If e = 0, the ellipse is a circle; the single focus is at

the centre of the circle and the directrix is

‘at infinity’.

7 General equation of a conic

Theorem 4.3 Any conic has an equation of

the form
Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + F x + Gy + H = 0, (∗)
where A, B, C, F , G and H are real numbers,
and A, B and C are not all zero. Conversely,
6 Hyperbola in standard form the set of all points in R2 whose coordinates
A hyperbola in standard form has equation (x, y) satisfy an equation of the form (∗) is a
x2 y2 conic.
− = 1,
a2 b2
where b2 = a2 (e2 − 1), e > 1.
It can be described by the parametric equations
x = a sec t, y = b tan t
(t ∈ [−π, π] excluding −
π2 and
π2 ).
It has foci (±ae, 0) and directrices x = ±a/e; its
major axis is the line segment joining the points
(±a, 0), and its minor axis is the line segment joining
the points (0, ±b). See the following diagram.

42
 LA2

LA2 Linear equations and A solution with at least one non-zero unknown is a
non-trivial solution.
matrices 4 Elementary operations
The following operations do not change the solution
1 Simultaneous linear equations set of a system of linear equations.
1. Interchange two equations.
1 Linear equations 2. Multiply an equation by a non-zero number.
An equation of the form 3. Change one equation by adding to it a multiple
of another.
ax + by = c,
where a, b and c are real numbers, and a and b are To solve a system of three linear equations in three
not both zero, represents a line in R2 . There are unknowns, use elementary operations to try to
reduce the system to the form
infinitely many solutions to this equation—one ⎧
corresponding to each point on the line.
⎨x = ∗,
y = ∗,
An equation of the form ⎩

z = ∗.
ax + by + cz = d,
where a, b, c and d are real numbers, and a, b and c
are not all zero, represents a plane in R3 . There are 2 Row-reduction
infinitely many solutions to this equation—one
corresponding to each point in the plane.
1 A matrix is simply a rectangular array of
An equation of the form objects, usually numbers, enclosed in brackets.
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn = b, The objects in a matrix are called its entries. The
where a1 , a2 , . . . , an , b are real numbers, and entries along a horizontal line form a row, and those
a1 , . . . , an are not all zero, is a linear equation in down a vertical line form a column.
the n unknowns x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . The numbers ai are
2 The system
the coefficients, and b is the constant term. ⎧
⎪
⎪ a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1 ,
2 A system of m simultaneous linear equations in ⎪
⎨ a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2 ,
n unknowns, x1 , . . . , xn , is as follows: .. .. .. ..
⎧ ⎪
⎪ . . . .
⎪ a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1 ,
⎪ ⎪
⎩

⎪
⎨ a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2 , am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm ,
.. .. ... . of m linear equations in n unknowns x1 , x2 , . . . , xn is
⎪
⎪ . . .
.
⎪
⎩
abbreviated as the augmented matrix
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm . ⎛ ⎞
a11 a12 · · · a1n b1
Such a system has a solution x1 = c1 , x2 = c2 , . . . , ⎜ a21 a22 · · · a2n b2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
xn = cn , if these values simultaneously satisfy all ⎜ .. .. .. .. ⎟ .

m equations of the system. The solution set of the ⎝

. . . . ⎠

system is the set of all the solutions. am1 am2 · · · amn bm

Any system of linear equations has a solution set 3 Elementary row operations are the following
which operations on the rows of the augmented matrix.
• contains exactly one solution,
1. Interchange two rows.
• or is empty,

2. Multiply a row by a non-zero number.

• or contains infinitely many solutions.

3. Change one row by adding to it a multiple of

A system of simultaneous linear equations is another.
consistent when it has at least one solution, and
inconsistent when it has no solutions. 4 A matrix is in row-reduced form when:
any zero rows are at the bottom;

3 A homogeneous system of linear equations is a

system of simultaneous linear equations in which the leading entry of each non-zero row is a 1

each constant term is zero. (called a leading 1);

A system containing at least one non-zero constant each leading 1 is to the right of the leading 1

term is a non-homogeneous system. in the row above;

The trivial solution (if this exists) to a system of each leading 1 is the only non-zero entry in

simultaneous linear equations is the solution with its column.

each unknown equal to zero.

43
LA2

Strategy 2.1 Row-reducing a matrix.
Carry out the following four steps, first with
row 1 as the current row, then with row 2, and
so on, until
either every row has been the current row,
or step 1 is not possible.
1. Select the first column from the left that
has at least one non-zero entry in or below
the current row.
2. If the current row has a 0 in the selected
column, interchange it with a row below it
3 Matrix addition
The sum of two m × n matrices A = (aij ) and
B = (bij ) is the m × n matrix A + B = (aij + bij ).
Theorem 3.1 For all matrices A, B and C
of the same size,
A + B = B + A (commutative law),
A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C (associative law).
The m × n zero matrix 0m,n is the m × n matrix in
which all entries are 0.

which has a non-zero entry in that column. The zero matrix is the identity element for the

3. If the entry now in the current row and the operation of matrix addition.

selected column is c, multiply the current The negative of an m × n matrix A = (aij ) is the

row by 1/c to create a leading 1. m × n matrix

4. Add suitable multiples of the current row to −A = (−aij ).

the others rows to make each entry above
and below the leading 1 into a 0.
Theorem 3.2 Let A be a matrix. Then

A + (−A) = (−A) + A = 0.

Strategy 2.2 To solve a system of linear

equations by Gauss–Jordan elimination.

The m × n matrix −A is the additive inverse of the

1. Form the augmented matrix. m × n matrix A.

2. Obtain the row-reduced matrix. The set of m × n matrices under the operation of

3. Solve the simplified system of linear

matrix addition forms a group.

equations.
Using the negative of a matrix, we can subtract

matrices:

A − B = A + (−B).

3 Matrix algebra 4 The scalar multiple of an m × n matrix

A = (aij ) by a scalar k is the m × n matrix
kA = (kaij ).
1 A matrix of size m × n has m rows and
n columns. An n × n matrix is called a square
matrix. The entry in the ith row and jth column of a Theorem 3.3 For all matrices A and B of
matrix A is called the (i, j)-entry, often denoted the same size, and all scalars k, the distributive
by aij . In general, we write A or (aij ) to denote a law holds; that is,
matrix: ⎛ ⎞ k(A + B) = kA + kB.
a11 a12 · · · a1n
⎜ a21 a22 · · · a2n ⎟
⎜ ⎟
A=⎜ . .. .. ⎟ = (aij ). 5 Matrix multiplication
⎝ . . . . ⎠

am1 am2 · · · amn The product of an m × n matrix A with an n × p

matrix B is the m × p matrix AB whose (i, j)-entry
Two matrices A and B of the same size are equal if is the dot product of the ith row of A with the jth
all their corresponding entries agree. We write column of B.
A = B.
The product AB has the same number of rows as A,
2 We call a matrix with just one column a column
and the same number of columns as B.
matrix, and a matrix with just one row a row matrix.

Matrix multiplication is associative; that is, the

products (AB)C and A(BC) are equal (when they
can be formed).
The distributive law holds for multiplication of a
matrix by a matrix; that is, A(B + C) = AB + AC,
whenever these products can be formed.

44
 LA2

6 Diagonal and triangular matrices 4 Matrix inverses

The entries of a square matrix from the top left-hand
corner to the bottom right-hand corner are the 1 Let A be a square matrix, and suppose that there
diagonal entries; the diagonal entries form the main exists a matrix B of the same size such that
(or leading) diagonal of the matrix. For a square AB = I and BA = I.
matrix A = (aij ) of size n × n, the diagonal entries
are Then B is an inverse of A.
a11 , a22 , . . . , ann .
A diagonal matrix is a square matrix each of whose Theorem 4.1 A square matrix has at most
non-diagonal entries is zero. one inverse.
Multiplication of diagonal matrices is commutative.
A square matrix with each entry below the main
diagonal equal to zero is an upper-triangular Theorem 4.2 A square matrix with a zero
matrix. A square matrix with each entry above the row has no inverse.
main diagonal equal to zero is a lower-triangular
matrix.
A square matrix that has an inverse is invertible.
7 The identity matrix In is the n × n matrix in The unique inverse of an invertible matrix A is
which each of the entries is 0 except those on the
denoted by A−1 . For any invertible matrix A,
main diagonal, which are all 1.
AA−1 = I and A−1 A = I.
If A is an invertible matrix, then A−1 is also
Theorem 3.4 Let A be an m × n matrix. invertible, with inverse A; that is,
Then
(A−1 )−1 = A.
Im A = AIn = A.
Let A and B be invertible matrices of the same size.
Then AB is invertible, and (AB)−1 = B−1 A−1 .
8 The transpose of an m × n matrix A is the
n × m matrix AT whose (i, j)-entry is the (j, i)-entry Theorem 4.3 Let A1 , A2 , . . . , Ak be
of A. invertible matrices of the same size. Then the
product A1 A2 · · · Ak is invertible, with
Theorem 3.5 Let A and B be m × n (A1 A2 · · · Ak )−1 = A−1 −1 −1
k Ak−1 · · · A1 .
matrices. Then the following results hold:
(a) (AT )T = A;
(b) (A + B)T = AT + BT .
Theorem 4.4 The set of all invertible n × n
Let A be an m × n matrix and B an n × p
matrices forms a group under matrix
matrix. Then
multiplication.
(c) (AB)T = BT AT .

A square matrix A is symmetric if Theorem 4.5 Invertibility Theorem

AT = A. (a) A square matrix is invertible if and only if
its row-reduced form is I.
9 Any system of simultaneous linear equations
⎧ (b) Any sequence of elementary row operations
⎪
⎪ a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1 ,
⎪
⎨ a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2 , that transforms a matrix A to I also
.. .. .. .. transforms I to A−1 .
⎪
⎪ . . . .
⎪
⎩

am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm ,

can be expressed in matrix form as Ax = b:
⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
a11 a12 · · · a1n x1 b1
⎜ a21 a22 · · · a2n ⎟ ⎜ x2 ⎟ ⎜ b2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ .. .. .
⎟ ⎜ .
⎟ = ⎜ .
⎟.
⎝
. . . ⎠
⎝
.

.
. ⎠
⎝
.
. ⎠

am1 am2 · · · amn xn bm

A x b
A is called the coefficient matrix of the system.

45
LA2

Strategy 4.1 To determine whether or not a Corollary Let E1 , E2 , . . . , Ek be the m × m

given square matrix A is invertible, and find its
inverse if it is.
Write down (A | I), and row-reduce it until the
left half is in row-reduced form.
• If the left half is the identity matrix, then
the right half is A−1 .
• Otherwise, A is not invertible.
You may find it helpful to remember the following
scheme:
(A | I)
↓ Elementary
(I | A−1 ).
elementary matrices associated with a sequence
of k elementary row operations carried out on a
matrix A with m rows, in the same order.
Then, after the sequence of row operations has
been performed, the resulting matrix is
Ek Ek−1 · · · E2 E1 A.
3 Given any elementary row operation, it is easy to
write down an inverse elementary row operation that
undoes the effect of the first, as summarised in the
following table.
Inverse elementary
row operation row operation

If it becomes clear while you are row-reducing (A | I) ri ↔ rj ri ↔ rj

that the left half will not reduce to the identity ri → c ri (c =  0) ri → (1/c) ri

matrix (for example, if a zero row appears in the left ri → ri + c rj ri → ri − c rj

half), then you can stop the row-reduction and

conclude that A is not invertible.
Theorem 4.6 Let A be an invertible matrix.
Then the system of linear equations Ax = b
has the unique solution x = A−1 b.
Theorem 4.9 Let E1 and E2 be elementary
matrices of the same size whose associated
elementary row operations are inverses of each
other. Then E1 and E2 are inverses of each
other.

Theorem 4.7 Let A be an n × n matrix. Corollary Every elementary matrix is

Then the following statements are equivalent. invertible, and its inverse is also an elementary
(a) A is invertible. matrix.
(b) The system Ax = b has a unique solution
for each n × 1 matrix b.
(c) The system Ax = 0 has only the trivial

solution.
5 Determinants

2 Elementary matrices 1 The

determinant
 of a 2 × 2 matrix
A matrix obtained by performing an elementary row a b
A= is
operation on an identity matrix is an elementary c d
 
matrix. a b

det A =

 = ad − bc.

c d 

Theorem 4.8 Let E be an elementary

matrix, and let A be any matrix with the same
number of rows as E. Then the product EA is
the same as the matrix obtained when the
elementary row operation associated with E is
performed on A.

46
 LA2

4 Properties of determinants
Strategy 5.1 To find the inverse of a 2 × 2
matrix



Theorem 5.1 Let A and B be two square

a b matrices of the same size. Then the following

A=
c d hold:
with det A = ad − bc =
 0. (a) det(AB) = (det A)(det B);
1. Interchange the diagonal entries. (b) det I = 1;
2. Multiply the non-diagonal entries by −1. (c) det AT = det A.
3. Divide by the determinant,
giving


−1 1 d −b Theorem 5.2 Let E be an elementary
A = .
ad − bc −c a matrix, and let k be a non-zero real number.
(a) If E results from interchanging two rows
of I, then det E = −1.
determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix
2 The ⎛ ⎞ (b) If E results from multiplying a row of I

a1 b1 c1
by k, then det E = k.
A =
⎝
a2 b2 c2 ⎠

a3 b3 c3 (c) If E results from adding k times one row of

I to another row, then det E = 1.
is      
b c2   a 2 c2   a2 b2 
det A = a1 
2 − b   + c   .

b3 c3 
1 
a3 c3 
1 
a3 b3 
Two rows (or columns) of a matrix are proportional
3 A submatrix is a matrix formed from another when one is a multiple of the other.
matrix with some of the rows and/or columns
removed. Theorem 5.3 Let A be a square matrix.
Let A = (aij ) be an n × n matrix. The cofactor Aij Then det A = 0 if any of the following hold:
associated with the entry aij is (a) A has an entire row (or column) of zeros;
Aij = (−1)i+j det Aij , (b) A has two equal rows (or columns);
where Aij is the (n − 1) × (n − 1) submatrix of A (c) A has two proportional rows (or columns).
resulting when the ith row and jth column (the row
and column containing the entry aij ) are covered up.
The determinant of an n × n matrix A = (aij ) is Theorem 5.4 A square matrix A is

 
 a11 a12 · · · a1n   0.
invertible if and only if det A =
 
 a21 a22 · · · a2n 
 
det A =  . .. .. 
 .. . . 

 an1 an2 · · · ann 
Theorem 5.5 Let A and B be square
= a11 A11 + a12 A12 + · · · + a1n A1n . matrices of the same size. Then AB = I if and
only if BA = I.
Strategy 5.2 To evaluate the determinant of
an n × n matrix.
1. Expand along the top row to express the
n × n determinant in terms of n
determinants of size (n − 1) × (n − 1).
2. Expand along the top row of each of the
resulting determinants.
3. Repeatedly apply step 2 until the only
determinants in the expression are of size
2 × 2.
4. Evaluate the final expression.

47
LA3

LA3 Vector spaces Examples of real vector spaces

1 Vector spaces
1 In R2 , the set of ordered pairs of real numbers,
the operations of addition and multiplication by
a scalar are defined as follows:
(u1 , u2 ) + (v1 , v2 ) = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 );
α(u1 , u2 ) = (αu1 , αu2 ), where α ∈ R.
In R3 , the set of ordered triples of real numbers, the
operations of addition and multiplication by a
scalar are defined as follows:
(u1 , u2 , u3 ) + (v1 , v2 , v3 ) = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , u3 + v3 );
α(u1 , u2 , u3 ) = (αu1 , αu2 , αu3 ), where α ∈ R.
2 If n is a positive integer, then an ordered
n-tuple is a sequence of real numbers
(u1 , u2 , . . . , un ). The set of all ordered n-tuples is
called n-dimensional space, and is denoted by Rn .
3 A real vector space consists of a set V of
elements and two operations, vector addition and
scalar multiplication, such that the following axioms
hold.
A1 closure For all v1 , v2 ∈ V ,
v1 + v2 ∈ V.
A2 identity For each v ∈ V , there is a zero
element 0 ∈ V satisfying
v + 0 = 0 + v = v.
A3 inverses For each v ∈ V , there is an element
−v (its additive inverse) such that
v + (−v) = (−v) + v = 0.
A4 associativity For all v1 , v2 , v3 ∈ V ,
(v1 + v2 ) + v3 = v1 + (v2 + v3 ).
A5 commutativity For all v1 , v2 ∈ V ,
v1 + v2 = v2 + v1 .
S1 closure For all v ∈ V and α ∈ R,
αv ∈ V.
S2 associativity For all v ∈ V and α, β ∈ R,
α(βv) = (αβ)v.
S3 identity For all v ∈ V ,
1v = v.
D1 distributivity For all v1 , v2 ∈ V and α ∈ R,
α(v1 + v2 ) = αv1 + αv2 .
D2 distributivity For all v ∈ V and α, β ∈ R,
(α + β)v = αv + βv.
• R, R2 , R3 , and (more generally) Rn (n ≥ 1).
• V = {a cos x + b sin x : a, b ∈ R}.
• Pn , the set of all real polynomials of degree less
than n.
• C, the set of complex numbers.
• The set Mm,n of all m × n matrices with real
entries.
• R∞ , the set of all infinite sequences of real
numbers.
2 Linear combinations and spanning
sets
1 Let v1 , v2 , . . . , vk belong to a vector space V .
Then a linear combination of the vectors
v1 , v2 , . . . , vk is a vector of the form
α1 v1 + α2 v2 + · · · + αk vk ,
where α1 , α2 , . . . , αk are real numbers. This vector
also belongs to V .
Strategy 2.1 To determine whether a given
vector v can be written as a linear combination
of the vectors v1 , v2 , . . . , vk .
1. Write v = α1 v1 + α2 v2 + · · · + αk vk .
2. Use this expression to write down a system
of simultaneous linear equations in the
unknowns α1 , α2 , . . . , αk .
3. Solve the resulting system of equations, if
possible.
Then v can be written as a linear combination
of v1 , v2 , . . . , vk if and only if the system has a
solution.
2 Let S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vk } be a finite set of vectors
in a vector space V . Then the span S of S is the
set of all possible linear combinations
α1 v1 + α2 v2 + · · · + αk vk ,
where α1 , α2 , . . . , αk are real numbers; that is,
S = {α1 v1 + α2 v2 + · · · + αk vk : α1 , α2 , . . . , αk ∈ R}.
We say that the set of vectors {v1 , v2 , . . . , vk } spans
S or is a spanning set for S, and that S is the
set spanned by S.
3 Bases and dimension
1 A minimal spanning set of a vector space V is
a set containing the smallest number of vectors that
span V .

48
 LA3

Theorem 3.1 Suppose that the vector vk Strategy 3.2 To determine whether a set of
can be written as a linear combination of the vectors S in a vector space V is a basis for V ,
vectors v1 , . . . , vk−1 . Then the span of the set check the following conditions.
{v1 , v2 , . . . , vk } is the same as the span of the (1) S is linearly independent.

set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vk−1 }. (2) S spans V .

If both (1) and (2) hold, then S is a basis for V .

2 A finite set of vectors {v1 , v2 , . . . , vk } in a vector If either (1) or (2) does not hold, then S is not

space V is linearly dependent if there exist real a basis for V .

numbers α1 , α2 , . . . , αk , not all zero, such that

α1 v1 + α2 v2 + · · · + αk vk = 0. 4 Standard bases
A finite set of vectors {v1 , v2 , . . . , vk } is linearly For R2 , the standard basis is
independent if it is not linearly dependent; that is,
if {(1, 0), (0, 1)}.
α1 v1 + α2 v2 + · · · + αk vk = 0 For R3 , the standard basis is
only when α1 = α2 = · · · = αk = 0. {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}.
A linearly independent set cannot contain the zero For Rn , the standard basis is the set of n vectors
vector.
{(1, 0, . . . , 0), (0, 1, . . . , 0), . . . , (0, 0, . . . , 1)}.
Any set consisting of just one non-zero vector is
For Pn , the standard basis is
linearly independent.
{1, x, x2 , . . . , xn−1 }.
Any set of two non-zero vectors is linearly dependent
For M2,2 , the standard basis is
if one of the vectors is a multiple of the other, and





1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
linearly independent otherwise.
, , , .
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Any set of three non-zero vectors is linearly
For C, the standard basis is
independent if and only if the vectors are not

coplanar.
{1, i}.
5 Let E = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } be a basis for a vector
space V , and suppose that
Strategy 3.1 To test whether a given set of
vectors {v1 , v2 , . . . , vk } is linearly independent. v = v1 e1 + v2 e2 + · · · + vn en ,
1. Write down the equation
where v1 , . . . , vn ∈ R.
α1 v1 + α2 v2 + · · · + αk vk = 0.
Then the E-coordinate representation of v is
2. Express this equation as a system of
vE = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn )E .
simultaneous linear equations in the
We call v1 , . . . , vn the coordinates of v with respect
unknowns α1 , α2 , . . . , αk .

to the basis E, or, more briefly, the E-coordinates

3. Solve these equations.
of v.
If the only solution is α1 = α2 = · · · = αk = 0,
If E is the standard basis, then we refer to the
then the set of vectors is linearly independent.
standard coordinate representation, standard
If there is a solution with at least one of
coordinates, and so on; in this case, the subscript E
α1 , α2 , . . . , αk not equal to zero, then the set of
is usually omitted.
vectors is linearly dependent.

6 Let V be a vector space. Then V is

3 A basis for a vector space V is a linearly
independent set of vectors which is a spanning set
for V .
Theorem 3.2 Let S be a basis for a vector
space V . Then each vector in V can be
expressed as a linear combination of the vectors
in S in only one way.
finite-dimensional if it contains a finite set of
vectors S which forms a basis for V . If no such set
exists, then V is infinite-dimensional.
Theorem 3.3 Let E = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } be a
basis for a vector space V , and let
S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vm } be a set of m vectors in V ,
where m > n. Then S is a linearly dependent
set.

49
LA3
Corollary Let V be a vector space with a
basis containing n vectors. If a linearly
independent subset of V contains m vectors,
then m ≤ n.
Theorem 3.4 Basis Theorem
Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space.
Then every basis for V contains the same
number of vectors.
The dimension of a finite-dimensional vector
space V , denoted by dim V , is the number of vectors
in any basis for the space.
Theorem 3.5 Let V be an n-dimensional
vector space. Then any set of n linearly
independent vectors in V is a basis for V .
Strategy 3.3 To determine whether a set of
vectors S in Rn is a basis for the vector
space Rn , check the following conditions.
(1) S contains n vectors.
(2) S is linearly independent.
subset of a vector space V . Then S is a
If both (1) and (2) hold, then S is a basis
subspace of V .
for Rn .
If either (1) or (2) does not hold, then S is not
a basis for Rn .
Theorem 3.6 Let S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vm } be a
linearly independent subset of an n-dimensional
vector space V , where m < n. Then there exist
vectors vm+1 , . . . , vn in V such that
{v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } is a basis for V .
4 Subspaces
A subset S of a vector space V is a subspace of V if
S is itself a vector space under vector addition and
scalar multiplication as defined in V .
50
Theorem 4.1 A subset S of a vector space V
is a subspace of V if it satisfies the following
conditions.
(a) 0 ∈ S.
(b) S is closed under vector addition.
(c) S is closed under scalar multiplication.
Strategy 4.1 To test whether a given subset
S of a vector space V is a subspace of V , check
the following conditions.
(1) 0 ∈ S (zero vector).
(2) If v1 , v2 ∈ S, then v1 + v2 ∈ S (vector
addition).
(3) If v ∈ S and α ∈ R, then αv ∈ S (scalar
multiplication).
If (1), (2) and (3) hold, then S is a subspace
of V .
If any of (1), (2) or (3) does not hold, then S is
not a subspace of V .
Theorem 4.2 Let S be a non-empty finite
Theorem 4.3 The dimension of a subspace of
a vector space V is less than or equal to the
dimension of V .
5 Orthogonal bases
1 Let v = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) and w = (w1 , w2 , . . . , wn )
be vectors in Rn . The dot product of v and w is
the real number
v . w = v1 w1 + v2 w2 + · · · + vn wn .
2 The vectors v and w in Rn are orthogonal if
v . w = 0.
A set of vectors in Rn is an orthogonal set if any
two distinct vectors in the set are orthogonal.
An orthogonal basis for Rn is an orthogonal set
which is a basis for Rn .
Theorem 5.1 Let S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vk } be
an orthogonal set of non-zero vectors in Rn .
Then S is a linearly independent set.
 LA3

5 Changing a basis in Rn to an orthogonal

basis in Rn
Theorem 5.2 Any orthogonal set of n
non-zero vectors in Rn is an orthogonal basis
for Rn . Theorem 5.4 Gram–Schmidt
orthogonalisation process
3 Finding bases Let {w1 , w2 , . . . , wn } be a basis for Rn , and let
v1 = w1 ,


v1 . w2
Strategy 5.1 To find an orthogonal basis v2 = w2 − v1 ,
v1 . v1
for R containing a given vector v1 .
3



v1 . w3 v2 . w3
Find a plane which is orthogonal to the given v3 = w3 − v1 − v2 ,
v1 . v1 v2 . v2
vector, and then find an orthogonal basis ..
{v2 , v3 } for the plane. .


v1 . wn v2 . wn
Then {v1 , v2 , v3 } is a suitable basis. vn = wn − v1 − v2
v1 . v1 v2 . v2


vn−1 . wn
−··· − vn−1 .
A hyperplane is a three-dimensional subspace of R4 . vn−1 . vn−1
Then {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } is an orthogonal basis
for Rn .
Strategy 5.2 To find an orthogonal basis
for R4 containing a given vector v1 .
Find a hyperplane which is orthogonal to the (This process can also be used for a subspace of
given vector, and then find an orthogonal basis dimension n of Rm , m ≥ n.)
{v2 , v3 , v4 } for the hyperplane. 6 Let v = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) be a vector in Rn . Then
Then {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } is a suitable basis. the length of v is
√ 
v = v . v = v12 + v22 + · · · + vn2 .
4 Expressing vectors in terms of orthogonal
bases 7 An orthonormal basis for Rn is an orthogonal
basis in which each basis vector has length 1.

Theorem 5.3 Let {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } be an

orthogonal basis for Rn and let u be any vector Strategy 5.4 To construct an orthonormal
in Rn . Then basis for Rn from an orthogonal basis


 {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } for Rn .
v1 . u v2 . u
u= v1 + v2 + · · · 1. Calculate the length of each basis vector.
v1 . v1 v2 . v2

 2. Divide each basis vector by its length.
vn . u
+ vn .
The required orthonormal basis is
vn . vn
 
v1 v2 vn
, ,..., .
v1  v2  vn 

Strategy 5.3 To express a vector u in terms

of an orthogonal basis v1 , v2 , . . . , vn .
v1 . u v2 . u Theorem 5.5 Let {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } be an
1. Calculate α1 = , α2 = , ..., orthonormal basis for Rn , and let u be any
v1 . v1 v2 . v2
vn . u vector in Rn . Then
αn = .

vn . vn
u = (v1 . u)v1 + (v2 . u)v2 + · · · + (vn . u)vn .
2. Write u = α1 v1 + α2 v2 + · · · + αn vn .

51
LA4

LA4 Linear transformations

Strategy 1.1 To determine whether or not a
given function t : V −→ W is a linear
transformation.
1 Introducing linear transformations
1. Check whether t(0) = 0; if not, then t is not
a linear transformation.
1 The following are linear transformations.
2. Check whether t satisfies the properties LT1
A k-dilation of R2 stretches (or scales) vectors and LT2.
radially from the origin by a factor k, where k is any
The function t is a linear transformation if
real number. This can be represented by




 and only if both these properties are
x k 0 x kx
−→ = . satisfied.
y 0 k y ky
A (k, l)-stretching of R2 stretches (or scales) vectors
by a factor k in the x-direction and by a factor l in If either of LT1 or LT2 fails, then you do not need to
the y-direction, where k and l are any real numbers. check the other.
This can be represented by




 3 A shear of R2 in the x-direction by a factor k is
x k 0 x kx the linear transformation
−→ = .
y 0 l y ly t : R2 −→ R2
A rotation rθ of R2 rotates vectors anticlockwise (x, y) −→
 (x + ky, y).
through an angle θ about the origin (0, 0). This can A translation of R2 by (a, b) is the function
be represented by



 t : R2 −→ R2
x cos θ − sin θ x
−→
 (x, y) −→
 (x + a, y + b).
y sin θ cos θ y


x cos θ − y sin θ 4 The zero transformation from V to W is the
= . linear transformation
x sin θ + y cos θ
A reflection qφ of R2 reflects vectors in the straight t : V −→ W

line through the origin that makes an angle φ with v 

−→ 0.
the x-axis. This can be represented by The identity transformation of V is the linear




x cos 2φ sin 2φ x transformation
−→

y sin 2φ − cos 2φ y iV : V −→ V


x cos 2φ + y sin 2φ v −→ v.
= .
x sin 2φ − y cos 2φ We omit the subscript V when the vector space is
2 Let V and W be vector spaces. A function clear from the context.
t : V −→ W is a linear transformation if it
5 Linear combinations of vectors
satisfies the following properties.

LT1 t(v1 + v2 ) = t(v1 ) + t(v2 ), for all v1 , v2 ∈ V .

Theorem 1.2 A function t : V −→ W is a

LT2 t(αv) = α t(v), for all v ∈ V , α ∈ R.

linear transformation if and only if it satisfies

(Throughout this unit, V and W denote vector

LT3 t(α1 v1 + α2 v2 ) = α1 t(v1 ) + α2 t(v2 ),

spaces.)

for all v1 , v2 ∈ V and all α1 , α2 ∈ R.

Theorem 1.1 Let t : V −→ W be a linear

transformation. Then t(0) = 0.
Theorem 1.3 Let t : V −→ W be a linear
transformation. Then
t(α1 v1 + α2 v2 + · · · + αn vn )
= α1 t(v1 ) + α2 t(v2 ) + · · · + αn t(vn ),
for all v1 , . . . , vn ∈ V and all α1 , . . . , αn ∈ R,
n ∈ N.

52
 LA4

2 Matrices of linear transformations 2 A linear transformation t : V −→ W has many

1 Let V and W be vector spaces of dimensions n
and m, respectively. Let t : V −→ W be a linear
transformation, let E = {e1 , . . . , en } be a basis for V ,
let F = {f1 , . . . , fm } be a basis for W , and let A be
an m × n matrix such that
t(v)F = AvE , for each vector v in V.
Then vE −→ AvE = t(v)F is the matrix
representation of t with respect to the bases E
and F , and A is the matrix of t with respect to the
bases E and F .
different matrix representations:
different bases for V and W give different
matrix representations.
Moreover, the order of the elements in a basis is
important:
a different order gives a different matrix
representation.
Theorem 2.2 Let t : V −→ W be a function
which has a matrix representation. Then t is a
linear transformation.

Theorem 2.1 Let t : V −→ W be a linear

transformation, let E = {e1 , . . . , en } be a basis
for V and let F = {f1 , . . . , fm } be a basis for W .
Let
t(e1 ) = (a11 , a21 , . . . , am1 )F ,
t(e2 ) = (a12 , a22 , . . . , am2 )F ,
The linear transformations from a finite-dimensional
vector space V to a finite-dimensional vector
space W are precisely those functions from V to W
that have a matrix representation.

..
3 Composition and invertibility
t(en ) = (a1n , a2n , . . . , amn )F .

Then there is exactly one matrix of t with 1 Combining linear transformations

respect to the bases E and F , namely
⎛ ⎞
a11 a12 · · · a1n Theorem 3.1 Composition Rule
⎜ a21 a22 · · · a2n ⎟
⎜ ⎟ Let t : V −→ W and s : W −→ X be linear

A =
⎜ . .. .
⎟ .

⎝
.. . . ⎠

. transformations. Then:
am1 am2 · · · amn (a) s ◦ t : V −→ X is a linear transformation;
(b) if A is the matrix of t with respect to the
bases E and F , and B is the matrix of s
with respect to the bases F and G, then
Strategy 2.1 To find the matrix A of t with BA is the matrix of s ◦ t with respect to
respect to the bases E and F . the bases E and G.
1. Find t(e1 ), t(e2 ), . . . , t(en ).
2. Find the F -coordinates of each of these
image vectors:
t(e1 ) = (a11 , a21 , . . . , am1 )F ,
t(e2 ) = (a12 , a22 , . . . , am2 )F ,
..
.
t(en ) = (a1n , a2n , . . . , amn )F .
3. Construct the matrix A column by column:
⎛ ⎞
a11 a12 · · · a1n
⎜ a21 a22 · · · a2n ⎟
⎜ ⎟
A=⎜ . .. .. ⎟ .

⎝
.. . . ⎠

am1 am2 · · · amn

53
LA4

3 The vector spaces V and W are isomorphic if

there exists an invertible linear transformation
Corollary Let A, B and C be matrices of
t : V −→ W . Such a function t is an isomorphism.
sizes q × p, p × m and m × n, respectively. Then
A(BC) = (AB)C.
Theorem 3.3 The finite-dimensional vector
spaces V and W are isomorphic if and only if
2 The linear transformation t : V −→ W is dim V = dim W.
invertible if there exists an inverse function
t−1 : W −→ V such that
t −1 ◦ t = iV and t ◦ t−1 = iW .
4 Image and kernel
Theorem 3.2 Inverse Rule
Let t : V −→ W be a linear transformation. 1 The image of a linear transformation
(a) If t is invertible, then t−1 : W −→ V is also t : V −→ W is the set
a linear transformation. Im(t) = {w ∈ W : w = t(v), for some v ∈ V }.
(b) If A is the matrix of t with respect to the
bases E and F , then:
(i) t is invertible if and only if A is
invertible;
(ii) if t is invertible, then A−1 is the matrix
of t−1 with respect to the bases F and E.

Theorem 4.1 Let t : V −→ W be a linear

transformation. Then Im(t) is a subspace of the
codomain W .

Strategy 4.1 To find a basis for Im(t),

where t : V −→ W is a linear transformation.
1. Find a basis {e1 , . . . , en } for the domain V .
2. Determine the vectors t(e1 ), . . . , t(en ).
Corollary Let t : V −→ W be an invertible 3. If there is a vector v in
linear transformation, where V and W are finite
S = {t(e1 ), . . . , t(en )} that is a linear
dimensional. Then
combination of the other vectors in S, then
dim V = dim W. discard v to give the set S1 = S − {v}.
4. If there is a vector v1 in S1 such that v1 is
a linear combination of the other vectors
Strategy 3.1 To determine whether or not a in S1 , then discard v1 to give the set
linear transformation t : V −→ W is invertible, S2 = S1 − {v1 }.
where V and W are n-dimensional vector spaces Continue discarding vectors in this way until
with bases E and F , respectively. you obtain a linearly independent set. This set
1. Find a matrix representation of t, is a basis for Im(t).
vE −→ AvE = t(v)F .
2. Evaluate det A.
A linear transformation t : V −→ W is onto if and
If det A = 0, then t is not invertible.
only if Im(t) = W .
If det A 
= 0, then t is invertible and
t−1 : W −→ V has the matrix representation
wF −→ A−1 wF = t−1 (w)E .

54
 LA4

2 The kernel of a linear transformation

t : V −→ W is the set
Theorem 4.5 Let t : V −→ W be a linear
Ker(t) = {v ∈ V : t(v) = 0}. transformation from an n-dimensional vector
space V to an m-dimensional vector space W .
(a) If n > m, then t is not one-one, since
Ker(t) = {0}.
(b) If n < m, then t is not onto, since
Im(t) = W .
(c) If n = m, then
either t is both one-one and onto, since
Ker(t) = {0} and Im(t) = W ;
or t is neither one-one nor onto, since
Theorem 4.2 Let t : V −→ W be a linear Ker(t)  = {0} and Im(t) =
 W.
transformation. Then Ker(t) is a subspace of
the domain V .

Theorem 4.3 Solution Set Theorem

Let t : V −→ W be a linear transformation. Let
b ∈ W and let a be one vector in V that maps
to b, that is, t(a) = b. Then the solution set of
the equation t(x) = b is
{x : x = a + k for some k ∈ Ker(t)}.

A linear transformation t : V −→ W is one-one if and

only if Ker(t) = {0}.
3 Dimensions

Theorem 4.4 Dimension Theorem

Let t : V −→ W be a linear transformation.

Then

dim Im(t) + dim Ker(t) = dim V.

4 Number of solutions of a system of linear

equations

Theorem 4.6 Let Ax = b be a system of m

simultaneous linear equations in n unknowns.
(a) If n > m, then Ax = b has either no

solutions or infinitely many solutions.

(b) If n < m, then there is some b for which

Ax = b has no solutions.
(c) If n = m, then:
either Ax = b has exactly one solution
for each b;
or there are some b for which
Ax = b has no solutions,
and for all other b, Ax = b has
infinitely many solutions.

55
LA5

LA5 Eigenvectors 3 Eigenspaces

Theorem 1.2 Let t : V −→ V be a linear

1 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors transformation. For each eigenvalue λ of t, let
S(λ) be the set of vectors satisfying t(v) = λv.
Then S(λ) is a subspace of V .
1 Let t : V −→ V be a linear transformation. An
eigenvector of t is a non-zero vector v that is
mapped by t to a scalar multiple of itself; this scalar S(λ) is the set of eigenvectors corresponding to λ,
is the corresponding eigenvalue. together with the zero vector 0. It is called the
In symbols, a non-zero vector v is an eigenvector of a eigenspace of t corresponding to the eigenvalue λ.
linear transformation t if 4 If the characteristic equation of a square
t(v) = λv, for some λ ∈ R; matrix A can be written as
λ is the corresponding eigenvalue.
(λ − λ1 )m1 (λ − λ2 )m2 . . . (λ − λp )mp = 0,
We exclude the case v = 0, since t(0) = 0 for every
where λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λp are distinct, then the eigenvalue
linear transformation t.
λj of A has multiplicity mj , for j = 1, 2, . . . , p.
2 A non-zero vector v is an eigenvector of a
The dimension of an eigenspace cannot exceed the
square matrix A if
multiplicity of the corresponding eigenvalue.
Av = λv, for some λ ∈ R;
λ is the corresponding eigenvalue.
2 Diagonalising matrices
The characteristic equation of a square matrix A
is the equation
1 Let t : Rn −→ Rn be a linear transformation, and
det(A − λI) = 0. let E be a basis for Rn consisting of eigenvectors of t.
The matrix A − λI is obtained by subtracting λ from
The basis E is an eigenvector basis of t.
each entry on the diagonal of A.

The equations (A − λI)v = 0 are the eigenvector

Strategy 2.1 To find the matrix A of a
equations. linear transformation t : V −→ V with respect
to the basis E = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }.
Strategy 1.1 To determine the eigenvalues 1. Find the images t(e1 ), t(e2 ), . . . , t(en ).
and eigenvectors of a square matrix A. 2. Find the E-coordinates of the image vectors
1. Find the eigenvalues.
from step 1.
Write down the characteristic equation
3. For each j = 1, 2, . . . , n, use the
E-coordinates of t(ej ) to form column j of
det(A − λI) = 0.
the matrix A.
Expand this determinant to obtain a

polynomial equation in λ.

Solve this equation to find the eigenvalues.

Theorem 2.1 Let t : Rn −→ Rn be a linear

2. Find the eigenvectors. transformation, let E = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } be an
Write down the eigenvector equations eigenvector basis of t, and let t(ej ) = λj ej , for
(A − λI)v = 0. j = 1, 2, . . . , n. Then the matrix of t with
respect to the eigenvector basis E is
For each eigenvalue λ, solve this system of ⎛ ⎞
linear equations to find the corresponding λ1 0 · · · 0
⎜ 0 λ2 · · · 0 ⎟
eigenvectors.
D =
⎜⎝
... ...
⎟
.. ⎠
.

0 0 · · · λn
The sum of the eigenvalues equals the sum of the
diagonal entries of the matrix A (the trace of A).
2 Let E = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } be a basis for Rn . The
transition matrix P from the basis E to the
Theorem 1.1 The eigenvalues of a
standard basis for Rn is the matrix whose jth column
triangular matrix and of a diagonal matrix are

is formed from the standard coordinates of ej .

the diagonal entries of the matrix.

56
 LA5

Theorem 2.2 Let E = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } be a Strategy 2.2 To diagonalise an n × n

n
basis for R , and let P be the transition matrix matrix A.
from the basis E to the standard basis for Rn . 1. Find all the eigenvalues of A.
Then the standard coordinate representation of 2. Find (if possible) an eigenvector basis
a vector in Rn is given by E = {e1 , . . . , en } of A.
v = PvE . 3. Write down the transition matrix P whose
Moreover, P is invertible and jth column is formed from the standard
vE = P−1 v. coordinates of ej .
4. Then
⎛
⎞

λ1 0 · · · 0
When E is the standard basis for Rn , the transition ⎜ 0 λ2 · · · 0 ⎟
matrix P is the identity matrix In . P−1 AP = D = ⎜ ⎝
... .. .
⎟
.. ⎠
,
.
The rows or columns of an n × n matrix A form a set 0 0 · · · λn
of n linearly independent vectors if and only if where λj is the eigenvalue corresponding to
det A = 0. the eigenvector ej .

Theorem 2.3 Let t : Rn −→ Rn be a linear

transformation, and let E be an eigenvector
Theorem 2.4 Let A be an n × n matrix
basis of t. Let A be the matrix of t with respect
with distinct eigenvalues λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn and
to the standard basis for Rn , let D be the
corresponding eigenvectors e1 , e2 , . . . , en . Then
matrix of t with respect to the eigenvector
E = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } is an eigenvector basis
basis E, and let P be the transition matrix from
of A.
E to the standard basis for Rn . Then
D = P−1 AP.

Strategy 2.3 To find an eigenvector basis of

an n × n matrix A.
1. Find a basis for each eigenspace of A.
2. Form the set E of all the basis vectors
found in step 1.
If there are n vectors in E, then E is an
eigenvector basis of A; otherwise E is not a
basis.

3 The matrix A is diagonalisable if there exists
an invertible matrix P such that the matrix
D = P−1 AP
is diagonal.
If D = P−1 AP, then
PDn P−1 = An , for n = 1, 2, . . . .
4 Let A be an n × n matrix, and let
E = {e1 , . . . , en } be a basis for Rn consisting of
eigenvectors of A. The basis E is an eigenvector
basis of A.
3 Symmetric matrices
1 An orthonormal basis consists of mutually
perpendicular (orthogonal) vectors of unit length.
An n × n matrix P whose columns form an
orthonormal basis for Rn is an orthogonal matrix;
in this case we have P−1 = PT .
2 The matrix A is orthogonally diagonalisable
if there exists an orthogonal matrix P such that the
matrix
D = PT AP = P−1 AP
is diagonal.
If A is orthogonally diagonalisable, then it is
symmetric.

57
LA5

Linear transformations of R3 whose matrices are

orthogonal are rotations about a line through the
Strategy 3.1 To orthogonally diagonalise an
origin, reflections in a plane through the origin, or
n × n symmetric matrix A.
combinations of these. The orthogonal matrices
1. Find all the eigenvalues of A. representing rotations of R3 are precisely those with
2. Find an orthonormal eigenvector basis
determinant +1.
E = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } of A.

3. Write down the orthogonal transition

matrix P whose jth column is formed from 4 Conics and quadrics
the standard coordinates of ej .
4. Then 1 The three types of non-degenerate conic are
⎛
⎞

λ1 0 · · · 0 shown on page 101.

⎜ 0 λ2 · · · 0 ⎟
PT AP = D = ⎜ ⎝
... .. .. ⎟ ,
. . ⎠

Strategy 4.1 To write the conic with

0 0 · · · λn
equation
where λj is the eigenvalue corresponding to
Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + F x + Gy + H = 0
the eigenvector ej .
in standard form.
1. Introduce matrices.
1

A 2B
Theorem 3.1 Write down the matrices A =
Eigenvectors corresponding to

 1
2B C
distinct eigenvalues of a symmetric matrix are F
and J = .
orthogonal. G
2. Align the axes.
(a) Orthogonally diagonalise A:


Strategy 3.2 To find an orthonormal T λ1 0
P AP = .
eigenvector basis of an n × n symmetric 0 λ2



matrix A. (b) Find f g = JT P, and write the

1. Find an orthonormal basis for each
conic in the form
eigenspace of A.
λ1 (x
)2 + λ2 (y
)2 + f x
+ gy

2. Form the set E of all the basis vectors
+ H = 0. (∗)
found in step 1. This is the required basis.
3. Translate the origin.
Complete the squares in equation (∗), and
3 Orthogonal matrices change to the coordinate system (x

, y

).
 0, then
If λ1 , λ2 =



Theorem 3.2 A square matrix P is




f
g

orthogonal if and only if PT = P−1 . (x , y ) = x +
2λ1
,y +
2λ2
.

Corollary Let P and Q be orthogonal n × n

2 A quadric in R3 is the set of points (x, y, z) that
satisfy an equation of the form
matrices. Then:
Ax2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + F xy + Gyz + Hxz
(a) P−1 (= PT ) is orthogonal;
(b) the rows of P form an orthonormal basis + Jx + Ky + Lz + M = 0,
for Rn ; where A, B, C, F , G and H are not all 0.
(c) det P = ±1; The six types of non-degenerate quadric are shown
(d) the product PQ is orthogonal. on page 101.

4 Linear transformations of R2 whose matrices are

orthogonal are rotations about the origin when the
determinant is +1, and reflections in a line through
the origin when the the determinant is −1.

58
 LA5

Strategy 4.2 To write the quadric with

equation
Ax2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + F xy + Gyz + Hxz
+ Jx + Ky + Lz + M = 0
in standard form.
1. Introduce matrices.
Write down the matrices
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
A 12 F 12 H J
⎜ ⎟
A = ⎝ 12 F B 12
G ⎠ , J = ⎝ K ⎠.
1
1 L
2 H 2 G C
2. Align the axes.
(a) Orthogonally diagonalise A:
⎛ ⎞
λ1 0 0

PT AP = ⎝ 0 λ2 0 ⎠ .

0 0 λ3

 
(b) Find f g h = JT P, and write the
quadric in the form

λ1 (x
)2 + λ2 (y
)2 + λ3 (z
)2

+ f x
+ gy
+ hz
+ M = 0. (∗)
3. Translate the origin.
Complete the squares in equation (∗), and
change to the coordinate system (x

, y

, z

).
If λ1 , λ2 , λ3 = 0, then
(x

, y

, z

) =



f
g
h
x + ,y + ,z + .

2λ1 2λ2 2λ3

59
AA1

Analysis Block A

AA1 Numbers There is a one-one correspondence between the

points on the real line and the set R of real numbers.
We often use the word ‘point’ to mean ‘number’ in
this context.
1 Real numbers 5 Order properties of R
1 The set of natural numbers is the set Trichotomy Property If a, b ∈ R, then exactly
N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}; one of the following holds:
the set of integers is the set a < b or a = b or a > b.
Z = {. . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . .}; Transitive Property If a, b, c ∈ R, then
the set of rational numbers consists of all fractions, a < b and b < c ⇒ a < c.
Q = {p/q : p ∈ Z, q ∈ N}. Archimedean Property If a ∈ R, then there is a
These numbers can all be represented geometrically positive integer n such that
as points on a number line.
n > a.
The rationals have a natural order on the number
Density Property If a, b ∈ R and a < b, then
line: if a lies to the left of b on the number line, then
there is a rational number x and an irrational
a is less than b or b is greater than a number y such that
and we write these as strict inequalities, a < x < b and a < y < b.
a < b or b > a. 6 Arithmetic in R
We write the weak inequalities, a ≤ b or b ≥ a, if
Addition
either a < b or a = b.

A1 If a, b ∈ R, then a + b ∈ R. closure
2 A decimal is an expression of the form
A2 If a ∈ R, then
± a0 .a1 a2 a3 . . . , a + 0 = 0 + a = a. identity
where a0 is a non-negative integer, and a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . A3 If a ∈ R, then there is a number
are digits (i.e. numbers from the set {0, 1, 2, . . . , 9}). −a ∈ R such that
If only a finite number of the digits a1 , a2 , . . . are a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0. inverses
non-zero, then the decimal is called terminating or A4 If a, b, c ∈ R, then
finite; otherwise, we have a non-terminating or (a + b) + c = a + (b + c). associativity
infinite decimal.
A5 If a, b ∈ R, then
A recurring decimal is a decimal with a recurring
a + b = b + a. commutativity
block of digits; for example, 0.863 63 . . . is written as
0.863. By definition, 0.9 = 1. Multiplication
M1 If a, b ∈ R, then a × b ∈ R. closure
We order two rational numbers by examining their

decimal representations and noticing the first place

M2 If a ∈ R, then
at which the digits differ.
a × 1 = 1 × a = a. identity
Every rational number can be represented by a finite
M3 If a ∈ R − {0}, then there is a
or recurring decimal.
number a−1 ∈ R such that
3 A number which is not rational is called
a × a−1 = a−1 × a = 1. inverses
irrational.
M4 If a, b, c ∈ R, then
The set of irrational numbers consists of all the
(a × b) × c = a × (b × c). associativity
non-recurring decimals.
M5 If a, b ∈ R, then
4 Together, the rational numbers and irrational
a × b = b × a. commutativity
numbers form the set of real numbers, denoted
Addition and multiplication
by R.
D If a, b, c ∈ R, then
We order two real numbers by examining their
a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c. distributivity
decimal representations and noticing the first place
Any system satisfying the properties listed above is
at which the digits differ.
called a field.
The number line, complete with both rational and

irrational points, is called the real line.

60
 AA1

2 Inequalities 3 Proving inequalities

1 Rules for inequalities 1 Transitive Rule a < b and b < c ⇒ a < c.

(1) a < b ⇔ b − a > 0. Combination Rules If a < b and c < d, then
(2) a < b ⇔ a + c < b + c. Sum Rule a + c < b + d;
(3) If c > 0, then Product Rule ac < bd, provided a, c ≥ 0.
a < b ⇔ ac < bc; There are also versions of these rules involving weak
if c < 0, then inequalities.
a < b ⇔ ac > bc.
(4) If a, b > 0, then Triangle Inequality If a, b ∈ R, then
1 1 1. |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b| (usual form);
a<b ⇔ > .  
a b 2. |a − b| ≥ |a| − |b| (‘backwards’ form).
(5) If a, b ≥ 0 and p > 0, then
a < b ⇔ ap < bp .
There is a more general form of inequality 1:
There are corresponding versions of Rules 1–5 in
which the strict inequality a < b is replaced by the if a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈ R, then
weak inequality a ≤ b. |a1 + a2 + · · · + an | ≤ |a1 | + |a2 | + · · · + |an |.
We frequently use the usual rules for the sign of a 2

The notation
product: n n!
=
× + − k k! (n − k)!

is also denoted by n Ck .

+ + −
− − +
In particular, the square of any real number is Theorem 3.1 Binomial Theorem
non-negative.
1. If x ∈ R and n ∈ N, then
2 The solution set of an inequality involving an n

n n
unknown real number x is the set of values of x for (1 + x) = xk
k
which the given inequality holds. k=0
n(n − 1) 2
To solve the inequality, we find the solution set by = 1 + nx + x + · · · + xn .
rewriting the inequality in an equivalent, but simpler, 2!
form, using the rules listed in item 1. 2. If a, b ∈ R and n ∈ N, then
n



3 If a ∈ R, then its modulus or absolute value n

(a + b) =
n
an−k bk
|a| is defined by k
k=0

a, if a ≥ 0, n(n − 1) n−2 2
|a| = = an + na n−1 b + a b
−a, if a < 0. 2!
The distance on the real line from a to b is |a − b|. + · · · + bn .
4 Properties of the modulus
If a, b ∈ R, then 3 Inequalities for real numbers

2
1. |a| ≥ 0, with equality if and only if a = 0; a+b
(1) ab ≤ , for a, b ∈ R.
−|a| ≤ a ≤ |a|; 2
2. √
3. |a|2 = a2 ; (2)
a2 + b2 ≤ a + b, for a, b ≥ 0.
√ √ 
4. |a − b| = |b − a|; (3) | a − b| ≤ |a − b|, for a, b ≥ 0.
5. |ab| = |a| |b|; 4 Inequalities for natural numbers
6. |a| < b ⇔ −b < a < b. (1) 2n ≥ 1 + n, for n ≥ 1.
1
(2) 21/n ≤ 1 + , for n ≥ 1.
n
(3) 2n ≥ n2 , for n ≥ 4.
(4) 21/n ≥ 2n/(2n − 1), for n ≥ 1.
5 Bernoulli’s Inequality For n ∈ N,
(1 + x)n ≥ 1 + nx, for x ≥ −1.

61
AA1

6 Strategies for proving inequalities 6 Least Upper Bound Property of R Let E

(1) Give a direct proof. be a non-empty subset of R. If E is bounded above,
(2) Use the Binomial Theorem. then E has a least upper bound.
(3) Use mathematical induction. Greatest Lower Bound Property of R Let E
be a non-empty subset of R. If E is bounded below,
(4) Deduce the result from a known inequality.
then E has a greatest lower bound.

4 Least upper bounds 5 Manipulating real numbers

1 A set E ⊆ R is bounded above if there is a real
number M , called an upper bound of E, such that
x ≤ M, for all x ∈ E.
If the upper bound M belongs to E, then M is called
the maximum element of E, denoted by max E.
1 We define the sum and product of two positive
real numbers a and b (expressed as decimals) as
follows. Form the sums (or products) of truncations
of a and b to n decimal places for each n ∈ N, and
take the least upper bound of the resulting set of

finite decimals.

2 A set E ⊆ R is bounded below if there is a real

number m, called a lower bound of E, such that Similar ideas can be used to define the operations of

subtraction and division.

m ≤ x, for all x ∈ E.
If the lower bound m belongs to E, then m is called 2 Existence of roots
the minimum element of E, denoted by min E.
3 A set E ⊆ R is bounded if E is bounded above Theorem 5.1 For each positive real
and bounded below; the set E is unbounded if it is number a and each integer n > 1, there is a
not bounded. unique positive real number b such that
4 A real number M is the least upper bound, or bn = a.
supremum, of a set E ⊆ R if
1. M is an upper bound of E; We call this positive
√ number b the nth root of a,
2. each M
< M is not an upper bound of E. and write b = n a.

In this case, we write M = sup E. 3 If a >√0, m ∈ Z and n ∈ N, then we define

am/n = ( n a)m .

Strategy 4.1 Given a subset E of R, to show 4 Exponent Laws If a, b > 0 and x, y ∈ Q, then

that M is the least upper bound, or supremum, a x bx = (ab)x ,

of E, check that:
ax
ay = ax+y ,

1. x ≤ M , for all x ∈ E;
(ax )y
= axy .
2. if M
< M , then there is some x ∈ E such
that x > M
.

5 A real number m is the greatest lower bound,

or infimum, of a set E ⊆ R if
1. m is a lower bound of E;
2. each m
> m is not a lower bound of E.
In this case, we write m = inf E.

Strategy 4.2 Given a subset E of R, to show

that m is the greatest lower bound, or infimum,
of E, check that:
1. x ≥ m, for all x ∈ E;
2. if m
> m, then there is some x ∈ E such
that x < m
.

62
 AA2

AA2 Sequences 3 When a given sequence has a certain property,

provided that we ignore a finite number of terms, we
say that the sequence eventually has this property.

1 Introducing sequences
2 Null sequences
1 A sequence is an unending list of real numbers
a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . . 1 The sequence {an } is null if
The real number an is called the nth term of the for each positive number ε, there is an
sequence, and the sequence is denoted by integer N such that
{an }. |an | < ε, for all n > N. (∗)
Sequences sometimes begin with a term other
than a1 ; for example, a0 or a3 .
The sequence diagram of a sequence {an } is the
graph of the sequence in R2 , that is, the set of points
{(n, an ) : n = 1, 2, . . .}.
2 A sequence {an } is:
constant if
an+1 = an , for n = 1, 2, . . . ;
increasing if Strategy 2.1
an+1 ≥ an , for n = 1, 2, . . . ;
1. To show that {an } is null, solve |an | < ε to
strictly increasing if find N (depending on ε) for which (∗) holds.
an+1 > an , for n = 1, 2, . . . ; 2. To show that {an } is not null, find one
decreasing if value of ε for which there is no integer N
an+1 ≤ an , for n = 1, 2, . . . ; such that (∗) holds.
strictly decreasing if
an+1 < an , for n = 1, 2, . . . ; 2 The sequence {an } is null if and only if the
monotonic if {an } is either increasing or decreasing; sequence {|an |} is null, and also if and only if the
sequence {(−1)n an } is null.
strictly monotonic if {an } is either strictly
increasing or strictly decreasing. The null sequence {an } remains null if we add, delete
or alter a finite number of terms.

Strategy 1.1 To show that a given sequence

{an } is monotonic, consider the difference Power Rule If {an } is null, where an ≥ 0 for
an+1 − an . n = 1, 2, . . . , and p > 0, then {apn } is null.
If an+1 − an ≥ 0, for n = 1, 2, . . . , then {an } is
increasing.
If an+1 − an ≤ 0, for n = 1, 2, . . . , then {an } is Combination Rules If {an } and {bn } are
decreasing. null, then:
Sum Rule {an + bn } is null;
Multiple Rule {λan } is null, for λ ∈ R;
Strategy 1.2 To show that a given sequence Product Rule {an bn } is null.
{an } of positive terms is monotonic, consider
an+1
the quotient .

an

an+1
If ≥ 1, for n = 1, 2, . . . , then {an } is
an

increasing.

an+1
If ≤ 1, for n = 1, 2, . . . , then {an } is
an

decreasing.

63
AA2

Squeeze Rule If {bn } is null and

Combination Rules If lim an = l and
n→∞

|an | ≤ bn , for n = 1, 2, . . .
lim bn = m, then:

n→∞
(that is, {an } is dominated by {bn }), then

Sum Rule lim (an + bn ) = l + m;

{an } is null.
n→∞
Multiple Rule lim (λan ) = λl, for λ ∈ R;
n→∞
Product Rule lim (an bn ) = lm;
n→∞


Strategy 2.2 Squeeze Rule an l
Quotient Rule lim = ,
To show that {an } is null. n→∞ bn m
1. Guess a dominating null sequence {bn }. provided that m =  0.
2. Check that |an | ≤ bn for n = 1, 2, . . . , using
the rules for inequalities.
3. If |an | ≤ bn for n = 1, 2, . . . , then {an } is

null, since {bn } is null.

Strategy 3.1 To evaluate the limit of a
complicated quotient.
1. Identify the dominant term.
3 Basic null sequences The following sequences 2. Divide both numerator and denominator by
are null. the dominant term.
(a) {1/np }, for p > 0. 3. Apply the Combination Rules.
(b) {cn }, for |c| < 1.
(c) {np cn }, for p > 0, |c| < 1.
When applying Strategy 3.1,
(d) {cn /n!}, for c ∈ R.
n! dominates cn ,
(e) {np /n!}, for p > 0.
and, for |c| > 1 and p > 0,
c n dominates np .
3 Convergent sequences
Squeeze Rule If {an }, {bn } and {cn } are
1 The sequence {an } is convergent with limit l if sequences such that:
{an − l} is a null sequence. We say that {an }
1. bn ≤ an ≤ cn , for n = 1, 2, . . . ,
converges to l, and we write
either lim an = l, 2. lim bn = lim cn = l,
n→∞ n→∞
n→∞
or an → l as n → ∞. then lim an = l.
n→∞
Equivalently, the sequence {an } converges to l if
for each positive number ε, there is an
integer N such that 3 For any positive number a,
|an − l| < ε, for all n > N. lim a1/n = 1.
n→∞
Also,
lim n1/n = 1.
n→∞

Limit Inequality Rule If lim an = l and

n→∞
lim bn = m, and also
n→∞

an ≤ bn , for n = 1, 2, . . . ,

then l ≤ m.

2 If a sequence is convergent, then it has a unique

limit.
If a given sequence converges to l, then this remains
true if we add, delete or alter a finite number of
terms.

64
 AA2

Corollary If lim an = l and lim an = m, Combination Rules If {an } tends to

n→∞ n→∞
then l = m. infinity and {bn } tends to infinity, then:
Sum Rule {an + bn } tends to infinity;
Multiple Rule {λan } tends to infinity,
for λ ∈ R+ ;
Theorem 3.1 If lim an = l, then
n→∞ Product Rule {an bn } tends to infinity.
lim |an | = |l|.
n→∞

Squeeze Rule If {bn } tends to infinity and

4 Divergent sequences an ≥ bn , for n = 1, 2, . . . ,

then {an } tends to infinity.

1 A sequence is divergent if it is not convergent.

A sequence {an } is bounded if there is a number K
3 The sequence {ank } is a subsequence of the
such that
sequence {an } if {nk } is a strictly increasing
|an | ≤ K, for n = 1, 2, . . . . sequence of positive integers; that is, if
A sequence is unbounded if it is not bounded. n1 < n2 < n3 < · · · .
In particular, {a2k } is the even subsequence and
Theorem 4.1 If {an } is convergent, then {a2k−1 } is the odd subsequence.
{an } is bounded. Every sequence is a subsequence of itself.

Theorem 4.2 For any subsequence {ank }

Corollary If {an } is unbounded, then {an } of {an }:
is divergent. (a) if an → l as n → ∞,

then ank → l as k → ∞;

2 The sequence {an } tends to infinity if (b) if an → ∞ as n → ∞,

then ank → ∞ as k → ∞.

for each positive number K, there is an

integer N such that
an > K, for all n > N.
In this case, we write
Corollary
1. First Subsequence Rule The sequence
an → ∞ as n → ∞.
{an } is divergent if {an } has two convergent
The sequence {an } tends to minus infinity if subsequences with different limits.
−an → ∞ as n → ∞. 2. Second Subsequence Rule The
In this case, we write sequence {an } is divergent if {an } has a
an → −∞ as n → ∞. subsequence which tends to infinity or a
subsequence which tends to minus infinity.
If a sequence tends to ∞ or −∞, then it is

unbounded, and hence divergent.

If a sequence tends to ∞ or −∞, then this remains

true if we add, delete or alter a finite number of

Strategy 4.1 To prove that the sequence
terms.
{an } is divergent:
either
Reciprocal Rule If the sequence {an } 1. show that {an } has two convergent

satisfies both the conditions subsequences with different limits;

or
1. {an } is eventually positive,
2. show that {an } has a subsequence which
2. {1/an } is a null sequence, tends to infinity or a subsequence which
then an → ∞. tends to minus infinity.

65
AA3

AA3 Series
Theorem 4.3 Let {an } consist of two
subsequences {amk } and {ank }, which both
tend to the same limit l. Then
1 Introducing series
lim an = l.
n→∞
1 Let {an } be a sequence. Then the expression
a1 + a2 + a3 + · · ·
is an infinite series, or simply a series. We call an

5 Monotone Convergence Theorem the nth term of the series.

The nth partial sum of this series is

1 Monotonic sequences sn = a1 + a2 + · · · + an .
2 The series
Theorem 5.1
a1 + a2 + a3 + · · ·
Monotone Convergence Theorem

is convergent with sum s if its sequence {sn } of

If the sequence {an } is:

partial sums converges to s. In this case, the series

either increasing and bounded above,
converges to s and we write
or decreasing and bounded below,
a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · = s.
then {an } is convergent.

The series diverges, or is divergent, if the sequence

{sn } diverges.

3 Sigma notation We write

∞

an = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · .
n=1
When using sigma notation to represent the nth
partial sum of such a series, we write
n
sn = a1 + a2 + · · · + an = ak .
k=1
If we need to begin a series with a term other
than a1 , we write, for example,
∞
an = a0 + a1 + a2 + · · · ;
n=0
for such a series,
n

Theorem 5.2
Monotonic Sequence Theorem sn = a0 + a1 + · · · + an = ak .
k=0
If the sequence {an } is monotonic, then
either {an } is convergent 4 Geometric series
or an → ±∞. The (infinite) geometric series with first term a
and common ratio r is
∞
arn = a + ar + ar2 + · · · .
2 We define the number π as follows:
n=0
π = lim an = 3.141 592 653 . . . ,
n→∞
where an is the area of the regular polygon with Geometric series
3 × 2n sides inscribed in a disc of radius 1. ∞

We define the
numbern e as follows: (a) If |r| < 1, then arn is convergent, with
1 a n=0

e = lim 1 + = 2.718 281 828 . . . . sum .

n→∞ n 1 − r

∞

If x is irrational and x ≥ 0, then lim (1 + x/n)n
n→∞ (b) If |r| ≥ 1 and a = 0, then arn is
exists and is used to define ex :
 x n divergent. n=0
ex = lim 1 + .
n→∞ n

66
 AA3

5 A telescoping series is one for which it is easy 2 Series with non-negative terms
to find an expression for sn because most terms in
the partial sums cancel out. 1 Tests for convergence

Combination Rules Suppose that Comparison Test

∞
 ∞

an = s and bn = t. Then (a) If
n=1 n=1 0 ≤ an ≤ bn , for n = 1, 2, . . . ,
∞
 ∞
 ∞
Sum Rule (an + bn ) = s + t; and bn is convergent, then an is
n=1
n=1 n=1
∞
convergent.
Multiple Rule λan = λs, for λ ∈ R.
n=1 (b) If

0 ≤ bn ≤ an , for n = 1, 2, . . . ,
∞
 ∞
and bn is divergent, then an is
∞
 n=1 n=1
Theorem 1.1 If an is a convergent divergent.
n=1
series, then its sequence of terms {an } is a null
sequence. The Comparison Test tells us that any series of the
form
∞
an
a0 + n
,
Corollary Non-null Test n=1
10
∞
 where a0 is a non-negative integer and an ,
If {an } is not a null sequence, then an is
n = 1, 2, . . . , are digits, must be convergent.

n=1
divergent. Moreover, the partial sums of this series are
sn = a0 .a1 a2 . . . an , so its sum is a0 .a1 a2 . . . . Thus
this series provides an alternative interpretation of
the infinite decimal a0 .a1 a2 . . . .
Strategy 1.1
∞

To show that an is divergent using the Limit Comparison Test Suppose that
n=1 ∞
 ∞

Non-null Test. an and bn have positive terms and that
either n=1 n=1
an
1. show that {|an |} has a convergent → L as n → ∞,
subsequence with non-zero limit, bn
or where L = 0.
∞
 ∞

2. show that {|an |} has a subsequence which
(a) If bn is convergent, then an is
tends to infinity.
n=1 n=1
convergent.
∞
 ∞

Warning You can never use the Non-null Test to (b) If bn is divergent, then an is
prove that a series is convergent. n=1 n=1
divergent.

67
AA3

∞
 Alternating Test Let
Ratio Test Suppose that an has positive n+1
an = (−1) bn , n = 1, 2, . . . ,
n=1
an+1 where {bn } is a decreasing null sequence with
terms and that → l as n → ∞.
an positive terms. Then
∞
 ∞

(a) If 0 ≤ l < 1, then an is convergent. an = b1 − b2 + b3 − b4 + · · ·
n=1 n=1
∞
 is convergent.
(b) If l > 1, then an is divergent.
n=1

∞

If l = 1, then the Ratio Test is inconclusive. Strategy 3.1 To prove that an is
2 Basic series The following series are n=1

convergent: convergent using the Alternating Test, check

∞ that
1
(a) p
, for p ≥ 2; an = (−1)n+1 bn , n = 1, 2, . . . ,
n=1
n
∞
where

(b) cn , for 0 ≤ c < 1; 1. bn ≥ 0, for n = 1, 2, . . . ;
n=1
∞
2. {bn } is a null sequence;

p n
(c) n c , for p > 0, 0 ≤ c < 1; 3. {bn } is decreasing.
n=1
∞
cn
(d) , for c ≥ 0.


n=1
n! Strategy 3.2 To test the series an for
The following series is divergent: convergence or divergence.
∞ 1. If you think that the sequence of terms {an }
1
(e) p
, for 0 < p ≤ 1. is non-null, then try the Non-null Test.
n
n=1 

2. If an has non-negative terms, then try

one of these tests.


3 Series with positive and negative (a) Basic series Is an a basic series, or
terms a combination of these?
∞
(b) Comparison Test Is an ≤ bn , where

The series an is absolutely convergent if bn isconvergent, or an ≥ bn ≥ 0,
n=1
where bn is divergent?
∞

|an | is convergent. (c) Limit Comparison Test Does an
n=1 behave like bn (that is, an /bn → L = 0),
where bn is a basic series?
(d) Ratio Test Does an+1 /an → l =  1?
Absolute Convergence Test 

∞
 ∞
 3. If an has positive and negative terms,
If an is absolutely convergent, then an is then try one of these tests.
n=1 n=1 (a) 
Absolute Convergence Test Is

convergent. |an | convergent? (Use step 2.)

(b) Alternating Test Is an = (−1)n+1 bn ,
where {bn } is non-negative, null and
Triangle Inequality (infinite form)
decreasing?
∞

If an is absolutely convergent, then
n=1
∞ 
   ∞
 
 an  ≤ |an |.


n=1 n=1

68
 AA4

The following suggestions may also be helpful. AA4 Continuity

If an is positive and includes n! or cn , then consider

the Ratio Test.

If an is positive and has dominant term np , then

consider the (Limit) Comparison Test.

1 Operations on functions
If an includes a sine or cosine term, then use the fact
1 Convention When a function f is specified
that this term is bounded and consider the
just by its rule, it is to be understood that the
Comparison Test and the Absolute Convergence Test.
domain of f is the set of all real numbers for which
the rule is applicable and the codomain of f is R.
4 Exponential function A function f is defined on a set I (usually an
interval) if the domain of f contains the set I.
If a, b ∈ R, then
Theorem 4.1 If x > 0, then (a, b), (a, ∞) and (−∞, b) are open intervals;
∞
xn  x n [a, b], [a, ∞) and (−∞, b] are closed intervals;
= lim 1 + = ex .
n! n→∞ n [a, b) and (a, b] are half-open intervals;
n=0
R = (−∞, ∞) is both open and closed.

For x ≥ 0, we define
2 If f : A −→ R and g : B −→ R, then
 the sum f + g is the function with domain A ∩ B
x n  xn
∞
ex = lim 1 + = . and rule
n→∞ n n!
n=0 (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x);
For x < 0, we define
the multiple λf is the function with domain A and
ex = (e−x )−1 . rule
The exponential function x −→
 ex is often called (λf )(x) = λf (x), for λ ∈ R;
exp. Thus the product f g is the function with domain A ∩ B
exp : R −→ R and rule
x −→
 ex . (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x);
the quotient f /g is the function with domain
Theorem 4.2 The number e is irrational. A ∩ B − {x : g(x) = 0} and rule
(f /g)(x) = f (x)/g(x);
the composite g ◦ f is the function with domain
{x ∈ A : f (x) ∈ B} and rule
Theorem 4.3 For any real numbers x and y,
we have ex+y = ex ey . (g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)).
3 Let f : A −→ R be a one-one function. Then the
inverse function f −1 has domain f (A) and rule
f −1 (y) = x, where y = f (x).
4 A function f defined on an interval I is
increasing on I if
x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ), for x1 , x2 ∈ I;
strictly increasing on I if
x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) < f (x2 ), for x1 , x2 ∈ I;
decreasing on I if
x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ), for x1 , x2 ∈ I;
strictly decreasing on I if
x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1 ) > f (x2 ), for x1 , x2 ∈ I;
monotonic on I if f is either increasing on I or

decreasing on I;

strictly monotonic on I if f is either strictly

increasing on I or strictly decreasing on I.

A strictly monotonic function f is one-one.

69
AA4

2 Continuous functions
Squeeze Rule Let f , g and h be defined on
1 A function f : A −→ R is continuous at a an open interval I and let a ∈ I. If
(a ∈ A) if 1. g(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x), for x ∈ I,
for each sequence {xn } in A such that xn → a, 2. g(a) = f (a) = h(a),
f (xn ) → f (a). 3. g, h are continuous at a,
We can write the above condition more concisely, as
then f is also continuous at a.
follows:
xn → a ⇒ f (xn ) → f (a), where {xn } lies in A.
We say that f is continuous (on A) if f is
continuous at each a ∈ A.

Glue Rule Let f be defined on an open

interval I and let a ∈ I. If there are functions g
and h such that
Strategy 2.1 1. f (x) = g(x), for x ∈ I, x < a,
1. To show that f is continuous at a (a ∈ A), f (x) = h(x), for x ∈ I, x > a,
prove that
2. g(a) = f (a) = h(a),
for each sequence {xn } in A
3. g and h are continuous at a,
such that xn → a,
then f is also continuous at a.
f (xn ) → f (a).

2. To show that f is discontinuous at a

(a ∈ A), find one sequence {xn } in A such
that
xn → a but f (xn ) →  f (a).

2 Rules for continuity

Combination Rules If f and g are

continuous at a, then so are:

We say that continuity at a point is a local property;
it depends only on the values taken by the function
Sum Rule f + g;

near the point.

Multiple Rule λf, for λ ∈ R;

If a function f is the restriction of another function g,

Product Rule f g;
and g is continuous, then f is also continuous.
Quotient Rule f /g, provided that g(a) 
= 0. 3 Trigonometric and exponential functions

Sine Inequality
Composition Rule If f is continuous at a sin x ≤ x, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 12 π.
and g is continuous at f (a), then g ◦ f is

continuous at a.

Corollary |sin x| ≤ |x|, for x ∈ R.

70
 AA4

Exponential Inequalities Theorem 3.2 Antipodal Points Theorem

(a) ex ≥ 1 + x, for x ≥ 0; If g : [0, 2π] −→ R is a continuous function and
1 g(0) = g(2π), then there exists a number c in
(b) ex ≤ , for 0 ≤ x < 1. [0, π] such that
1−x
g(c) = g(c + π).

1 3 Locating zeros of polynomial functions

Corollary 1 + x ≤ ex ≤ , for |x| < 1.
1−x
By the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, a
polynomial of degree n has at most n zeros.

Basic continuous functions The following

functions are continuous:
1. polynomials and rational functions;
2. f (x) = |x|;
√ of p (if there are any) lie in the open interval
3. f (x) = x;
4. trigonometric functions (sine, cosine and
tangent);
5. the exponential functions.
3 Properties of continuous functions
1 We say that a function f is continuous on an
interval I if f is continuous at each point of I.
Theorem 3.1
Theorem 3.3 Let
p(x) = x + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 ,
n
where a0 , a1 , . . . , an−1 ∈ R. Then all the zeros
(−M, M ), where
M = 1 + max{|an−1 |, . . . , |a1 |, |a0 |}.
4 Let f be a function with domain A. Then
f has maximum value f (c) in A if c ∈ A and
f (x) ≤ f (c), for x ∈ A;
f has minimum value f (c) in A if c ∈ A and
f (c) ≤ f (x), for x ∈ A;
f is bounded on A if, for some M ∈ R,
|f (x)| ≤ M, for x ∈ A.
An extreme value is a maximum or minimum value.

Intermediate Value Theorem

Let f be a function continuous on [a, b] and let k Theorem 3.4 Extreme Value Theorem
be any number lying between f (a) and f (b). Let f be a function continuous on [a, b]. Then
Then there exists a number c in (a, b) such that there exist numbers c and d in [a, b] such that
f (c) = k. f (c) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (d), for x ∈ [a, b].

2 If f is a function and c is a number such that Theorem 3.5 Boundedness Theorem

f (c) = 0, then c is a zero of f , and f vanishes at c. Let f be a function continuous on [a, b]. Then
Bisection Method there exists a number M such that
To locate a zero of a continuous function f |f (x)| ≤ M, for x ∈ [a, b].
approximately, find numbers a and b such that f (a)
and f (b) have opposite signs; then f has a zero
in (a, b).
Now use repeated bisection of (a, b), applying this
argument to smaller and smaller intervals.

71
AA4
4 Inverse functions
1 Finding inverse functions
Inverse Function Rule Let f : I −→ J,
where I is an interval and J is the image f (I),
be a function such that
1. f is strictly increasing on I;
2. f is continuous on I.
Then J is an interval and f has an inverse
The function tan−1 The function
function f −1 : J −→ I such that
f (x) = tan x (x ∈ (− 12 π, 12 π))
1
. f −1 is strictly increasing on J;
has a strictly increasing continuous inverse function,
2
. f −1 is continuous on J.
tan−1 , with domain R and image (− 12 π, 12 π).
The graph of f −1 is obtained by reflecting the graph
of f in the line y = x.
There is another version of the Inverse Function
Rule, with ‘strictly increasing’ replaced by ‘strictly
decreasing’.
Strategy 4.1 To prove that f : I −→ J,
where I is an interval with endpoints a and b,
has a continuous inverse f −1 : J −→ I.
1. Show that f is strictly increasing on I.
2. Show that f is continuous on I.
3. Determine the endpoint c of J
corresponding to the endpoint a of I as
f (x) = cosh x = 12 (ex + e−x ) (x ∈ [0, ∞))
follows:
has a strictly increasing continuous inverse function,
if a ∈ I, then f (a) = c and c ∈ J,
/ I, then f (an ) → c and c ∈
if a ∈ / J,
where {an } is a monotonic sequence in I
such that an → a.
Similarly, determine the endpoint d of J,
corresponding to the endpoint b of I.
There is a corresponding version of this strategy if f
is strictly decreasing.
2 For any positive integer n ≥ 2, the function
f (x) = xn (x ∈ [0, ∞))
has a strictly
√ increasing continuous inverse function
f −1 (x) = n x, with domain [0, ∞) and image [0, ∞),
called the nth root function.
= ax+y ,
.
72
3 Inverse trigonometric functions
The function sin−1 The function
f (x) = sin x (x ∈ [− 12 π, 12 π])
has a strictly increasing continuous inverse function,
sin−1 , with domain [−1, 1] and image [− 12 π, 12 π].
The function cos−1 The function
f (x) = cos x (x ∈ [0, π])
has a strictly decreasing continuous inverse function,
cos−1 , with domain [−1, 1] and image [0, π].
4 The function loge The function
f (x) = ex (x ∈ R)
has a strictly increasing continuous inverse function,
with domain (0, ∞) and image R, called loge or ln.
For all x, y > 0,
loge x + loge y = loge xy.
5 Inverse hyperbolic functions
The function sinh−1 The function
f (x) = sinh x = 12 (ex − e−x ) (x ∈ R)
has a strictly increasing continuous inverse function,
sinh−1 , with domain R and image R.
The function cosh−1 The function
cosh−1 , with domain [1, ∞) and image [0, ∞).
The function tanh−1 The function
sinh x
f (x) = tanh x = (x ∈ R)
cosh x
has a strictly increasing continuous inverse function,
tanh−1 , with domain (−1, 1) and image R.
6 Defining exponential functions
If a > 0, then
ax = ex loge a (x ∈ R).
Theorem 4.1
(a) If a > 0, then the function
x −→ ax = ex loge a (x ∈ R)
is continuous.
(b) If a, b > 0 and x, y ∈ R, then
ax bx = (ab)x ,
ax ay
y
(ax ) = axy
 GTB1

Group Theory Block B

GTB1 Conjugacy
Theorem 2.4 In an Abelian group, each
conjugacy class contains a single element.
2 Conjugate elements
3 If g conjugates x to y, then g conjugates xn
1 Let x and y be elements of a group G; then y is a to y n , for each positive integer n.
conjugate of x in G if there exists an element g ∈ G
such that
Theorem 2.5 Let x and y be conjugate
y = gxg −1 .
elements in a group G; then x and y have the
We then also say that g conjugates x to y, that g is same order.
a conjugating element and that y is the conjugate

of x by g.

(Here we have omitted the symbol ◦ for the group

The converse of Theorem 2.5 is not true: elements of
operation: we have written gxg −1 rather than
the same order are not necessarily conjugate.
g ◦ x ◦ g −1 . For convenience, we often omit the
4 Informally, we say that two symmetries x and y
symbol ◦ in this block.)
of a geometric figure are of the same geometric type
when there is a symmetry of the figure that
transforms a diagram illustrating x into a diagram
Theorem 2.2 In any group G, the relation illustrating y (when we ignore any labels).
is conjugate to is an equivalence relation on the
set of elements of G. 5 There are three conjugacy classes in S():
{e}, {a, b}, {r, s, t}.
The symmetric property of conjugacy means that There are five conjugacy classes in S(�):
instead of saying that y is a conjugate of x, we can {e}, {b}, {a, c}, {r, t}, {s, u}.
simply say that x and y are conjugate elements in a These partitions relate elements of the same
group, meaning that each is a conjugate of the other. geometric type.
Also, if g conjugates x to y, then g −1 conjugates y
to x. 6 Conjugacy of permutations is covered on
pages 33–34.
2 The equivalence classes of the equivalence
relation is conjugate to on a group G are called the
conjugacy classes of G. The conjugacy class of an 3 Normal subgroups and conjugacy
element x ∈ G can be written in set notation as
{y ∈ G : y = gxg −1 , for some g ∈ G} 1 Notation Let H be a subgroup of a group G
or as and let g be any element of G. Then
 
{gxg −1 : g ∈ G}. gHg −1 = ghg −1 : h ∈ H .
Thus if two elements are conjugate, then they are in
the same conjugacy class in G; if they are not
Theorem 3.2 Let H be a subgroup of a
conjugate, then they are in different conjugacy
group G and let g be any element of G. Then
classes. Each group element belongs to one and only
the subset gHg −1 is a subgroup of G.
one conjugacy class.

Two subgroups H and H
of a group G are

Theorem 2.3 Let G be a group with
conjugate subgroups in G if there exists an
identity element e. Then {e} is a conjugacy
element g ∈ G such that
class; that is, e is conjugate to itself alone.
H
= gHg −1 .
A subgroup H of a group G is self-conjugate if
gHg −1 = H for all g ∈ G.

73
GTB1
2 Characterisations of normality
Theorem 3.5 Let N be a subgroup of a
group G. The following four properties are
equivalent.
A: gN = N g, for each g ∈ G.
B: gng −1 ∈ N, for each g ∈ G and each n ∈ N.
C: gN g −1 = N, for each g ∈ G.
D: N is a union of conjugacy classes of G.
Since Property A is the condition in the definition of
a normal subgroup, Theorem 3.5 tells us that a
subgroup N of a group G is a normal subgroup of G
if and only if it satisfies any one of the four
properties A, B, C and D. Any of the four properties
can be used to prove that a subgroup is normal, or to
show that it is not normal.
Property A is useful when information concerning
the left and right partitions into cosets is known.
Property B is useful in many general situations.
Property C is helpful when information about
conjugate subgroups is known.
Property D is particularly useful when the conjugacy
classes are known.
3 Property B gives the following strategies.
Strategy 3.2 To prove that a subgroup N is
a normal subgroup of a group G.
1. Take a general element g ∈ G and a general
element n ∈ N .
2. Show that the conjugate gng −1 belongs
different cycle structures lie in different conjugacy
to N .
classes, and elements with the same cycle structure
Strategy 3.3 To prove that a subgroup H is
not a normal subgroup of a group G.
Find one element g ∈ G and one element h ∈ H
such that the conjugate ghg −1 does not belong
to H.
74
4 The equivalence of Properties A and C means
that normal subgroups and self-conjugate subgroups
are the same objects.
5 Property D gives the following strategy.
Strategy 3.4 To find all the normal
subgroups of a finite group G, when the
partition of G into conjugacy classes is known.
1. Look at all the possible unions of conjugacy
classes that include the class {e}.
2. Consider only those unions for which the
total number of elements divides |G|, the
order of the group G.
3. Determine whether each union of conjugacy
classes is a subgroup of G: any union that is
a subgroup is a normal subgroup of G.
6 The normal subgroups of S() are
S(), {e, a, b}, {e}.
The normal subgroups of S(�) are
S(�), {e, a, b, c}, {e, b, r, t},
{e, b, s, u}, {e, b}, {e}.
The normal subgroups of S4 are
S4 , A4 , K4 , {e}.
4 Conjugacy in symmetry groups
1 If the symmetries in a symmetry group G are
represented as permutations, then elements with
may, or may not, lie in the same conjugacy class.
2 Let f be a symmetry of a figure F . Then the
fixed point set of f is
{x ∈ F : f (x) = x},
and is denoted by Fix(f ); that is, the fixed point set
of f is the set of points of the figure which are fixed
by f .
Theorem 4.1 Fixed Point Theorem
Let g and k be elements of a symmetry group G.
If L is the fixed point set of g, then k(L) is the
fixed point set of the conjugate element kgk −1 .
The Fixed Point Theorem applies also to any group
whose elements are functions of some kind; in
particular, it holds for permutation groups, where
the fixed points become fixed symbols.
 GTB2

3 One approach to finding the conjugacy class of a

given element s of a symmetry group is as follows.
GTB2 Homomorphisms
1. Find each symmetry t for which there is a
symmetry k that maps Fix(s) to Fix(t). Each
such symmetry t may be a conjugate of s. Any 1 Isomorphisms and homomorphisms
other symmetry is not a conjugate of s.
1 A homomorphism is a function
2. To test whether each such symmetry t is a
φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗), where (G, ◦) and (H, ∗) are
conjugate of s, try checking whether t = ksk −1 ,
groups, which has the property
where k is a symmetry that maps Fix(s) to
Fix(t). φ(g1 ◦ g2 ) = φ(g1 ) ∗ φ(g2 ), for all g1 , g2 ∈ G.
 ksk −1 , then t may or may not be a
(If t = This property is called the homomorphism
conjugate of s.) property. A function satisfying it is said to preserve

composites.

If the homomorphism property is satisfied, then it

Theorem 4.2 A direct symmetry cannot be extends to products of three or more elements: for

conjugate to an indirect symmetry in a example, if φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗) is a homomorphism

symmetry group. and g1 , g2 , g3 ∈ G, then

φ(g1 ◦ g2 ◦ g3 ) = φ(g1 ) ∗ φ(g2 ) ∗ φ(g3 ).

A homomorphism need not be either one-one or onto.
A homomorphism that is one-one and onto is an
5 Matrix groups isomorphism.

1 The set M of all invertible 2 × 2 matrices with

Strategy 1.1 To determine whether a given
real entries is a group under matrix multiplication.
function φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗) is a
The identity element of M is homomorphism.


1 0 guess behaviour, . . . check definition.
I= .
0 1

 To show that φ is a homomorphism, show, by a
a b general argument, that
The inverse of A = is
c d

 φ(g1 ◦ g2 ) = φ(g1 ) ∗ φ(g2 ), for all g1 , g2 ∈ G.
1 d −b
A−1 = , where ad − bc = 0. To show that φ is not a homomorphism, find
ad − bc − c a any two elements g1 , g2 ∈ G such that
2 Among the subgroups of M are the following. φ(g1 ◦ g2 ) = φ(g1 ) ∗ φ(g2 ).
Upper-triangular matrices:

 
a b
U= : ad = 0 . 2 If V and W are vector spaces, then any linear
0 d transformation from V to W is a homomorphism
Lower-triangular matrices: from the group (V, +) to the group (W, +).

 
a 0 3 If F is a figure with symmetry group S(F ), then
L= : ad = 0 .
c d the function
Matrices

with determinant
 1:  φ : (S(F ), ◦) −→ (R∗ , ×)

a b 

V = : ad − bc = 1 . 1, if f is a direct symmetry,
c d f −→
−1, if f is an indirect symmetry,
3 Further standard associative operations is a homomorphism.
The following operations are associative and may be 4 If (G, ◦) and (H, ∗) are groups and eH is the
quoted as such: identity element of H, then the function
addition of matrices; φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗)
multiplication of matrices. g −→
 eH
is a homomorphism, called the trivial
homomorphism.
5 An automorphism is an isomorphism from a
group to itself. The set of all automorphisms of a
group forms a group itself, under composition of
functions. The identity of this group is the identity
function, which maps each element to itself.

75
GTB2
2 Properties of homomorphisms
Property 2.1 Let φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗) be a
homomorphism. Then
φ(eG ) = eH ,
where eG is the identity in (G, ◦) and eH is the
identity in (H, ∗).
Property 2.2 Let φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗) be a
homomorphism. Then, for all g ∈ G,
φ(g −1 ) = (φ(g))−1 .
Property 2.3 Let φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗) be a
homomorphism. Then, for all g ∈ G and all
n ∈ Z,
φ(g n ) = (φ(g))n .
Theorem 2.2 Let φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗) be a
homomorphism and let g be any element of
finite order in G. Then the order of φ(g) divides
the order of g.
Property 2.4 Let φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗) be a
homomorphism. If x and y are conjugate in G,
then φ(x) and φ(y) are conjugate in H.
3 Kernels and images
1 Let φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗) be a homomorphism.
Then the image of φ is
Im(φ) = {h ∈ H : h = φ(g) for some g ∈ G};
it is the set of elements of the codomain H which
occur as images of elements in the domain G.
76
2 Properties of images
Let φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗) be a homomorphism.
1. For each h ∈ H, there may be more than one
g ∈ G such that φ(g) = h, since φ may be
many-one.
2. Im(φ) = H ⇔ φ is onto.
3. eH ∈ Im(φ).
Theorem 3.1 Let φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗) be a
homomorphism. Then (Im(φ), ∗) is a subgroup
of (H, ∗).
Theorem 3.2 Let φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗) be a
homomorphism.
(a) If (G, ◦) is Abelian, then (Im(φ), ∗) is
Abelian.
(b) If (G, ◦) is cyclic, then (Im(φ), ∗) is cyclic.
3 Let φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗) be a homomorphism.
Then the kernel of φ is
Ker(φ) = {g ∈ G : φ(g) = eH };
it is the set of elements of the domain G which φ
maps to eH , the identity element in the codomain H.
Strategy 3.1 To find the kernel of a
homomorphism.
1. Identify eH , the identity in the codomain H.
2. Find all the elements g in the domain G
which are mapped to eH .
4 Properties of kernels
Let φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗) be a homomorphism.
1. There may be more than one g ∈ G such that
φ(g) = eH , since φ may be many-one.
2. eG ∈ Ker(φ).
Theorem 3.3 Let φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗) be a
homomorphism. Then Ker(φ) is a normal
subgroup of (G, ◦).

Theorem 3.4 Let φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗) be a
homomorphism. Then
φ is one-one ⇔ Ker(φ) = {eG }.
Strategy 3.2 To show that a homomorphism
φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗) is one-one, show that
Ker(φ) = eG .
Corollary to Theorem 3.4
Ker(φ) = {eG }
⇔ (G, ◦) ∼= (Im(φ), ∗),
Ker(φ) = {eG } and φ is onto
2 If (G, ◦) and (H, ∗) are finite groups, then the
⇔ (G, ◦) ∼= (H, ∗).
4 The Isomorphism Theorem
1 Because the kernel of a homomorphism is a
normal subgroup of its domain, the left cosets of the
kernel in the domain are the same as its right cosets,
and we refer to them simply as cosets.
Theorem 4.1 Let φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗) be a
homomorphism, and let x and y be any
elements of G. Then
x and y have the same image under φ
→ φ(x)
if and only if
x and y lie in the same coset of Ker(φ) in G.
= Im(φ).
Theorem 4.2 Correspondence Theorem
−→ xN
Let φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗) be a homomorphism.
Then there is a one-one correspondence between
the cosets of Ker(φ) in G and the elements of
the image set Im(φ), given by
x Ker(φ) ←→ φ(x).
GTB2
Theorem 4.3 Let (G, ◦) be a finite group
and let φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗) be a
homomorphism. Then
|Ker(φ)| × |Im(φ)| = |G|.
following numerical relationships hold for any
homomorphism φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗):
|Ker(φ)| divides |G| (by Lagrange’s Theorem),
|Im(φ)| divides |H| (by Lagrange’s Theorem),
|Im(φ)| divides |G| (by Theorem 4.3).
In particular, the order of the image group of a
homomorphism is a common factor of the orders of
the domain and codomain groups.
Theorem 4.6 Isomorphism Theorem
Let φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗) be a homomorphism.
Then the function
f : G/Ker(φ) −→ Im(φ)
x Ker(φ) −
is an isomorphism, so
G/Ker(φ) ∼
The function f is illustrated in the diagram above.
3 Specifying a familiar group that is isomorphic to
a given group G is known as identifying G up to
isomorphism.
Theorem 4.7 Let (G, ◦) be a group.
(a) For any homomorphism φ : G −→ H,
Ker(φ) is a normal subgroup of G.
(b) For every normal subgroup N of G, the
function
φ : (G, ◦) −→ (G/N, . )
x 
is a homomorphism with kernel N .
Theorem 4.7 tells us that kernels of homomorphisms
and normal subgroups are essentially the same
objects.
77
GTB3

GTB3 Group actions Axiom GA2 states that the identity element of the
group fixes each element of the set X.

1 What is a group action?

1 Often a group G ‘acts on’ a set X in some way:

that is, given any elements g ∈ G and x ∈ X, g sends
x to some element of X, which we denote by g ∧ x.
To restrict ourselves to actions of interest, we say
that G ‘acts on’ X, and that ∧ is a group action, Axiom GA3 states that acting on x successively by
only if certain conditions hold, as set out in the two group elements g2 and g1 has the same effect as
following definition. acting by their composite g1 ◦ g2 .
2 A group (G, ◦) acts on a set X if the following
three axioms hold.
GA1 closure For each g ∈ G and each
x ∈ X, there is a unique
element
g ∧ x ∈ X.
GA2 identity For each x ∈ X,
e ∧ x = x,
where e is the identity element
of G.
GA3 composition For all g1 , g2 ∈ G and all Strategy 1.1 To determine whether ∧ is a
x ∈ X, group action.
g1 ∧ (g2 ∧ x) = (g1 ◦ g2 ) ∧ x. guess behaviour. . . check definition.
To show that ∧ is a group action, show that
We say that ∧ is a group action of G on X. If
each of the axioms GA1, GA2 and GA3 holds.
g ∧ x = y, then we say that g acts on x to give y.
To show that ∧ is not a group action, show that
any one of the axioms GA1, GA2 or GA3 fails.

3 By the ‘natural’ action of a group G on a set X,

Axiom GA1 states that each element g of the group
G acts on each element x of the set X, and the result
is always an element of the set X; the action does
not take us out of the set X.
we mean the action of G that sends elements of X to
other elements of X in the most obvious way.
4 For a group G and a set X that do not contain
many elements, we can specify a group action ∧ by
recording in an action table (also called a group
action table) the effect that it has for each g ∈ G and
each x ∈ X.
For example, an action table for the natural action of
the group S3 on the set {1, 2, 3} is as follows.

78

Theorem 1.1 Let G be a group whose
elements are functions from a set X to itself,
with the binary operation of composition of
functions. Let ∧ be defined by
g ∧ x = g(x), for g ∈ G and x ∈ X.
Then ∧ is a group action of G on X.
In particular, whenever we let a permutation group
or a symmetry group act in the natural way as a
group of functions on an underlying set, we have a
group action.
5 Infinite actions Our definition of group action
still applies when one, or both, of the group G and
the set X is infinite. In such a case we cannot write
out all the action table, but we may usefully be able
to present part of it.
Theorem 1.2 Let M be the group of all
invertible 2 × 2 matrices, under matrix
multiplication. Then


a b
∧ (x, y) = (ax + by, cx + dy)
c d
defines a group action of M on R2 .
The group action in Theorem 1.2 is the natural
action of M on R2 given by matrix multiplication.
2 Orbits and stabilisers
1 Let a group G act on a set X. Then for each
x ∈ X, the orbit of x is the set
Orb(x) = {g ∧ x : g ∈ G}.
Orb(x) is a subset of the set X; it is the set of all
elements of X which ‘can be reached from x using
the action ∧’.
GTB3
2 Properties of orbits
Let a group G act on a set X.
1. For each x ∈ X, we have x ∈ Orb(x).
2. If y ∈ Orb(x), then x ∈ Orb(y).
3. If y ∈ Orb(x) and z ∈ Orb(y), then z ∈ Orb(x).
That is, the relation on X defined by
x ∼ y if y ∈ Orb(x)
is an equivalence relation. The equivalence classes
are the orbits.
Theorem 2.1 Let a group G act on a set X.
Then the orbits form a partition of X.
In particular, if x, y ∈ X then either Orb(x) and
Orb(y) are the same set or Orb(x) and Orb(y) are
disjoint.
Strategy 2.1 To find all the orbits in X.
1. Choose any x ∈ X, and find Orb(x).
2. Choose any element of X not yet assigned
to an orbit, and find its orbit.
3. Repeat step 2 until X is partitioned.
It is often useful to look first at the orbits of
particular elements, and then try to spot a general
pattern for the orbits.
3 Let a group G act on a set X. Then, for each
x ∈ X, the stabiliser of x is the set
Stab(x) = {g ∈ G : g ∧ x = x}.
Stab(x) is a subset of the group G; it is the set of all
elements of G that fix or stabilise x.
Theorem 2.2 Let a group G act on a set X.
Then, for each x ∈ X, the set Stab(x) is a
subgroup of G.
79
GTB3
3 The Orbit–Stabiliser Theorem
1 For actions of finite groups we have the following
theorem.
Theorem 3.1 Orbit–Stabiliser Theorem
Let a finite group G act on a set X. Then, for
each x ∈ X,
|Orb(x)| × |Stab(x)| = |G|.
Corollary Let a finite group G act on a
divides the order of G.
set X. Then, for each x ∈ X, the number of
elements in Orb(x) divides the order of G.
Theorem 3.2 Let ∧ be a group action of G
on X, let x ∈ X, and let g and h be any
elements of G. Then
g∧x=h∧x
if and only if
g and h lie in the same left coset of Stab(x).
Theorem 3.2 tells us that if G is a group acting on a
set X, and x ∈ X, then the sets of group elements
that send x to a common element of X are precisely
the left cosets of Stab(x).
Corollary Let ∧ be a group action of G
on X and let x ∈ X. Then there is a one-one
correspondence between the left cosets of
Stab(x) in G and the elements of Orb(x), given
by
g Stab(x) ←→ g ∧ x.
In items 2 and 3 below we suppress mention of the
binary operation of a group G, writing, for example,
hg instead of h ◦ g.
2 Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Then
h ∧ g = hg, for h ∈ H and g ∈ G,
defines a group action of H on G.
The orbits of this group action are precisely the right
cosets of H in G.
Lagrange’s Theorem (that the order of a subgroup of
a finite group G divides the order of G) is a special
case of the corollary to the Orbit–Stabiliser Theorem.
80
3 Let G be a group. Then
g ∧ x = gxg −1 , for g, x ∈ G,
defines a group action of the group G on itself.
 
For any x ∈ G, the set Orb(x) is gxg −1 : g ∈ G ,
which is the conjugacy class of x. Thus the orbits of
this group action are the conjugacy classes of the
group G.
The following theorem is a special case of the
corollary to the Orbit–Stabiliser Theorem.
Theorem 3.3 In any finite group G, the
number of elements in any conjugacy class
4 Let φ : (G, ◦) −→ (H, ∗) be a homomorphism.
Then
g ∧ h = φ(g) ∗ h, for g ∈ G and h ∈ H,
defines a group action of the group G on the set H.
In this case, for a finite group G, the statement of
the Orbit–Stabiliser Theorem, with x = eH , becomes
|Im(φ)| × |Ker(φ)| = |G|.
Thus this consequence of the Correspondence
Theorem for homomorphisms is a special case of the
Orbit–Stabiliser Theorem.
4 The Counting Theorem
1 The following rule is used to count colourings
without taking symmetries into account.
Multiplication Rule If object 1 can be
coloured with n1 colours, object 2 can be
coloured with n2 colours, . . . , object k can be
coloured with nk colours, then the number of
ways of colouring all k objects is n1 n2 . . . nk .
2 Let a group G act on a set X. For g ∈ G, the
fixed set of g is
Fix(g) = {x ∈ X : g ∧ x = x}.
That is, Fix(g) is the set of elements of X that are
fixed by g.
Theorem 4.1 Counting Theorem
Let ∧ be a group action of a finite group G on a
finite set X. Then the number t of orbits of the
action is given by the formula
1 
t= |Fix(g)|.
|G|
g∈G
 AB1

Analysis Block B

AB1 Limits
Combination Rules If lim f (x) = l and
x→c
lim g(x) = m, then:
x→c
1 Limits of functions Sum Rule lim (f (x) + g(x)) = l + m;
x→c
Multiple Rule lim λf (x) = λl, for λ ∈ R;
1 A punctured neighbourhood of a point c is a x→c
bounded open interval with midpoint c, from which Product Rule lim f (x)g(x) = lm;
x→c
the point c itself has been removed: Quotient Rule lim f (x)/g(x) = l/m,
x→c
Nr (c) = (c − r, c) ∪ (c, c + r), where r > 0. provided that m = 0.

Composition Rule If lim f (x) = l and

2 Let f be a function defined on a punctured x→c
neighbourhood Nr (c) of c. Then f (x) tends to the lim g(x) = L, then
x→l
limit l as x tends to c if lim g(f (x)) = L,
x→c
for each sequence {xn } in Nr (c) such that provided that
xn → c,
either f (x) = l, for x in some Nr (c),
f (xn ) → l. where r > 0,
In this case, we write or g is defined at l and continuous at l.
lim f (x) = l or f (x) → l as x → c.
x→c

Strategy 1.1 To show that lim f (x) does Strategy 1.2 To use the Composition Rule.
x→c
not exist. To evaluate a limit of a function of the form
g(f (x)), as x → c:
either
1. substitute u = f (x) and show that, for
1. find two sequences {xn } and {yn } which
some l,

tend to c, but whose terms are not equal

to c, such that {f (xn )} and {f (yn )} have u = f (x) → l as x → c;

different limits; 2. show that, for some L,

or g(u) → L as u → l;
2. find a sequence {xn } which tends to c, but 3. deduce that
whose terms are not equal to c, such that
g(f (x)) → L as x → c.
f (xn ) → ∞ or f (xn ) → −∞.

3 Evaluating limits Squeeze Rule Let f , g and h be functions

defined on Nr (c), for some r > 0. If
Theorem 1.2 Let f be a function defined on (a) g(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x), for x ∈ Nr (c),
an open interval I, with c ∈ I. Then (b) lim g(x) = lim h(x) = l,
x→c x→c
f is continuous at c
then
if and only if
lim f (x) = l.
lim f (x) = f (c). x→c
x→c

81
AB1

In this case, we write

Theorem 1.3 Three basic limits f (x) → ∞ as x → c.
sin x The statements
(a) lim = 1,
x→0 x
f (x) → −∞ as x → c,
1 − cos x

(b) lim = 0, f (x) → ∞ (or −∞) as x → c+ (or c− ),

x→0 x

x
e − 1
are defined similarly, with ∞ replaced by −∞ and
(c) lim = 1. Nr (c) replaced by the open interval (c, c + r) or
x→0 x
(c − r, c), where r > 0, as appropriate.

4 Let f be a function defined on (c, c + r), for some

r > 0. Then f (x) tends to the limit l as x tends
to c from the right if
for each sequence {xn } in (c, c + r) such that
xn → c,
Reciprocal Rule If the function f satisfies
(a) f (x) > 0 for x ∈ Nr (c), for some r > 0,
(b) f (x) → 0 as x → c,
then

f (xn ) → l. 1/f (x) → ∞ as x → c.

In this case, we write

lim+ f (x) = l or f (x) → l as x → c+ .
x→c
Combination Rules If f (x) → ∞ as x → c
There is a similar definition for a limit as x tends and g(x) → ∞ as x → c, then:
to c from the left, in which (c, c + r) is replaced by
Sum Rule f (x) + g(x) → ∞ as x → c;
(c − r, c). In this case, we write
Multiple Rule λf (x) → ∞ as x → c,
lim f (x) = l or f (x) → l as x → c− .
x→c− for λ ∈ R+ ;
We also refer to lim+ f (x) and lim− f (x) as right
x→c x→c
Product Rule f (x)g(x) → ∞ as x → c.
and left limits, respectively.

2 Let the function f be defined on (R, ∞), for some

Theorem 1.4 Let the function f be defined real number R. Then f (x) tends to l as x tends
on Nr (c), for some r > 0. Then to ∞ if
lim f (x) = l for each sequence {xn } in (R, ∞) such that
x→c
if and only if
xn → ∞,
lim+ f (x) = lim− f (x) = l.
f (xn ) → l.
x→c x→c
(Here l represents a real number or one of the
symbols ±∞.)
In this case, we write
Theorem 1.5 Let f be a function whose
domain is an interval I with a finite left-hand f (x) → l as x → ∞.
endpoint c that lies in I. Then The statement
f is continuous at c
f (x) → l as x → −∞
if and only if
is defined similarly, with ∞ replaced by −∞, and
lim+ f (x) = f (c).
(R, ∞) replaced by (−∞, R).
x→c
When l is a real number, we also use the notations
lim f (x) = l and lim f (x) = l.
x→∞ x→−∞
There is an analogous result for left limits.

Theorem 2.1

2 Asymptotic behaviour of functions Basic asymptotic behaviour

If n ∈ N, then
1 Let the function f be defined on Nr (c), for some (a) xn → ∞ as x → ∞,

r > 0. Then f (x) tends to ∞ as x tends to c if 1

(b) n → 0 as x → ∞.
for each sequence {xn } in Nr (c) such that x
xn → c,
f (xn ) → ∞.

82
 AB1

Squeeze Rule Let f , g and h be functions Strategy 3.1 To use the ε–δ definition to
defined on some interval (R, ∞). prove continuity at a point.

(a) If Let the function f have domain A, with c ∈ A.

1. g(x) ≤ f (x) ≤ h(x), for x ∈ (R, ∞), To prove that f is continuous at c, let ε > 0 be

given and carry out the following.

2. lim g(x) = lim h(x) = l,

x→∞ x→∞ 1. Use algebraic manipulation to express the
where l is a real number, then
difference f (x) − f (c) as a product of the
lim f (x) = l.
form (x − c)g(x).
x→∞
2. Obtain an upper bound of the form
(b) If
|g(x)| ≤ M , for |x − c| ≤ r, where r > 0 is
1. f (x) ≥ g(x), for x ∈ (R, ∞), chosen so that [c − r, c + r] ⊂ A.
2. g(x) → ∞ as x → ∞, 3. Use the fact that |f (x) − f (c)| ≤ M |x − c|,
then
for |x − c| ≤ r, to choose δ > 0 such that
f (x) → ∞ as x → ∞.
|f (x) − f (c)| < ε,
for all x ∈ A with |x − c| < δ.

Theorem 2.2
(a) If a0 , a1 , . . . , an−1 ∈ R, where n ∈ N, and Theorem 3.1 The ε–δ definition and the
p(x) = xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , sequential definition of continuity are
equivalent.
then

p(x) → ∞ as x → ∞

and
2 The Dirichlet
 function has domain R and rule
1
1, if x is rational,

→ 0 as x → ∞. f (x) =
p(x) 0, if x is irrational.

(b) For each n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , we have

ex Theorem 3.2 The Dirichlet function is
→ ∞ as x → ∞
xn discontinuous at every point of R.
and
xn
→ 0 as x → ∞. 3 The Riemann function has domain R and rule
ex 
(c) We have
1/q, if x is a rational p/q (q > 0),
f (x) =
loge x → ∞ as x → ∞,
0, if x is irrational.
but, for each constant a > 0, we have
loge x Theorem 3.3 The Riemann function is
→ 0 as x → ∞.
xa discontinuous at each rational point of R and
continuous at each irrational point.

4 The sawtooth function is defined by

3 Continuity—the classical definition 
x − [x], if 0 ≤ x − [x] ≤ 12 ,
s(x) =
1 − (x − [x]), if 12 < x − [x] < 1,
1 Let the function f have domain A and let c ∈ A.
Then f is continuous at c if where [x] is the integer part function.
for each ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that The blancmange function B is defined by
|f (x) − f (c)| < ε, B(x) = s(x) + 12 s(2x) + 41 s(4x) + 18 s(8x) + · · ·
∞
for all x ∈ A with |x − c| < δ. 1
n
= s(2 x).

n=0

2n

83
AB1

Theorem 3.4 The blancmange function is Strategy 4.1 To check uniform continuity.
continuous. Let the function f be defined on an interval I.
1. To prove that f is uniformly continuous
5 Let f be a function defined on a punctured on I, find an expression for δ > 0 in terms
neighbourhood Nr (c) of c. Then f (x) tends to the of a given ε > 0 such that
limit l as x tends to c if |f (x) − f (y)| < ε,

for each ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that for all x, y ∈ I with |x − y| < δ.

|f (x) − l| < ε, 2. To prove that f is not uniformly continuous

on I, find two sequences {xn } and {yn }
for all x with 0 < |x − c| < δ.
in I, and ε > 0, such that
As before, we write |xn − yn | → 0 as n → ∞,
lim f (x) = l or f (x) → l as x → c. |f (xn ) − f (yn )| ≥ ε, for n = 1, 2, . . . .
x→c

4 Uniform continuity Theorem 4.2 If the function f is continuous

on a bounded closed interval [a, b], then f is
1 A function f defined on an interval I is uniformly continuous on [a, b].
uniformly continuous on I if
for each ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that
|f (x) − f (y)| < ε, Theorem 4.3
for all x, y ∈ I with |x − y| < δ. Bolzano–Weierstrass Theorem
2 We say that c is an interior point of an Any bounded sequence has a convergent
interval I if c is not an endpoint of I. subsequence.
3 Checking uniform continuity

Theorem 4.1 Let the function f be defined

on an interval I. Then f is not uniformly
continuous on I if and only if there exist two
sequences {xn } and {yn } in I, and ε > 0, such
that
(a) |xn − yn | → 0 as n → ∞,
(b) |f (xn ) − f (yn )| ≥ ε, for n = 1, 2, . . . .

84
 AB2

AB2 Differentiation
Theorem 1.1 Basic derivatives
1 Differentiable functions (a) If f (x) = k, where k ∈ R, then f
(x) = 0.
(b) If f (x) = xn , where n ∈ N, then
1 Let f be defined on an open interval I, and c ∈ I. f
(x) = nxn−1 .
Then the difference quotient for f at c is (c) If f (x) = sin x, then f
(x) = cos x.
f (x) − f (c) f (c + h) − f (c) (d) If f (x) = cos x, then f
(x) = − sin x.
, or Q(h) = ,
x−c h
(e) If f (x) = ex , then f
(x) = ex .
where x = c, h =
0.

3 Let f be differentiable on an open interval I, and

c ∈ I. If the derivative f
is differentiable at c, then
we say that f is twice differentiable at c, and the
number f

(c) = (f
)
(c) is called the second
derivative of f at c. The function f

, also denoted
by f (2) , is called the second derivative (or second
derived function) of f .
d2 y
The slope, or gradient, of the graph of f at the In Leibniz notation, f

is written as , where
dx2
point (c, f (c)) is y = f (x).
f (x) − f (c) Similarly, we can define the higher-order
lim , or lim Q(h),
x→c x−c h→0 derivatives of f , denoted by f (3) = f


, f (4) , and so
provided that the limit exists. on.
2 Let f be defined on an open interval I, and c ∈ I. 4 Let f be defined on an interval I, and c ∈ I.
Then the derivative of f at c is Then the left derivative of f at c is
f (x) − f (c) f (x) − f (c)
lim
x→c x−c
, fL
(c) = lim− = lim− Q(h),
x→c x−c h→0
that is, provided that this limit exists. In this case, we say

f (c + h) − f (c) that f is left differentiable at c.

lim Q(h) = lim ,

h→0 h→0 h Similarly, the right derivative of f at c is

provided that this limit exists. In this case, we say

f (x) − f (c)
that f is differentiable at c.
fR
(c) = lim = lim Q(h),
x→c + x−c h→0+
If f is differentiable at each point of its domain, then
provided that this limit exists. In this case, we say
we say that f is differentiable (on its domain).
that f is right differentiable at c.
The derivative of f at c is denoted by f
(c), and the

function f
: x 
−→ f
(x) is called the derivative
(or derived function) of f . Theorem 1.2 Let f be defined on an open
interval I, and c ∈ I.
dy
In Leibniz notation, f
(x) is written as , where (a) If f is differentiable at c, then f is both left
y = f (x). dx
differentiable and right differentiable at c,
The operation of obtaining f
(x) from f (x) is called and
differentiation. fL
(c) = fR
(c) = f
(c). (∗)
(b) If f is both left differentiable and right
Strategy 1.1 To prove that a function is not differentiable at c, and fL
(c) = fR
(c), then
differentiable at a point, using the definition. f is differentiable at c and equation (∗)
holds.
Show that lim Q(h) does not exist, by:
h→0
either
1. finding two null sequences {hn } and {h
n }
with non-zero terms such that the sequences
{Q(hn )} and {Q(h
n )} have different limits;
or
2. finding a null sequence {hn } with non-zero
terms such that Q(hn ) → ∞ or
Q(hn ) → −∞.

85
AB2

Glue Rule Let f be defined on an open Corollary Let

interval I, and c ∈ I. If there are functions g p(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn ,
and h defined on I such that
where a0 , a1 , . . . , an ∈ R. Then p is
1. f (x) = g(x), for x ∈ I, x < c,
differentiable on R, with derivative
f (x) = h(x), for x ∈ I, x > c,

p
(x) = a1 + 2a2 x + · · · + nan xn−1 .

2. f (c) = g(c) = h(c),
3. g and h are differentiable at c,
then f is differentiable at c if and only if
Composition Rule Let f be defined on an
g
(c) = h
(c).

open interval I, let g be defined on an open

If f is differentiable at c, then
interval J such that f (I) ⊆ J and let c ∈ I.
f
(c) = g
(c) = h
(c).

If f is differentiable at c and g is differentiable

at f (c), then g ◦ f is differentiable at c and
5 Differentiability at a point is a local property; it (g ◦ f )
(c) = g
(f (c))f
(c).
depends on the values of the function in any open
interval (no matter how short) containing the point.
The Composition Rule for differentiation is often
The restriction of a differentiable function to an open
called the Chain Rule.
interval gives a new differentiable function.
6 Continuity and differentiability
Inverse Function Rule Let f be a function
whose domain is an open interval I on which f
Theorem 1.3 Let f be defined on an open is continuous and strictly monotonic, with
interval I, and c ∈ I. If f is differentiable at c, image J = f (I).
then f is continuous at c.
If f is differentiable on I and f
(x) =
 0 for
x ∈ I, then f −1 is differentiable on its
domain J. Also, if c ∈ I and d = f (c), then
Corollary Let f be defined on an open 1
interval I, and c ∈ I. If f is discontinuous at c, (f −1 )
(d) =
.
f (c)
then f is not differentiable at c.

Theorem 1.4 The blancmange function B is 3 Rolle’s Theorem

not differentiable at any point of R.
1 Let f be defined on an interval [a, b]. Then:
f (d) is the maximum of f on [a, b] if d ∈ [a, b] and
f (x) ≤ f (d) for x ∈ [a, b];
2 Rules for differentiation
f (c) is the minimum of f on [a, b] if c ∈ [a, b] and
f (x) ≥ f (c) for x ∈ [a, b].
Combination Rules Let f and g be defined An extremum is a maximum or a minimum.
on an open interval I, and c ∈ I. If f and g are 2 The function f has
differentiable at c, then so are the functions:
(a) a local maximum f (c) at c if there is an open
Sum Rule f + g, and interval I = (c − r, c + r), where r > 0, in the
(f + g)
(c) = f
(c) + g
(c); domain of f such that
Multiple Rule λf , for λ ∈ R, and f (x) ≤ f (c), for x ∈ I;
(λf )
(c) = λf
(c); (b) a local minimum f (c) at c if there is an open
Product Rule f g,
interval I = (c − r, c + r), where r > 0, in the
and (f g)
(c) = f
(c)g(c) + f (c)g
(c);
domain of f such that
Quotient Rule f /g, provided that g(c) 
= 0, f (x) ≥ f (c), for x ∈ I;



f g(c)f
(c) − f (c)g
(c) (c) a local extremum f (c) at c if f (c) is either a
and (c) = . local maximum or a local minimum.
g (g(c))2

86
 AB2

3 A point c such that f
(c) = 0 is called a 4 Mean Value Theorem

stationary point of f .
1 Mean Value Theorem
Theorem 3.1 Local Extremum Theorem
If f has a local extremum at c and f is
Theorem 4.1 Mean Value Theorem
differentiable at c, then f
(c) = 0.
Let f be continuous on the closed interval [a, b]
and differentiable on (a, b). Then there exists a
point c in (a, b) such that
Corollary Let f be continuous on the closed f (b) − f (a)
f
(c) = .
interval [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). Then b−a
the extrema of f on [a, b] can occur only at a
or b, or at points x in (a, b) where f
(x) = 0.
2 For any interval I, the interior of I, denoted by
Int(I), is the largest open subinterval of I.

Strategy 3.1 To find the maximum and

minimum of a function.
Theorem 4.2
Increasing–Decreasing Theorem
Let the function f be continuous on [a, b] and
Let f be continuous on an interval I and
differentiable on (a, b). To determine the
maximum and the minimum of f on [a, b]: differentiable on Int(I).
(a) If f
(x) ≥ 0 for x ∈ Int(I), then f is
1. determine the points c1 , c2 , . . . in (a, b)
increasing on I.
where f
is zero;

(b) If f
(x) ≤ 0 for x ∈ Int(I), then f is

2. amongst the values of
decreasing on I.
f (a), f (b), f (c1 ), f (c2 ), . . . ,

the greatest is the maximum and the least is

the minimum.
Corollary Zero Derivative Theorem
Let f be continuous on an interval I and
differentiable on Int(I). If
Theorem 3.2 Rolle’s Theorem f
(x) = 0, for x ∈ Int(I),
Let f be continuous on the closed interval [a, b] then
and differentiable on (a, b). If f (a) = f (b), then
f is constant on I.
there exists a point c, with a < c < b, such that
f
(c) = 0.

Second Derivative Test Let f be a twice

differentiable function defined on an open
interval containing a point c for which f
(c) = 0
and f

is continuous at c.
(a) If f

(c) > 0, then f (c) is a local minimum
of f .
(b) If f

(c) < 0, then f (c) is a local maximum
of f .

87
AB3

AB3 Integration
Strategy 4.1 To prove an inequality.

To prove that g(x) ≥ h(x), for x ∈ [a, b], carry

out the following.

1 Riemann integral
1. Let

f (x) = g(x) − h(x),

1 Two important sums
n

and show that f is continuous on [a, b] and
1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n = i = 12 n(n + 1);
differentiable on (a, b).
i=1
2. Prove n

either 1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n =
2 2 2 2
i2 = 16 n(n + 1)(2n + 1).
i=1
f (a) ≥ 0 and f
(x) ≥ 0, for x ∈ (a, b),
or 2 Let f be defined on [a, b]. Then the following

f (b) ≥ 0 and f
(x) ≤ 0, for x ∈ (a, b). hold on [a, b].

min f = m if

1. f (x) ≥ m for all x ∈ [a, b],

2. f (c) = m for some c ∈ [a, b].
5 L’Hôpital’s Rule max f = M if
1. f (x) ≤ M for all x ∈ [a, b],
2. f (d) = M for some d ∈ [a, b].
Theorem 5.1 The tangent to the curve with
parametric equations inf f = m if
x = g(t), y = f (t),
1. f (x) ≥ m for all x ∈ [a, b],
at the point with parameter t has slope
2. if m
> m, then f (c) < m
for some c ∈ [a, b].
f
(t)/g
(t), provided that g
(t) =

0. sup f = M if
1. f (x) ≤ M for all x ∈ [a, b],
2. if M
< M , then f (d) > M
for some d ∈ [a, b].
Theorem 5.2
3 A partition P of an interval [a, b] is a collection
Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem
of subintervals
Let f and g be continuous on [a, b] and
P = {[x0 , x1 ], . . . , [xi−1 , xi ], . . . , [xn−1 , xn ]},
differentiable on (a, b). Then there exists a

where
point c ∈ (a, b) such that

a = x0 < x1 < x2 < · · · < xn−1 < xn = b.

f
(c)(g(b) − g(a)) = g
(c)(f (b) − f (a));
The length of the ith subinterval is denoted by
in particular, if g(b) =  g(a) and g
(c) = 0, then

δxi = xi − xi−1 .
f (c) f (b) − f (a)


= .
g (c) g(b) − g(a)

L’Hôpital’s Rule Let f and g be

differentiable on an open interval I containing c, The mesh of P is defined as
and suppose that f (c) = g(c) = 0. Then P  = max {δxi }.
1≤i≤n
f (x) f
(x)
lim exists and equals lim
,
A standard partition is a partition with
x→c g(x) x→c g (x)
subintervals of equal length.
provided that the latter limit exists.

4 If f is a bounded function defined on [a, b], and

P = {[x0 , x1 ], [x1 , x2 ], . . . , [xn−1 , xn ]},
is a partition of [a, b], then, for i = 1, 2, . . . , n, we set
mi = inf{f (x) : xi−1 ≤ x ≤ xi }
and
Mi = sup{f (x) : xi−1 ≤ x ≤ xi }.

88
 AB3

The lower Riemann sum of f corresponding to P

is
n
 Corollary Riemann’s Criterion
L(f, P ) = mi δxi .
Let f be bounded on [a, b]. Then
i=1
f is integrable on [a, b]
The upper Riemann sum of f corresponding to P
if and only if
is
n
 there is a sequence {Pn } of partitions of [a, b]
U (f, P ) = Mi δxi .
with Pn  → 0 such that
i=1
U (f, Pn ) − L(f, Pn ) → 0.

Theorem 1.1 If f is a bounded function

on [a, b], and both P and P
are partitions Strategy 1.1 Determining integrability.
of [a, b], then
Let f be bounded on [a, b].
L(f, P ) ≤ U (f, P
).
1. Choose any sequence of partitions {Pn },
with Pn  → 0.
5 Let f be bounded on [a, b]. 2. Find L = lim L(f, Pn ) and
n→∞

The lower integral of f is U = lim U (f, Pn ).

 b n→∞

f = sup{L(f, P )},
If L = U , then f is not integrable.

−a If L = U , then f is integrable, and

and the upper integral of f is  b

−b
f = L = U.
f = inf {U (f, P )},
a
a P
where a and b are called limits of integration.
7 Limits of integration We define
We say that f is integrable on [a, b] if these lower
 b  a

and upper integrals are equal. The integral f is f = 0.

a
a  a
then defined to be the common value of the lower
If a > b and f exists, then we define
and upper integrals of f . b
 b  a
6 If P is a partition of [a, b], then any partition f =− f.
obtained from P by adding a finite number of points a b
is called a refinement of P . The partition obtained  c  b
from two partitions P and P
by using all their 8 Additivity of integrals If f and f
partition points is called the common refinement a c
exist, then
of P and P
.  b  b  c  b
f exists, and f= f+ f.
a a a c
Theorem 1.2 If f is an integrable function If f is integrable on an interval I, then f is integrable
on [a, b] and {Pn } is a sequence of partitions of on any subinterval of I, and
[a, b] such that Pn  → 0, then  b  c  b
 b
f= f+ f, for any a, b, c ∈ I.
lim L(f, Pn ) = lim U (f, Pn ) = f. a a c
n→∞ n→∞ a

Sign of an integral Let f be integrable on

[a, b].
Theorem 1.3 Let f be a bounded function  b
on [a, b]. If there is a sequence of partitions Pn If f (x) ≥ 0 on [a, b], then f ≥ 0.
of [a, b] such that Pn  → 0 and a
 b
lim L(f, Pn ) = lim U (f, Pn ) = I, If f (x) ≤ 0 on [a, b], then f ≤ 0.
n→∞ n→∞
a
where I ∈ R, then f is integrable on [a, b] and
 b
f = I.
a

89
AB3

Modulus Rule If f is integrable on [a, b], Theorem 2.2

then so is |f |. Uniqueness Theorem for Primitives
Let F1 and F2 be primitives of f on an
interval I. Then there exists some constant c
Combination Rules If f and g are
such that
integrable on [a, b], then so are:
F2 (x) = F1 (x) + c, for x ∈ I.
Sum Rule f + g, and
 b  b  b
(f + g) = f+ g;
a a a Combination Rules Let F and G be
Multiple Rule λf , for λ ∈ R, and primitives of f and g, respectively, on an
 b  b interval I, and λ ∈ R. Then, on I:
λf = λ f; Sum Rule f + g has a primitive F + G;
a a
Product Rule f g; Multiple Rule λf has a primitive λF ;
Quotient Rule f /g, provided 1/g is bounded Scaling Rule x −→
 f (λx) has a primitive
1
on [a, b]. x −→ F (λx).
λ

2 Techniques of integration
Theorem 1.4 A function f which is
bounded and monotonic on [a, b] is integrable
on [a, b]. Strategy 2.1 To find a primitive

f (g(x))g
(x) dx, using integration by
substitution.
Theorem 1.5 A function f which is du
1. Choose u = g(x); find = g
(x) and
continuous on [a, b] is integrable on [a, b]. dx
express du in terms of x and dx.
2. Substitute u = g(x) and replace g
(x) dx by
du (adjusting constants if necessary) to give
f (u) du.
2 Evaluation of integrals 
3. Find f (u) du.
4. Substitute u = g(x) to give the required
1 Let f be a function defined on an interval I. primitive.
Then a function F is a primitive of f on I if F is
differentiable on I and
F
(x) = f (x), for x ∈ I. If we are evaluating an integral, rather than finding a
 primitive, then there is no need to perform step 4.
We can denote a primitive of f by f (x) dx. Instead, we can change the x-limits of integration
into the corresponding u-limits.
If g(x) > 0 for x ∈ I, then
Theorem 2.1


g (x)
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
dx = loge (g(x)).
g(x)
Let f be integrable on [a, b], and let F be a
primitive of f on [a, b]. Then
 b
f = F (b) − F (a).
a

Often F (b) − F (a) is written as

[F (x)]ba or F (x)|ab .
The process of finding a primitive of f is informally
called integrating f , and in this context the function
f is called an integrand.

90
 AB3

3 Inequalities, sequences and series



Strategy 2.2 To find a primitive f (x) dx, 1 Inequalities for integrals

using integration by backwards

substitution.
1. Choose u = g(x), where g has inverse
Inequality Rules Let f and g be integrable
on [a, b].
function x = h(u), and express dx in terms
of u and du. (a) If f (x) ≤ g(x), for x ∈ [a, b], then
 b  b
2. Substitute x = h(u) and replace dx by
f≤ g.
h
(u) du to give a primitive in terms of u. a a
3. Find this primitive. (b) If m ≤ f (x) ≤ M , for x ∈ [a, b], then
4. Substitute u = g(x) to give the required  b
primitive. m(b − a) ≤ f ≤ M (b − a).
a

Strategy 2.3 To find a primitive k(x) dx, Triangle Inequality Let f be integrable

on
[a, b]. Then
using integration by parts.  
 b   b
1. Write the original function k in the form  
 f ≤ |f |.
f g
, where f is a function that you can  a  a
differentiate and g
is a function that you Furthermore, if |f (x)| ≤ M for x ∈ [a, b], then
can integrate.  
 b 
2. Use the formula 
 
 f
 ≤ M (b − a).


a 

f g
= f g − f
g.

2 Formulas for π
3 To evaluate an integral In that involves a
non-negative integer n, relate In to In−1 or In−2 by a
reduction formula, using integration by parts. Wallis’ Formula
2 2 4 4 2n 2n π
For example, let (a) lim · · · · ··· · · = .
 π/2
n→∞ 1 3 3 5 2n − 1 2n + 1 2
In = sinn x dx, n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
(n!)2 22n √
0 (b) lim √ = π.
n→∞ (2n)! n
Then, using integration by parts twice, we obtain


n−1
In = In−2 , for n ≥ 2.
n 3 Integrals and series
Also, I0 = π/2 and I1 = 1.
Hence Integral Test Let the function f be positive
1 3 5 2n − 1 π and decreasing on [1, ∞), and suppose that
I2n = · · · · · · · · ,
2 4 6 2n 2 f (x) → 0 as x → ∞. Then
2 4 6 2n ∞

n 

I2n+1 = · · · · · · · .
3 5 7 2n + 1 (a) f (n) converges if the sequence 1 f is
n=1
bounded above;
∞

n
(b) f (n) diverges if 1 f → ∞ as n → ∞.
n=1

Here, 1 can be replaced by any positive integer.

∞

4 The series 1/np converges for p > 1, and
n=1
diverges for 0 < p ≤ 1.

91
AB4

4 Stirling’s Formula AB4 Power series

For positive functions f and g with domain N, we
write
f (n) ∼ g(n) as n → ∞ 1 Taylor polynomials
to mean
f (n)
1 Let f be differentiable on an open interval
→ 1 as n → ∞. containing the point a. Then the tangent
g(n) approximation to f at a is
f (x) f (a) + f
(a)(x − a).
Combination Rules If f1 (n) ∼ g1 (n) and
2 Let f be n-times differentiable on an open
f2 (n) ∼ g2 (n), then:
interval containing the point a. Then the Taylor
Sum Rule f1 (n) + f2 (n) ∼ g1 (n) + g2 (n); polynomial of degree n at a for f is the
Multiple Rule λf1 (n) ∼ λg1 (n), for λ ∈ R+ ; polynomial
Product Rule f1 (n)f2 (n) ∼ g1 (n)g2 (n);
f

(a)
Tn (x) = f (a) + f
(a)(x − a) + (x − a)2 + · · ·
f1 (n) g1 (n)
2!
Quotient Rule ∼ . f (n) (a)
f2 (n) g2 (n) + (x − a)n .
n!

Stirling’s Formula 2 Taylor’s Theorem

√

n! ∼ 2πn (n/e)n as n → ∞.

1 Approximating by a Taylor polynomial

Theorem 2.1 Taylor’s Theorem

Let the function f be (n + 1)-times
differentiable on an open interval containing the
points a and x. Then
f (x) = f (a) + f
(a)(x − a) + · · ·
f (n) (a)
+ (x − a)n + Rn (x),
n!

where

f (n+1) (c)

Rn (x) = (x − a)n+1 ,

(n + 1)!
for some c between a and x.

Taylor’s Theorem can be expressed in the form

f (x) = Tn (x) + Rn (x),
where Rn (x) is a remainder term, or error term.

Strategy 2.1 To apply Taylor’s Theorem at

a point and to show that the Taylor polynomial
Tn at a for f approximates f to a certain
accuracy at a point x = a, carry out the

following steps.

1. Obtain a formula for f (n+1) .

2. Determine a number M such that
|f (n+1) (c)| ≤ M, for all c between a and x.
3. Write down and simplify the remainder

estimate

M
|Rn (x)| ≤ |x − a|n+1 .
(n + 1)!

92
 AB4

Strategy 2.2 To apply Taylor’s Theorem on Theorem 3.1

an interval and to show that the Taylor Radius of Convergence Theorem
polynomial Tn at a for f approximates f to a ∞

certain accuracy on an interval I of the form For a given power series an (x − a)n , exactly
[a, a + r], [a − r, a] or [a − r, a + r], where r > 0, n=0
carry out the following steps. one of the following possibilities occurs.
1. Obtain a formula for f (n+1) . (a) The series converges only for x = a.
2. Determine a number M such that (b) The series converges for all x.
|f (n+1) (c)| ≤ M, for all c ∈ I. (c) There is a number R > 0 such that

3. Write down and simplify the remainder ∞

estimate an (x − a)n converges if |x − a| < R
M n=0
|Rn (x)| ≤ rn+1 , for all x ∈ I.
(n + 1)! and
∞
an (x − a)n diverges if |x − a| > R.
Often the maximum value of |f (n+1) (c)| is taken
n=0

when c is an endpoint of the interval.

2 Taylor series The positive number R appearing in case (c) above is

Let f have derivatives of all orders at the point a. called the radius of convergence of the power

The Taylor series at a for f is series.

∞ We write R = 0 if the power series converges only for

f (n) (a)
(x − a)n = f (a) + f
(a)(x − a) x = a, and R = ∞ if the power series converges for
n=0
n! all x.
f

(a)
+ (x − a)2 + · · · . The interval of convergence of a power series is
2!
the interval (a − R, a + R), together with any
endpoints of this interval at which the power series
Theorem 2.2 Let f have derivatives of all converges.
orders on an open interval containing the points
a and x. If
∞

Rn (x) → 0 as n → ∞, Ratio Test Suppose that an (x − a)n is a
then n=0
∞
f (n) (a) power series with radius of convergence R, and
f (x) = (x − a)n . (∗)  
 an+1 
n!  
n=0 
an 
→ L as n → ∞.
(a) If L is ∞, then R = 0.
If x is a point for which the Taylor series for f has (b) If L = 0, then R = ∞.
sum f (x), as in equation (∗), then we say that the
(c) If L > 0, then R = 1/L.
Taylor series is valid at the point x. Any set of
values of x for which a Taylor series is valid is called
a range of validity for the Taylor series. On any
such range of validity, the function f is the sum Strategy 3.1 To find the interval of
function of the Taylor series.
∞

convergence of an (x − a)n .
n=0
3 Convergence of power series 1. Use the Ratio Test for power series to find
the radius of convergence R.
Let a ∈ R, x ∈ R and an ∈ R, n = 0, 1, 2, . . . . Then 2. Use other tests for convergence of series to
the expression determine the behaviour of the power series
∞
 at the endpoints of the interval
an (x − a)n = a0 + a1 (x − a) + a2 (x − a)2 + · · ·
(a − R, a + R).
n=0
is called a power series about a in x, with
coefficients an . We call a the centre of the power
series.

93
AB4

4 Manipulating power series 2 The generalised binomial coefficients are


α
= 1,
1 Determining new power series 0
and

α α(α − 1)(α − 2) · · · (α − n + 1)
Combination Rules If = , n ∈ N.
∞ n n!

f (x) = an (x − a)n , for |x − a| < R,
n=0
∞
Theorem 4.1

g(x) = bn (x − a) ,n
for |x − a| < R ,
General Binomial Theorem
n=0 For α ∈ R,
then the following hold. ∞


α α
(1 + x) = xn , for |x| < 1.
Sum Rule n
∞ n=0

(f + g)(x) = (an + bn )(x − a)n ,
n=0
for |x − a| < r = min{R, R
}. Theorem 4.2 Identity Theorem
Multiple Rule For λ ∈ R, If
∞ ∞
 ∞


(λf )(x) = λan (x − a)n , for |x − a| < R. an (x − a)n = bn (x − a)n , for |x| < R,
n=0 n=0 n=0
then
Product Rule
∞
 an = bn , for n = 0, 1, . . . .
(f g)(x) = cn (x − a)n ,
n=0
for |x − a| < r = min{R, R
}, where Thus any valid method of obtaining the power series
∞

cn = a0 bn + a1 bn−1 + · · · + an b0 . an (x − a)n gives the same coefficients.
n=0

Differentiation Rule The power series

∞ ∞
5 Numerical estimates for π
 
an (x − a)n and nan (x − a)n−1
n=0 n=1 1 These formulas can be used to estimate π:
1  
have the same radius of convergence, R say. tan−1 + tan−1 13 = π/4,
∞
  
2
 1 
4 tan−1 15 − tan−1 239 = π/4 (Machin’s Formula),
Also, f (x) = an (x − a)n is differentiable on      1 
−1 1 −1 1 −1
n=0 6 tan 8 + 2 tan 57 + tan 239 = π/4.
(a − R, a + R), and
∞

f
(x) = nan (x − a)n−1 , for |x − a| < R. Theorem 5.1 The number π is irrational.

n=1

Integration Rule The power series

∞

f (x) = an (x − a)n
n=0
and
∞
an
F (x) = (x − a)n+1
n=0
n + 1
have the same radius of convergence, R say.
Also, if R > 0, then f is integrable on
(a − R, a + R), and f (x) dx = F (x).

94
 Appendix

Sketches of graphs of basic functions

95
Sketches of graphs of standard inverse functions

96
Properties of trigonometric and hyperbolic functions

Trigonometric functions Hyperbolic functions

cos is even: cos(−x) = cos x cosh is even: cosh(−x) = cosh x

sin is odd: sin(−x) = − sin x sinh is odd: sinh(−x) = − sinh x
tan is odd: tan(−x) = − tan x tanh is odd: tanh(−x) = − tanh x

cos2 x + sin2 x = 1 cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1

1 + tan2 x = sec2 x 1 − tanh2 x = sech2 x
cot2 x + 1 = cosec2 x coth2 x − 1 = cosech2 x
sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y
cos(x + y) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y
tan x + tan y tanh x + tanh y
tan(x + y) = tanh(x + y) =
1 − tan x tan y 1 + tanh x tanh y
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x
cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x
= 2 cos2 x − 1 = 2 cosh2 x − 1
= 1 − 2 sin2 x = 1 + 2 sinh2 x
2 tan x 2 tanh x
tan 2x = tanh 2x =
1 − tan2 x 1 + tanh2 x
sin(π − x) = sin x
cos(π − x) = − cos x

Some standard values of sin, cos and tan

These can be found from the following triangles.

97
Standard derivatives

f (x) f  (x) Domain

k 0 R
x 1 R
xn , n ∈ Z − {0} nxn−1 R
xα , α ∈ R αxα−1 R+
ax , a > 0 ax loge a R
sin x cos x R
cos x − sin x R   
tan x sec2 x R − n + 12 π : n ∈ Z
cosec x − cosec x cot x R − {nπ
 : n ∈ Z} 
sec x sec x tan x R − n + 12 π : n ∈ Z
cot x − cosec 2x R − {nπ : n ∈ Z}
√
sin−1 x 1/ √ 1 − x2 (−1, 1)
cos−1 x −1/
 1 −2 x
2 (−1, 1)
tan−1 x 1/ 1 + x R
ex ex R
loge x 1/x R+
sinh x cosh x R
cosh x sinh x R
2
tanh x √ x
sech R
sinh−1 x 1/√1 + x2 R
cosh−1 x 1/ x2 − 1 (1, ∞)
tanh−1 x 1/ 1 − x2 (−1, 1)

Standard Taylor series

Function Taylor series Domain

∞

1
1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · = xn |x| < 1
1−x n=0
∞

x2 x3 x4 (−1)n+1 xn
loge (1 + x) x− + − + ··· = −1 < x ≤ 1
2 3 4 n=1
n
2 3 ∞
x n
x x
ex 1+x+ + + ··· = x∈R
2! 3! n=0
n!
∞
 (−1)n x2n+1
x3 x5 x7
sin x x− + − + ··· = x∈R
3! 5! 7! (2n + 1)!
n=0
∞
x2 x4 x6 (−1)n x2n
cos x 1− + − + ··· = x∈R
2! 4! 6! n=0
(2n)!
∞

α(α − 1) 2 α(α − 1)(α − 2) 3 α
(1 + x)α 1 + αx + x + x + ··· = xn |x| < 1, α ∈ R
2! 3! n
n=0
∞
x3 x5 x7 x2n+1
sinh x x+ + + + ··· = x∈R
3! 5! 7! n=0
(2n + 1)!
 x2n ∞
x2 x4 x6
cosh x 1+ + + + ··· = x∈R
2! 4! 6! (2n)!
n=0
∞
x3 x5 x7 (−1)n x2n+1
tan−1 x x− + − + ··· = |x| ≤ 1
3 5 7 n=0
2n + 1

98
Standard primitives

f (x) Primitive F (x) Domain

xn , n ∈ Z − {−1} xn+1 /(n + 1) R

xα , α = −1 xα+1 /(α + 1) R+
ax , a > 0 ax / loge a R
sin x − cos x R
cos x sin x R
tan x loge (sec x) (− 12 π, 12 π)

ex ex R
1/x loge x (0, ∞)
1/x loge |x| (−∞, 0)
loge x x loge x − x (0, ∞)
sinh x cosh x R
cosh x sinh x R
tanh x loge (cosh x) R


1 a+x
(a2 − x2 )−1 , a = 0 loge (−a, a)
2a a−x
1
(a2 + x2 )−1 , a = 0 tan−1 (x/a) R
a

sin−1 (x/a) (−a, a)
(a2 − x2 )−1/2 , a = 0
− cos−1 (x/a) (−a, a)

loge (x + (x2 − a2 )1/2 ) (a, ∞)
(x2 − a2 )−1/2 , a =
 0
cosh−1 (x/a) (a, ∞)

loge (x + (a2 + x2 )1/2 ) R
(a2 + x2 )−1/2 , a = 0
sinh−1 (x/a) R
1
(a2 − x2 )1/2 , a = 0 2 x(a
2 − x2 )1/2 + 21 a2 sin−1 (x/a) (−a, a)
1
(x2 − a2 )1/2 , a = 0 2 x(x
2 − a2 )1/2 − 21 a2 loge (x + (x2 − a2 )1/2 ) (a, ∞)
1
(a2 + x2 )1/2 , a = 0 2 x(a
2 + x2 )1/2 + 21 a2 loge (x + (a2 + x2 )1/2 ) R
eax
eax cos bx, a, b =
 0 (a cos bx + b sin bx) R
a2 + b 2
eax
eax sin bx, a, b = 0 (a sin bx − b cos bx) R
a2 + b 2

99
Group tables of symmetry groups
◦ e a b c r s t u
e e a b c r s t u
a a b c e s t u r ◦ e a r s
b b c e a t u r s e e a r s
c c e a b u r s t a a e s r
r r u t s e c b a r r s e a
s s r u t a e c b s s r a e
t t s r u b a e c
u u t s r c b a e

◦ e a b r s t ◦ e a b c
e e a b r s t e e a b c
a a b e t r s a a b c e
b b e a s t r b b c e a
r r s t e a b c c e a b
s s t r b e a
t t r s a b e

Groups of small order

Order Number of Example of each class
isomorphism
classes Abelian Non-Abelian

1 1 {e} –
2 1 C2 –
3 1 C3 –
4 2 C4 , with 1 element of order 2 –
K4 , with 3 elements of order 2
5 1 C5 –
6 2 C6 , with 1 element of order 2 S(), with 3 elements of order 2
7 1 C7 –
8 5 C8 , with 1 element of order 2 S(�), with 5 elements of order 2
A group with 7 elements of order 2 A group with 1 element of order 2
A group with 3 elements of order 2

100
Three types of non-degenerate conic

Six types of non-degenerate quadric

101
 Index

Abelian group, 25, 29, 36, 37, 73, 76

bounded below, 62

of order 8, 36
bounded figure, 23, 26

Absolute Convergence Test, 68

bounded function, 71

absolute value, 61
bounded sequence, 65

absolutely convergent series, 68

bounded set, 62

action table, 78
Boundedness Theorem, 71

acts on, 78

addition
cancellation laws, 26

in modular arithmetic, 21
cardioid, 13

of complex numbers, 19
Cartesian form, 19

of vectors, 40
Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem, 88

additive group, 30, 37

Cayley table, 24

additive inverse, 18
Cayley’s Theorem, 34

in modular arithmetic, 21
centre

of a complex number, 19
of a conic section, 41

of a matrix, 44
of a power series, 93

additive notation, 28
Chain Rule, 86

additivity of integrals, 89
characteristic equation, 56

alternating group An , 33, 37

circle, 14

Alternating Test, 68
equation of, 41

angle
parametrisation of, 12

between vectors, 41
closed interval, 9

of rotation, 26
closed set, 23

Antipodal Points Theorem, 71

closure, 18, 60

Archimedean Property, 60
in a vector space, 48

Argand diagram, 18
of a group, 24

argument of a complex number, 19

codomain, 9, 14

associativity, 18, 60
coefficient matrix, 45

in a group, 25
coefficients, 43

in a vector space, 48
of a power series, 93

of matrix addition, 44, 75

cofactor, 47

of matrix multiplication, 44, 75

column matrix, 44

asymptote, 9, 10
Combination Rules

of a conic section, 41
for ∼, 92

asymptotic behaviour of functions, 82

for continuity, 70

augmented matrix, 43
for differentiation, 86

automorphism, 75
for inequalities, 61

axioms of a group, 24
for integrals, 90

axis
for limits, 64, 65, 81, 82

of rotation, 26
for null sequences, 63

of symmetry, 23, 26
for power series, 94

for primitives, 90

basic continuous functions, 71

for series, 67

basis, 49
common factor, 21

for the image of a linear transformation, 54

common refinement, 89

Basis Theorem, 50
commutative group, 25

Bernoulli’s Inequality, 61
commutativity, 18, 23, 60

bijection, 15
in a vector space, 48

binary operation, 24
of matrix addition, 44

binomial coefficient, 14
Comparison Test, 67

generalised, 94
completed-square form, 9

Binomial Theorem, 17, 61

complex conjugate, 19

bisection method, 71
complex exponential function, 20

blancmange function, 83
complex number, 18

blocking a group table, 37, 38

complex plane, 18

Bolzano–Weierstrass Theorem, 84
components of a vector, 40

bounded above, 62
composite function, 12, 15

102
composite of transpositions, 32 counter-example, 16
composition Counting Theorem, 80
of functions, 23 cube, 26
of permutations, 31 cubic equation, 18
of symmetries, 24, 26 cubic function, 9
Composition Rule graph, 95
for continuity, 70 cycle, 31, 32
for differentiation, 86 cycle form, 31
for limits, 81 cycle structure, 32
for linear transformations, 53 cyclic group, 28–30, 36, 76
conclusion, 15 cyclic subgroup, 28, 30
congruence, 21 cycloid, 12
conics, 12, 41
non-degenerate, 101 de Moivre’s Theorem, 20
standard form, 58 decimal, 18, 60
conjugacy, 73 decreasing function, 10, 69
in symmetry groups, 74 decreasing sequence, 63
of permutations in Sn , 33–34 degenerate conic section, 41
conjugacy class, 73, 80 degree
conjugate, complex, 19 of a permutation group, 32
conjugate group elements, 33, 73 of a polynomial, 11
conjugate subgroups, 34, 73 Density Property, 60
Conjugate Subgroups Theorem, 34 derivative, 85, 98
conjugating element, 33, 73 derived function, 85
consistent system, 43 determinant, 46
constant sequence, 63 diagonal matrix, 45
constant term, 43 diagonal of a matrix, 45
continuity diagonalisable matrix, 57
and differentiability, 86 difference
and limits, 81 between sets, 14
classical definition, 83 between vectors, 40
sequential definition, 70 difference quotient, 85
uniform, 84 differentiable, 85
continuous at a point, 70 differentiation, 85
continuous function, 70, 83 Differentiation Rule for power series, 94
basic, 71 digit, 60
continuous on an interval, 71 dilation, 52
contradiction, 16 dimension, 50
contraposition, 16 Dimension Theorem, 55
contrapositive, 16 direct symmetry, 24, 26, 27, 75
convergent sequence, 64 directrix, 41
convergent series, 66, 91 Dirichlet function, 83
converse, 15 disc, 14
convex polyhedron, 26 symmetries of, 24
coordinates of a vector, 49 disjoint cycles, 31
coprime numbers, 21, 22, 30 disjoint sets, 14, 22
corollary, 15 Distance Formula, 19, 39
Correspondence Theorem, 77, 80 distributive law for matrices, 44
cosech function, 12 distributivity, 18, 60
coset, 35, 80 in a vector space, 48
in an additive group, 35, 37 divergent sequence, 65
left, 37 divergent series, 66, 91
of a stabiliser, 80 Division Algorithm, 21
of the kernel of a homomorphism, 77 division of complex numbers, 19
right, 37 divisor, 21
cosh function, 12 dodecahedron, 26
graph, 95, 96 domain, 9, 10, 14
cosine function, 97 dominant term, 11, 64
graph, 95, 96 dominated sequence, 64
Taylor series for, 98 dot product, 40
coth function, 12 in Rn , 50

103
eccentricity, 41
fractional part, 38

E-coordinate representation, 49
function, 9, 14

eigenspace, 56
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, 20

eigenvalue, 56
Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, 16

eigenvector, 56
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, 90

eigenvector basis, 56, 57

Gauss–Jordan elimination, 44

eigenvector equations, 56

General Binomial Theorem, 94

element of a set, 13

generalised binomial coefficients, 94

elementary matrix, 46

generated set, 28

elementary operations, 43

generator of a cyclic subgroup, 28, 30

elementary row operation, 43

Geometric Series Identity, 17

inverse, 46

geometric series, sum of, 17, 66

ellipse, 12, 41, 42, 101

geometric type of a symmetry, 73

ellipsoid, 101

glide-reflection, 24

elliptic cone, 101

Glue Rule

elliptic paraboloid, 101

for continuity, 70

empty set, 13

for differentiation, 86

ε–δ definition of continuity, 83

gradient, 85

equality

Gram–Schmidt orthogonalisation, 51

of matrices, 44

graph of a real function, 14

of vectors, 40

graph sketching, 10, 11

equivalence, 15

greater than, 60

equivalence class, 22

greatest common factor, 21

equivalence relation, 22

greatest lower bound, 62

error term, 92

Greatest Lower Bound Property, 62

Euclidean space, 39

Greek alphabet, 5

Euclid’s Algorithm, 22

group, 24

Euler’s formula, 20

axioms, 24

even function, 10

finite, 25

even permutation, 33

infinite, 25

even subsequence, 65

of even order, 36

exhaustion, 16

of order 1, 36

existential quantifier, 16

of order 4, 36

existential statement, 16

of order 6, 36

exponent laws, 62

of order 8, 36

exponential (e), 66

of prime order, 36

exponential form of a complex number, 20

of small order, 36, 100

exponential function, 9, 12, 69, 72

group action, 78

complex, 20

table, 78

graph, 95, 96

group table, 25, 100

Taylor series for, 98

blocking of, 38

Exponential Inequalities, 71

extreme value, 71
half-closed interval, 9

Extreme Value Theorem, 71

half-open interval, 9

extremum of a function, 86
half-plane, 13

higher-order derivative, 85

factorial, 14, 32
homogeneous system, 43

field, 18, 60
homomorphism, 75

figure, 26
homomorphism property, 75

finite decimal, 60
horizontal asymptote, 10

finite dimension, 49
horizontal point of inflection, 10

finite group, 25, 28

hybrid function, 12

finite set, 14
hyperbola, 9, 41, 42, 101

First Derivative Test, 10

parametrisation of, 13

First Subsequence Rule, 65

rectangular, 42

fixed point set, 74

hyperbolic functions, 12, 97

Fixed Point Theorem, 74

graphs, 95, 96

fixed set, 80
hyperbolic paraboloid, 101

fixed symbol in a permutation, 31

hyperboloid, 101

focal chord, 41
hyperplane, 51

focus, 41
hypothesis, 15

104
icosahedron, 26
interval, 9

identifying up to isomorphism, 77
of convergence, 93

identity, 17, 18, 23, 60

inverse, 18, 60

in a group, 24, 25
in a group, 25, 26

in a quotient group, 38
in a quotient group, 38

in a vector space, 48
in a vector space, 48

in C, 19
of a matrix, 45, 47

identity function, 14
of a permutation, 32

identity matrix, 45
inverse function, 15, 69

identity permutation, 31
graphs, 96

identity symmetry, 23
Inverse Function Rule, 72

Identity Theorem, 94
for derivatives, 86

identity transformation, 52
inverse hyperbolic functions, 72

image, 9, 14
graphs, 96

of a homomorphism, 76
Inverse Rule, 54

of a linear transformation, 54
inverse symmetry, 23

image set, 14
inverse trigonometric functions, 72

imaginary axis, 18
graphs, 96

imaginary number, 18
Invertibility Theorem, 45

imaginary part, 18
invertible linear transformation, 54

implication, 15, 16
invertible matrix, 45, 47

inconsistent system, 43
irrational number, 18, 60

increasing function, 10, 69

isometry, 23, 26

increasing sequence, 63
isomorphic groups, 29

increasing/decreasing criterion, 10
isomorphic linear transformations, 54

Increasing–Decreasing Theorem, 87
isomorphism, 29, 75

index of a subgroup, 35
of cyclic groups, 30

indirect symmetry, 24, 26, 75

of linear transformations, 54

induction, mathematical, 16
isomorphism class, 29

inequalities, 60
for groups of order 8 or less, 36

exponential, 71
Isomorphism Theorem, 77

for natural numbers, 61

k-dilation, 52

for real numbers, 61

kernel

proving, 62

of a homomorphism, 76, 77

rules, 61

of a linear transformation, 55

Inequality Rules for integrals, 91

Klein group, 29, 36

infimum

(k, l)-stretching, 52

of a function, 88

of a set, 62
Lagrange’s Theorem, 35, 80

infinite decimal, 60
leading diagonal

infinite dimension, 49
of a Cayley table, 24

infinite group, 25, 28

of a matrix, 45

cosets of, 35
least common multiple, 32

infinite series, 66
least upper bound, 62

integer, 13, 60
Least Upper Bound Property, 62

integer part function, 9

left derivative, 85

graph, 95
left limit, 82

integrable, 89
Leibniz notation, 85

integral, 89
lemma, 15

Integral Test, 91
length

integrand, 90
of a cycle, 32

integration
of a vector, 39, 40, 51

by backwards substitution, 91
less than, 60

by parts, 91
l’Hˆ

opital’s Rule, 88

by substitution, 90
Limit Comparison Test, 67

Integration Rule for power series, 94

Limit Inequality Rule, 64

intercept, 10
limit of a function, 81, 84

interior, 87
and continuity, 81

interior point, 84
does not exist, 81

Intermediate Value Theorem, 71

from the right or left, 82

intersection of sets, 14
limit of a sequence, 64

105
limits of integration, 89
graph, 95
line, 13
Modulus Rule
equation of, 39
for integrals, 90

graph, 95
Monotone Convergence Theorem, 66

parametrisation of, 12
monotonic function, 69

vector form of equation, 40

monotonic sequence, 63

linear combination of vectors, 48, 52

Monotonic Sequence Theorem, 66

linear equation, 18, 22

multiple of an element in an additive group, 28

in n unknowns, 43
Multiple Rule

linear function, 9
for ∼, 92

linear independence, 49
for continuity, 70

linear rational function, 9

for differentiation, 86

linear transformation, 52
for integrals, 90

linearly dependent set, 49

for limits, 64, 65, 81, 82

linearly independent set, 49

for null sequences, 63

local extremum of a function, 86

for power series, 94

Local Extremum Theorem, 87

for primitives, 90

local maximum, 10
for series, 67

of a function, 86
multiplication

local minimum, 10
in modular arithmetic, 21

of a function, 86
of complex numbers, 19

local property
Multiplication Rule, 80

of continuity, 70
multiplicative group, 30

of differentiability, 86
multiplicative inverse, 18, 21, 22

logarithm function, 72
in modular arithmetic, 21

graph, 95, 96
of a complex number, 19

Taylor series for, 98

multiplicative notation, 28

lower bound, 62
multiplicity of an eigenvalue, 56

greatest, 62

natural number, 13, 60

lower integral, 89

n-dimensional space, 48

lower Riemann sum, 89

negation, 15, 16

lower-triangular matrix, 45, 75

negative, 18

of a complex number, 19

magnitude of a vector, 39

of a matrix, 44

major axis of a hyperbola, 42

of a vector, 39, 40

many-one function, 15

negative angle, 23

mapping, 14

n-gon, 23

mathematical induction, 16

non-Abelian group, 25

matrix, 43

of order 8, 36

addition, 44

non-cyclic group, 28

multiplication, 44

non-degenerate conic, 41, 101

matrix form of a system of equations, 45

non-degenerate quadric, 101

matrix group, 75, 79

non-homogeneous system, 43

matrix representation of a linear transformation, 53

Non-null Test, 67

maximum element, 62

non-terminating decimal, 60

maximum of a function, 10, 86, 88

non-trivial solution, 43

maximum value, 71

normal subgroup, 37, 74

Mean Value Theorem, 87

normal vector, 41

member of a set, 13

nth partial sum, 66

mesh, 88

nth root, 62

minimal spanning set, 48

nth root function, 72

minimum element, 62

nth term

minimum of a function, 10, 86, 88

of a sequence, 63

minimum value, 71

of a series, 66

minor axis of a hyperbola, 42

n-tuple, 48

modular arithmetic, 21, 22, 30

null sequence, 63

modulus, 61

number line, 60

in modular arithmetic, 21

of a complex number, 19
octahedron, 26

of a real number, 9
odd function, 10

modulus function, 9
odd permutation, 33

106
odd subsequence, 65
polynomial equation, 18

one-one correspondence, 15
Polynomial Factorisation Theorem, 17, 20

one-one function, 15
polynomial function, 11

onto function, 15
position vector, 40

open interval, 9
power function, graph, 96

orbit, 79
power of a group element, 28

Orbit–Stabiliser Theorem, 80
Power Rule, 63

order
power series, 93, 98

infinite, 25, 28
preservation of composites, 75

of a group, 25, 35, 36

prime number, 13

of a group element, 28, 73

primitive, 90, 99

of a kernel, 77
principal argument, 19

of a permutation, 32
Principle of Mathematical Induction, 16

of a quotient group, 38
product

of an image, 77
of disjoint cycles, 31

prime, 36
of matrices, 44

order properties of R, 60
of real numbers, 62

orthogonal basis, 50
Product Rule

orthogonal matrix, 57, 58

for ∼, 92

orthogonal set of vectors, 50

for continuity, 70

orthogonal vectors, 41
for differentiation, 86

in Rn , 50
for inequalities, 61

orthogonalisation (Gram–Schmidt), 51
for integrals, 90

orthogonally diagonalisable matrix, 57

for limits, 64, 65, 81, 82

orthonormal basis, 51, 57

for null sequences, 63

orthonormal eigenvector basis, 58

for power series, 94

projection of a vector, 41

parabola, 9, 41, 101

proof, 16

graph, 95
by contradiction, 16

parametrisation of, 13
by contraposition, 16

parallel lines, 39
by exhaustion, 16

Parallelogram Law, 39
by mathematical induction, 16

parameter, 12
proper subgroup, 27

parametric equations, 12
proper subset, 14

parametrisation, 12, 14
proposition, 15

parity of a permutation, 33
punctured neighbourhood, 81

Parity Theorem, 33

quadratic equation, 18

partial sum of a series, 66

quadratic function, 9

partition, 22

quadric, 58

of a group into conjugacy classes, 73, 74

non-degenerate, 101

of a group into cosets, 35, 37

standard form, 59

of a set into orbits, 79

quotient, 21

of an interval, 88

of complex numbers, 19

Pascal’s triangle, 17

quotient group, 38

periodic function, 10

of an infinite group, 38

permutation, 31

Quotient Rule

permutation group, 32

for ∼, 92

perpendicular lines, 39

for continuity, 70

perpendicular vectors, 41

for differentiation, 86

pi (π), 66

for integrals, 90

estimating, 94

for limits, 64, 81

formulas for, 91

plane, equation of, 39, 41

radius of convergence, 93

plane figure, 13, 23

Radius of Convergence Theorem, 93

plane of reflection, 26
range of validity, 93

plane set, 13
Ratio Test

Platonic solid, 26
for power series, 93

point of inflection, 10
for series, 68

polar form, 19
rational function, 11

polyhedron, 26
rational number, 13, 18, 60

polynomial, 17
r-cycle, 32

107
real axis, 18
series, 66

real function, 9
set, 13

real line, 18, 60

finite, 14

real number, 13, 18, 60

set composition, 37

real part, 18
shear, 52

real vector space, 48

sigma notation, 66

reciprocal, 18
sign of an integral, 89

of a complex number, 19
simultaneous linear equations, 55

reciprocal function, 9
sine function

graph, 95
graph, 95, 96

Reciprocal Rule, 65
Taylor series for, 98

for functions that tend to ∞, 82

Sine Inequality, 70

rectangular hyperbola, 42
singleton, 13

recurring decimal, 60
sinh function, 12

reduction formula, 91
graph, 95, 96

refinement, 89
size of a matrix, 44

reflection, 23, 26, 52

slope, 85

reflexive property, 22
solution set, 13, 61

regular n-gon, 23
of a system of equations, 43

regular polyhedron, 26
Solution Set Theorem, 55

relation, 22
span, 48

relatively prime, 21
spanning set, 48

remainder, 21
square matrix, 44, 58

remainder term, 92
Squeeze Rule

‘renaming’ permutations, 33
for continuity, 70

representative of an equivalence class, 22

for limits, 64, 65, 81, 83

restriction of a function, 15, 70, 86

for null sequences, 64

Riemann function, 83
stabiliser, 79

Riemann sum, 89
standard basis, 49

Riemann’s Criterion, 89
standard form

right derivative, 85
of a conic, 58

right limit, 82
of a quadric, 59

Rolle’s Theorem, 87
standard partition, 88

root, 62
statement, 15

of a complex number, 20
stationary point, 10, 87

of a polynomial, 20
Stirling’s Formula, 92

of unity, 20
straight line, 13

root function, graph, 96

stretching, 52

rotation, 23, 26, 52

strict inequality, 60, 61

row matrix, 44
strictly decreasing function, 69

row-reduced form of a matrix, 43

strictly decreasing sequence, 63

rule for a function, 9, 14

strictly increasing function, 69

strictly increasing sequence, 63

sawtooth function, 83
strictly monotonic function, 69

scalar, 39
strictly monotonic sequence, 63

scalar multiple
subgroup, 27

of a matrix, 44
of symmetry group, 27

of a vector, 39
possible order of, 35

scalar multiplication, 40, 48

submatrix, 47

scaling, 9
subsequence, 65

Scaling Rule, 90
Subsequence Rules, 65

sech function, 12
subset, 14

second derivative, 85
subspace, 50, 56

Second Derivative Test, 11, 87

subtraction

second derived function, 85

of complex numbers, 19

Second Subsequence Rule, 65

of matrices, 44

Section Formula, 40
of vectors, 40

self-conjugate subgroup, 73
sum

self-inverse element, 23, 26

of a series, 66

sequence, 63
of real numbers, 62

sequence diagram, 63
sum function, 93

108
Sum Rule
transposition, 32

for ∼, 92
Triangle Inequality, 61

for continuity, 70
for integrals, 91

for differentiation, 86
infinite form, 68

for inequalities, 61
Triangle Law, 39

for integrals, 90
Trichotomy Property, 60

for limits, 64, 65, 81, 82

trigonometric functions, 97

for null sequences, 63

graphs, 95, 96

for power series, 94

trisectrix, 13

for primitives, 90
trivial homomorphism, 75

for series, 67
trivial solution, 43

supremum
trivial subgroup, 27

of a function, 88
trivial symmetry, 23

of a set, 62
twice differentiable, 85

symmetric group S4 , 32
two-dimensional Euclidean space, 39

symmetric group Sn , 32, 37

two-line symbol, 24, 31

symmetric matrix, 45, 58

unbounded sequence, 65

symmetric property, 22

unbounded set, 62

symmetry, 23, 26

uniform continuity, 84

equality of, 23, 26

union of sets, 14

of a regular n-gon, 23

Uniqueness Theorem for Primitives, 90

of the disc, 23

unit circle, 13

symmetry group, 100

unit vector, 40

subgroup, 27

universal quantifier, 16

system of equations in matrix form, 45

universal statement, 16

system of linear equations, 43

upper bound, 62

least, 62

tangent approximation, 92

upper integral, 89

tangent function, graph, 95, 96

upper Riemann sum, 89

tangent to a curve, 88

upper-triangular matrix, 45, 75

tanh function, 12

graph, 95, 96
valid, 93

Taylor polynomial, 92
vanish, 71

Taylor series, 93
vector, 39

Taylor’s Theorem, 92
vector addition, 48

techniques of integration, 90
vector space, 40

telescoping series, 67
Venn diagram, 13

tends to infinity, 65, 82

vertical asymptote, 10

term

Wallis’ Formula, 91

of a sequence, 63

weak inequality, 60, 61

of a series, 66

wedge symbol, 78

terminating decimal, 60

tetrahedron, 26, 33, 34

zero

theorem, 15
in a vector space, 48

three-dimensional Euclidean space, 39

of a function, 10, 71

trace, 56
of a polynomial, 20

transition matrix, 56
of a polynomial function, 71

Transitive Property, 60
zero complex number, 18

transitive property of an equivalence relation, 22

Zero Derivative Theorem, 87

Transitive Rule, 61
zero matrix, 44

translation, 9, 23, 52
zero transformation, 52

transpose of a matrix, 45
zero vector, 39, 49

109