Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
The Bipolar
Junction Transistor 6
6.1 Introduction
We have already studied single pn junction and we have analized the pn junction i-v charactristic and
how it function as electron switch. The transistor is a multifunction semiconductor device that, in conjunction
with other circuit elements, is capable of current gain, voltage gain, and signal-power gain. The transistor is
therefore referred to as an active device whereas the diode is passive. The basic transistor action is the control
of current at one terminal by voltage applied across two other terminals of the device.
The bipolar transistor has three separately doped regions and two pn junctions, sufficiently close together
so that interactions occur between the two junctions. We will use much of the theory developed for the pn
junction in the analysis of the bipolar transistor. Since the flows of both electrons and holes are involved in this
device, it is called a bipolar transistor.
We will first discuss the basic geometry and operation of the transistor. Since there is more than one pn
junction in the bipolar transistor, several combinations of reverse and forward-bias junction voltages are possible,
leading to different operating modes in the device. As with the pn junction diode, minority carrier distributions
in the bipolar transistor are an important part of the physics of the device—minority carrier gradients produce
diffusion currents. We will determine the minority carrier distribution in each region of the transistor, and the
corresponding currents.
C C
Base B Base B
E E
(a) (b)
Fig 6.1 : Simplified block diagrams and circuit symbols of (a) npn, and (b) pnp bipolar transistors
The (++) and (+) notation indicates the relative magnitudes of the impurity doping concentrations
normally used in the bipolar transistor, with (++) meaning very heavily doped and (+) meaning moderately
doped. The emitter region has the largest doping concentration; the collector region has the smallest. The
reasons for using these relative impurity concentrations, and for the narrow base width, will become clear as we
develop the theory of the bipolar transistor. The concepts developed for the pn junction apply directly to the
bipolar transistor.
(Nd – Na)
E C
n++ p+ n
(a) (b)
Fig 6.2 : Idealized doping profile of a uniformly doped npn bopolar transistor
The normal bias configuration of the BJT is when base - emitter (B-E) junction is forward blased and
base collector (B-C) junction is nevers biased. In this configuration (shown in Fig 6.3). The emitter emits
electrons into base and base emits holes into emitter as B-E junction is forward biased. From our understanding
of pn junction we can understand that the number of electrons being emitted into base will be much higher than
number holes being emitter into emitter as doping of emitter is higher than doping base region.
The electrons which are minority carrier in base will travel inside base region due to diffusion as
concentration gradient exist for electrons in base region. Since the B-C junction is reverse biased thus high
electric field exist inside the depletion region of B-C junction. Due to this high electric field from collector to
base all the electrons which reach the end of base region will be swept into collector and thats why we have
almost zero minority carrier (electrons) concentration at base end towards B-C junction.
The minority carrier concentration in npn BJT biased with BE junction forward biased and BC junction
reverse biased can be easly drawn from understanding of minority carrier profile in forward biased and reverse
biased pn junction. The mode of operation of BJT where base - collector (BC) junction is reverse biased and base
- emitter (BE) junction is forward biased is called forward active mode. The biased configuration, minority
carrier profile and band diagram is shown in Fig 6.3. We can see that concentration of electrons is high in base
at emitter side as emitter has injected electrons in base and the concentration of electrons decreases exponentially
( here we have shown that decay of concentration is linear as the width of base is very small), the concentratio
of electrons become zero at end of base as the high electric field (from C to B )in depletion region of BC junction
will sweep all the electrons into the collector. The minority carrier profile in collector can be simply explained
from the minority carrier profile of reverse bias pn junction that is hole concentration will be zero in collector at
B-C junction as all holes will be swept into base by electric field (from C to B) and the concentration of holes
deep inside collector will be ni2/Nc. The concentration of holes in emitter can be exaplined as holes are injected
into emitter by base thus large concentration of holes in emitter at emitter base junction and hole concentration
reduces as we go inside emitter as holes recombine with electrons and decay is exponential.
(a) (b)
B(p) e–
E C Ec
(n) (n) EFe
Ec EFb
EF Ev EFc
Ev
(c)
Fig 6.3 : (a) Biasing of an npn bipolar transistor in the forward-active mode
(b) Minority carrier distribution in an npn bipolar transistor operating in the forward-active mode
(c) energy-band diagram of the npn bipolar transistor under zero bias and under a forward-active mode bias.
Actual
i E2
nB0
x =0 x =x B
i Ba i Bb
iB
Fig 6.4 : Minority carrier distributions and basis currents in a forward-biased npn bipolar transistor
Assuming the ideal linear electron distribution in the base, the collector current can be written as a
diffusion current given by
dn( x ) n (0) 0
iC eDn ABE eDn ABE B
dx 0 xB
eDn ABE v
nB0 exp BE …(6.1)
xB Vt
where ABE is the cross-sectional area of the B-E junction, nB0 is the thermal equilibrium electron
concentration in the base, and Vt is the thermal voltage. The diffusion of electrons is in the +x direction so that
the conventional current is in the -x direction. Considering magnitudes only, Eq. (6.1) can be written as
v BE
iC= I s exp …(6.2)
vT
eD n ABE
here Is nB 0
xB
Note: The collector current is controlled by the base-emitter voltage; that is, the current at one terminal of the
device is controlled by the voltage applied to the other two terminals of the device. As we have mentioned this is the
basic transistor action.
Emitter Current
From Fig 6.4 we can see that total emitter current is due to diffusion of electron in base region and due
to difusion of hole in emitter region . Since BE junction is forward biased the hole enter emitter and eletron
enter into base .Thus
iE = iE1 + iE2
vBE
iE1 ic Is exp …(6.3)
vT
d v x
eDp ABE pEO exp BE exp
dx vT Lp
eDp vBE x
iE2 ABE pEO exp exp
Lp vT Lp
Thus at x = 0
eDp vBE
iE2 ABE pEO exp …(6.4)
Lp vT
Thus
iE = iE1 + iE2
= ic + iE2
v
ISE exp BE …(6.5)
vT
v
Since all current components in Eq. (6.5) are functions of exp BE , the ratio of collector current to
Vt
emitter current is a constant. We can write
iC
iE
where is called the common-base current gain. By considering Eq. (6.5), we see that iC < iE or < 1.
Since iE2 is not part of the basic transistor action, we would like this component of current to be as small as
possible. We would then like the common base current gain to be as close to unity as possible.
Note: In npn BJT we want that the electron emitted by emitter should be collected by collector and want minimum
involvement of holes in the process. Thus we want 1.
Base Current
As shown in Fig. 6.4 the component of emitter current iE2 is a B-E junction current so that this current
v
is also component of base current shown as iBa. This component of base current is proportional to exp BE .
Vt
There is also a second component of base current. We have considered the ideal case in which there is
no recombination of minority carrier electrons with majority carrier holes in the base. However, in reality there
will be some recombination. Since majority carrier holes in the base are disappearing, they must be resupplied
by a flow of positive charge into the base terminal. This flow of charge is indicated as a current iBb in Fig. 6.4.
The number of holes per unit time recombining in the base is directly related to the number of minority carrier
v
electrons in the base. Therefore, the current iBb is also proportional to exp BE . The total base current is the
Vt
v
sum of iBa and iBb, and is proportional to exp BE .
Vt
The ratio of collector current to base current is a constant since both currents are directly proportional
v
to exp BE . We can then write
Vt
iC
…(6.7)
iB
where is called the common-emitter current gain. Normally, the base current will be relatively small
so that, in general, the common-emitter current gain is much larger than unity (on the order of 100 or larger).
For flow of current thougth the device we need at least one of the junction (BE or BC) to be forward
biased. Fig 6.5 shows the npn transistor in a simple circuit. In this configuration, the transistor may be biased in
one of three modes of operation(to be discussed in this section). If the B-E voltage is zero or reverse biased (VBE
0), then majority carrier electrons from the emitter will not be injected into the base. The B-C junction is also
reverse biased; thus, the emitter and collector currents will be zero for this case. This condition is referred to as
cut off— currents in the transistor are zero.(Thus cut off condition is that where both the junctions are reverse
biased and no current flow in the device.)
IC –
VR RC
+ C +
VCB
–
n +
RB
B
p VCE
+
IB n –
+ +
VBE
VBB – E VCC
–
– IE
REMEMBER In the above discussion we assumed that when VCB is less than zero then the BC junction go into
forward bias or device go into saturation but generally the junction go in forward bias when
voltage across junction is 0.3 V or 0.4 V thats why we always say that npn BJT go in saturation
when VCB is < 0.3 V or 0.4V.
Thus as we will increase the forward biased of BE junction the device will go into satration region, that
is both the junction become forward biased due to high collector current. Since the two junction in forward
biased both will oppose each other as when BE is forward biased then it will flow current from base to emitter
and when BC is forward biased then it will flow current from base to collector. Since current flow cannot stop
thus both junction will become forward biased such that current flow donot stop thus generally if BE junction
has forward bias of VBE = 0.7 V then BC junction can have maximum value of VBC = 0.4 V. Thus BE junction will
remain at higher forward bias and collector current will keep flowing in saturation mode also the relation
vBE
iC Is exp
vT
iC
=
iB
iC
=
iE
are valid in forward acctive mode only
Fig 6.6 shows the transistor current characteristics, IC versus VCE, for constant base currents. When
the collector-emitter voltage is large enough so that the base-collector junction is reverse biased, the collector
current is a constant in this first order theory. For small values of C-E voltage, the base-collector junction
becomes forward biased and the collector current decreases to zero for a constant base current.(For making
B-C junction forward bias we need VCB = 0.4V, since VBE = 0.7V thus VCE = VCB + VBE = 0.3 V)
Writing a Kirchhoffs voltage equation around the C-E loop, we find
VCE = VCC – ICRC …(6.9)
Equation (6.9) shows a linear relation between collector, current and collector-emitter voltage This
linear relation is called a load line and is plotted in Fig.6.6. The load line, superimposed on the transistor
characteristics, can be used to visualize the bias condition and operating mode of the transistor. The cutoff mode
occurs when IC = 0, saturation occurs when there is no longer a change in collector current for a change in base
current, and the forward-active mode occurs wheti the relation IC = IB is valid. These three operating modes
are indicated on the figure.
IC Load line
Saturation Increasing
IB
Forward active
Cutoff
VCC VCE
Fig 6.6 : Bipolar transistor common-emmitter current-voltage characteristics with load line superimposed
The fourth mode of operation is reverse active mode where the BC junction is forward biased and BE
junction is reverse biased. In this mode the role of emitter and collector are reversed. Thus collector will emit
electrons in base and emitter will collect electrons, since doping of collector is less thus forward biasing BC
junction means large number of holes will enter into collector than the concentration of electrons emitted by
emiiter into the base and hole current will be larger than the electron current leading to smaller value of r
(ratio of emitter current and collector current in reverse active mode) and r (ratio of emitter current and base
current in reverse active mode) (in above case collector is acting as emitter and emitter act as collector ).
The junction voltage conditions for the four operating modes are shown in Fig.6.7
VCB
Cutoff Forward
active
VBE
Inverse Saturation
active
Fig 6.7 : Junction voltage conditions for the four operating modes of a bipolar transistor
Note: The application of BJT as switch and amplifier and BJT curcuits will be analyzed in analog electronics.
xE xB xC
Fig 6.8 : Geometry of the npn bipolar transistor used to calculate the minority carrier distribution
When BE junction is forward biased then holes enter into emitter and electrons enter into base and as
BC junction is reverse biased the minority carrier will be zero close to collector base junction. The exponential
decay of minority carrier in base will be appoximated by a staraight line as width of base is much less than the
diffusion length of monority carrier (LB).
Base Region
Emitter Base Collector
-n- -p- -n-
nB(x )
pE(x ) pC0
nB0
pE0 pC(x )
Since, xB << LB we approximate decay of minority carrier profile as straight line (Fig 6.9)
Thus excess minority carrier concentration will be
nB0 v
nB(x) exp BE (1 x ) …(6.10)
xB vT
Note: • LB is diffusion length of minority carrier in base, in case of npn, LB is diffusion length of elecron and in
case of pnp, LB is diffusion lenght of hole
• LB DB B0
Collector Region
The minority carrier concentration in collector will be as shown in Fig 6.9. The carrier profile will be
exponentially rising from 0 to pC0 thus excess minority carrier concentration will be
pC(x'') = pC(x'') – pC0
x
pC0 exp …(6.11)
LC
Emitter Region
The minority carrier profile will be as shown in Fig 6.9, thus excess minority carrier concentration will
be
pE(x' ) = pE(x' ) – pE0
v x
pE0 exp BE 1 exp …(6.12)
vT LE
If xE that is width of emitter is smaller than LE then exponential decay can be approximated as linear.
Thus
pE0 vBE
pE(x' ) exp 1 ( xE x ) …(6.13)
xE vT
2. Saturation Mode
Here both junction are forward biased but VBE > VBC and base will provide hole to emitter and collector
and emitter and colletor both provide electron to base. Obviously the hole concentration in collector at edge of
junction will be
vBC ni2 v
pC(0) pC0 exp
exp BC
vT NC vT
The electron concentration in base at edge of BE junction will be
vBE ni2 v
nB(0) nB0 exp exp BE
vT NB vT
vBE ni2 v
pE(0) PE0 exp exp BE
vT NE vT
Note: We can see that vBE has to be greater than vBC then only nB(0) greater than nB(xB) as then concentration
gradient inside base exist and current flow from emitter to collector.
Emitter Base Collector Emitter Base Collector
- n- -p - - n- - n- -p - - n-
pC(0)
pC(x )
pC0 pE(x )
n B0 nB0 pC0
pE0 pC(x )
nB ( x ) nB(x )
pE(x ) pE0
(a) (b)
Fig 6.10 : Minority carrier distribution in an npn bipolar transistor operating in (a) cutoff, and (b) saturation
(a) (b)
Fig 6.11 : (a) Minority carrier distribution in an npn bipolar transistor operating in the inverse-active mode
(b) Cross section of an npn bipolar transistor showing the injection and collection of electrons in the inverse-active mode
The difference in the current equation of diode and BJT is that.
v
In diode i D Is exp a 1
vT
va
In BJT iC Is exp
vT
The difference is because minority carrier profile in base region ends at zero at end of base region due to
reverse bias BC junction, but in diode the minority carrier profile not end at zero rather end at minority carrier
concentration at equlibriuim.
in this region. This recombination leads to the electron flux JR . Generation of electrons and holes occurs in the
reverse-biased B-C junction. This generation yields a hole flux JG . Finally, the ideal reverse-saturation current
in the B-C junction is denoted by the hole flux Jpc0.
JnE– JnC–
E +
+
-n- JpE -p- + JG -n- C
+
+
JR– + JRB Jpc+0
B
Fig 6.12 : Particle current density or flux components in an npn bipolar transistor operating in the forward-active mode
The corresponding electric current density components in the npn transistor are shown in Fig.6.13
along with the minority carrier distributions for the forward-active mode. As in the pn junction, the currents in
the bipolar transistor are defined in terms of minority carrier diffusion currents. The current densities are
defined as follows:
JnE : Due to the diffusion of minority carrier electrons in the base at x = 0.
JnC : Due to the diffusion of minority carrier electrons in the base at x = xB
JRB : The difference between JnE and JnC, which is due to the recombination of excess minority carrier
electrons with majority carrier holes in the base. The JRB current is the flow of holes into the base to replace the
holes lost by recombination.
JpE : Due to the diffusion of minority carrier holes in the emitter at x' = 0.
JR : Due to the recombination of carriers in the forward-biased B-E junction.
JpC0 : Due to the diffusion of minority carrier holes in the collector at x'' = 0.
JG : Due to the generation of carriers in the reverse-biased B-C junction.
Emitter Base Collector
-n- -p- -n-
JnE JnC
JE JC
JR
JRB
JpE JG
Jpc0
JB
Fig 6.13 : Current density components in an npn bipolar transistor operating in the forward-active mode
REMEMBER In reverse bias junction we have generation and in forward bias junction we have recombination.
The currents JRB, JpE, and JR are B-E junction currents only and do not contribute to the collector
current. The currents Jpc0 and JG are B-C junction currents only. These current componentes do not contribute
to the transistor action or the current gain.
The dc common-base current gain is defined as
IC
0 …(6.14)
IE
If we assume that the active cross-sectional area is the same for the collector and emitter, then we can
write the current gain in terms of the current densities, or
JC JnC JG Jpc0
0 …(6.15)
JE JnE JR JpE
We are primarily interested in determining how the collector current will change with a change in
emitter current. The small-signal, or sinusoidal, common-base current gain is defined as
JC JnC
…(6.16)
JE JnE JR JpE
The reverse-bias B-C currents, JG and Jpc0, are not functions of the emitter current.
We can rewrite Eq. (6.16) in the form
JnE JnC JnE JpE
…(6.17)
JnE JpE JnE JnE JR JpE
or = T …(6.18)
The factors in Eq.(8.25) are defined as
JnE
emitter injection efficiency factor
…(6.19)
JnE JpE
J
T nC base transport factor …(6.20)
JnE
JnE JpE
recombination factor …(6.21)
JnE JR JpE
Ideally shoud be 1 and thus our motive is to make equal to 1. We can see that for = 1 we need
= l, T = l, = l. The emitter injection eficiancy take into account the current flow due to holes, base
transport facton T take into accunt the recombination of minority carrier in base, and recombination factor
take into account recombination in BE junction.
JnE 1
JnE JpE J
1 pE
JnE
dn( x )
eDn
dx
Using equation (6.10) we get
ni2 v
JnE eDn exp BE …(6.22)
NB x B vT
dp( x )
eDp
dx
Using equation (6.13) (assuming xE << LE)
ni2 vBE
J pE eDp exp 1
NE xE vT
ni2 v
eDp exp BE …(6.23)
NE x E vT
1 1
…(6.24)
JpE Dp NB xB
1 1
JnE Dn NE xE
2
1 J 1 x
T nC 1 B …(6.25)
cosh( x B / LB ) JnE 2 LB
The base transport factor T will be close to one if xB << LB. Equation (6.25) shows the reason for base
width to be less than LB.
Recombination Factor
The recombination factor can then be written as
JnE JpE 1
…(6.26)
JnE JR JpE J eVBE
1 r 0 exp
Js0 2kT
REMEMBER • For 1 we need to work at high VBE, width of base xB << diffusion length of carrier LB,
doping of emittrer much higer than doping of base
I
• Since IE = IB + IC, IE C
IC
IB 1
and
1 1
• is ratio of IC and IB, thus it is called common emitter current gain as in this configuration
emitter is common and input is at base out put is at collector.
Example 6.1
To design the ratio of emitter doping to base doping in order to achieve an emitter injection
efficiency factor equal to = 0.9967
Consider an npn bipolar transistor. Assume, for simplicity, that D E = D B , L E = L B , and
xE = xB.
Solution 6.1
Equation (6.24) reduces to
1 1
pE0 2
ni / NE
1 1
nB0 ni2 NB
so
1
0.9967
NB
1
NE
Then
NB NE
= 0.00331 or = 302
NE NB
Example 6.2
To design the base width required to achieve a base transport factor equal to T = 0.9967.
Consider a pnp bipolar transistor. Assume that D B = 10 cm 2 /s and B 0 = 10 –7 s.
Solution 6.2
The base transport factor applies to both pnp and npn transistor and is given by
1
T 0.9967
cosh( xB / LB )
Then
xB
= 0.0814
LB
We have
Example 6.3
Calculate the forward-biased B-E voltage required to achieve a recombination factor equal
to = 0.9967.
Consider an npn bipolar transistor at T = 300 K. Assume that J r 0 = 10 –8 A/cm 2 and that
J s 0 = 10 –11 A/cm 2 .
Solution 6.3
The recombination factor, from Eq. (6.26), is
1
J eVBE
1 r 0 exp
Js0 2kT
We then have
1
0.9967 8
10 eVBE
1 11
exp
10 2kT
We can rearrange this equation and write
3
eVBE 0.9967 10 3.02 105
exp
2kT 1 0.9967
Then
VBE = 2(0.0259) ln(3.02 × 105) = 0.654 V
Increasing
minority
carrier
gradient
x =0 x =x B
Fig 6.14 : The change in the base width and the change in the minority carrier gradient as the B-C space charge width changes
IC
VBE
|VA| VCE
Fig 6.15 : The collector current versus collector-emitter voltage showing the Early effect and Early voltage
Note: We know that in reverse bias pn the depletion region width enter less high doped region. This is the reason
that base is having high doping than collector. Now when BC junction is reverese biased then lesser depletion
region go into base. This reduces early effect and since width of base region is small base region has to have higer
doping than collector because otherwise punch through would occus for very small reverese bias across BC junction.
Example 6.4
Calculate the change in the neutral base width with a change in C-B voltage.
Consider a uniformly doped silicon bipolar transistor at T = 300 K with a base doping of
NB = 5 × 1016 cm –3 and a collector doping of NC = 2 × 1015 cm–3. Assume the metallurgical
base width is 0.70 m. Calculate the change in the neutral base width as the C-B voltage
changes from 2 to 10 V.
Solution 6.4
The space charge width extending into the base region can be written as
1/2
2 ( V VCB ) NC 1
xdB s bi
e NB ( NB NC )
or
1/2
2(11.7)(8.85 1014 )( Vbi VCB ) 2 1015 1
xdB 15
1.6 1019 16 16
2 10 (5 10 2 10 )
which becomes
xdB = {(9.96 × 10–12)(Vbi + VCB)}1/2
The built-in potential is
kT NBNC
ln
Vbi 0.718 V
e ni2
For VCB = 2 V, we find xdB = 0.052 m, and for VCB = 10 V, we find xdB = 0.103 m. If we neglect the B-
E space charge region, which will be small because of the forward-biased junction, then we can calculate
the neutral base width. For VCB = 2 V.
xB = 0.70 – 0.052 = 0.648 m
and for VCB = 10 V,
xB = 0.70 – 0.103 = 0.597 m
nB(x )
nB0
x =0 x =x B
Fig 6.16 : Minority and majority carrier concentrations in the base under low and high injection
(solid line: low injection; dashed line: high injection)
200
T = 300 K
50
0.00 –8
10 10–6 10–4 10–2 100
Collector current (A)
Fig 6.17 : Common-emitter current gin versus collector current
Eg
n12E ni2 exp
kT
n12E ni2 E
and pE0 exp
NE NE kT
As the emitter doping increases, n12E increases; thus, pE0 does not continue to decrease with increased
emitter doping. If pE0 starts to increase because of the bandgap narrowing, the emitter injection efficiency
begins to fall off instead of continuing to increase with increased emitter doping.
under the emitter region. For the npn transistor, the potential decreases from the edge of the emitter toward the
center. The emitter is highly doped, so as a first approximation the emitter can be considered an equipotential
region.
The number of electrons’ from the emitter injected into the base is exponentially dependent on the B-E
voltage. With the lateral voltage drop in the base between the edge and center of the emitter more electrons will
be injected near the emitter edges than in the center, causing the current to be crowded toward the edges. This
current-crowding effect is schematically shown in Fig. 6.20. The larger current density near the emitter edge
may cause localized heating effects as well as localized high-injection effects. The nonuniform emitter current
also results in a nonuniform lateral base current under the emitter. A two-dimensional analysis would be required
to calculate the actual potential drop versus distance because of the nonuniform base current. Another approach
is to slice the transistor into a number of smaller parallel transistors and to lump the resistance of each base
section into an equivalent external resistance.
Power transistors, designed to handle large currents, require large emitter areas to maintain reasonable
current densities. To avoid the current-crowding effect, these transistors are usually designed with narrow
emitter widths and fabricated with an interdigitated design. In this special type of design many narrow emitters
are connected in parallel to achieve required emitter area [Fig 6.21]
Base Emitter
IE
IB/2 IB/2
Collector
Fig 6.19 : Cross section of an npn bipolar transistor showing the base current distribtution
and the lateral potential drop in the base region.
Collector current
Fig 6.20 : Cross section of an npn bipolar transistor showing the emitter current-crowding effect.
Base Emitter
terminal terminal
n n n n n
p base
n Collector
Doping
5×1019
Nd for n-type
emitter
Na for p-type
5×10 17 base
Nd for n-type
collector
5×1015
x
Fig 6.22 : Impurity concentration profiles of a double-diffused npn bipolar transistor
From the given doping concentration (Fig 6.22) we can see that in base region doping decreases from
emitter to collector. Since hole concentration in base is high at BE junction and decreases as we move toward
collector. Thus base has non uniform doping, now we know that in non uniform doped base region at equilibrium
will have electric field this electric field will stop the holes from diffusing at equilibrium. Using the concept
learned in chapter 2 we know that
p-type base region in thermal equilibrium, we can write
dNa
J p e p Na E eDp 0 …(6.33)
dx
Then
kT 1 dNa
E …(6.34)
e Na dx
According to the example of Fig. 6.22, dNa/dx is negative; hence, the induced electric field is in the
negative x direction. Electrons are injected from the n-type emitter into the base and the minority carrier base
electrons begin diffusing toward the collector region. The induced electric field in the base, because of the
nonuniform doping, produces a force on the electrons in the direction toward the collector. The induced electric
field, then, aids the flow of minority carriers across the base region. This electric field is called an accelerating
field.
Thus due to electric field that help the motion electron from emitter to collector thus electrons emitted
by emitter will reach collector much fastly and thus speed of operation of this device (non uniform doped BJT)
will be more than speed of operation of uniform doped BJT.
REMEMBER Now we can compare the speed of operation of these three BJTs
x x x
Assuming that amount of doping in all three regions emitter, base and collector is same in all
three BJTs (a),(b), and (c). Now if we compare speed of operartion then in (b), using equation
(6.34) the base has electric field from collector to emitter which support electron movement
from emitter to colletor, in (a) the base has no electric field and in (c), using equation (6.34) we
can find that the electric field exist form emitter to collector that oppose electron flow from
emitter to collector. Thus (b) is faster, (a) is normal, (c) is slowest.
NC 2 s 1 1
( Vbi VR )
NC NB e NB NC
NC 2 s N NC
WB ( Vbi Vpt ) B
NC NB e NBNC
eWB2 NB( NC NB )
Vpt …(6.35)
2 s NC
E B C
Ec
EF
VR1
Ev
E B C
VR 2
Ec
EF
Ev
(a) (b)
Fig 6.23 : Energy-band diagram of an npn bipolar transistor (a) in thermal equilibrium, and
(b) with a reverse-bias B-C voltage before punch-through, VR1, and after punch through, VR2
E B C
x dB
WB
Fig 6.24 : Geometry of a bipolar transistor to calculate the punch-through voltage
Example 6.5
To design the collector doping and collector width to meet a punch-through voltage
specification.
Consider a uniformly doped silicon bipolar transistor with a metallurgical base width of
0.5 m and a base doping of NB = 1016 cm –3 . The punch-through voltage is to be Vpt = 25 V.
Solution 6.5
The maximum collector dopin concentration can be determined from Eq (6.35) as
(1.6 1019 )(0.5 104 )2 (1016 )( N C 1016 )
25
2(11.7)(8.85 10 14 )N C
or
106
12.94 1
N
which yields
NC = 8.38 × 1014 cm–3
This n-type doping concentration in the collector must extend at least as far as the depletion width extends
into the collector to avoid breakdown in the collector region. We have
1/2
2 ( V VR ) NB 1
xn s bi
e NC NB NC
Neglecting Vbi compared to VR = Vpt, we obtain
1/2
2(11.7)(8.85 1014 )(25) 1016 1
xn 19 14
16 14
1.6 10 8.38 10 10 8.38 10
or
xn = 5.97 m
n p n
ICBO
E n p n C E C
ICEO ICEO I
ICBO CEO
VCB B VCE
– + – +
B
(a) (b)
Fig 6.24 : (a) Open emitter configuration with saturation current ICBO
(b) Open base configuration with saturation current ICEO
The working of circuit show in Fig 6.24(b) is not similar to that of the reverse bias pn junction because
when high voltage is applied at collector and base is open then obviously CB junction will be reverse biased and
holes will flow form collector to base. Since holes come inside base become positive with respect to emitter thus
BE junction become slightly forward biased. Thus the ciruut of Fig 6.24(b) will approximately work as BJT in
forward active mode. The forward-biased B-E junction produces the current ICEO, due primarily to the injection
of electrons from the emitter into the base. The injected electrons diffuse across the base toward the B-C
junction. These electrons are subject to all of the recombination processes in the bipolar transistor. When the
electron reach the B-C junction, this current component is ICEO, where is the common base current gain.
We therefore have
ICEO = ICEO + ICBO …(6.36)
or
ICBO
ICEO ICBO …(6.37)
1
where is the common-emitter current gain. The reverse-biased junction current ICBO is multiplied by
the current gain when the transistor is biased in the open-base configuration.
When the transistor is biased in the open-emitter configuration as in Fig.6.24(a), the current ICBO at
breakdown becomes ICBO MICBO, where M is the multiplication factor. An empirical approximation for the
multiplication factor is usually written as
1
M …(6.38)
1 ( VCB / BVCBO )n
where n is an empirical constant, usually between 3 and 6, and BVCBO is the B-C breakdown voltage with
the emitter left open.
When the transistor is biased with the base open circuited as shown m Fig. 6.24(b), the currents in the
B-C junction at breakdown are multiplied, so that
ICEO = M(ICEO + ICBO) …(6.39)
Solving for ICEO, we obtain
MICBO
ICEO …(6.40)
1 M
The condition for breakdown corresponds to
M = 1 …(6.41)
Using Eq.(6.38) and assuming the VCB VCE, Eq. (6.41) becomes
=1 …(6.42)
1 ( BVCEO / BVCBO )n
where BVCEO is the C-E voltage at breakdown in the open base configuration. Solving for BVCEO, we find
Normally, 1, so that
1
1– …(6.45)
Then Eq.(6.43) can be written as
BVCBO
BVCEO …(6.46)
n
The breakdown voltage in the open-base configuration is smaller, by the factor n , junction breakdown
voltage. This characteristic is shown ih Fig 6.25
Open Open
IC base emitter
ICEO
ICBO
BVCEO BVCBO
V
Fig 6.25 : Relative breakdown voltages and saturation currents of the open base and open emitter configurations
REMEMBER • In Fig (6.25) the breakdown voltage BVCEO is when base is open and current in collector is
ICEO, but when base is connected in the circuit then collector current will increase and thus
the breakdown of device will occur at voltage lower than BVCEO. Similaly when emitter is
open and current in collector is ICBO the breakdown voltage is BVCBO but when emitter is
connected then collector current increases and breakdown voltage decrease.
• As the current though reverse biased junction the breakdown voltage deacreses.
Example: 6.6
Consider a silicon bipolar transistor with a common-emitter current gain of = 100 and a
base doping concentration of N B = 10 17 cm –3 . The minimum open-base breakdown voltage is
to be 15 volts. Determine the open emitter breakdown voltage.
Solution 6.6
From Eq. (6.59), the minimum open-emitter junction breakdown voltage must be
BVCBO n BVCEO
Assuming the empirical constant n is 3, we find
BVCBO 3 100(15) 69.6 V
to the applied signal thus input signal must have frequncy less that a value so that we can get faithful response
form device. The hybrid pie moded will be analyzed in analog electronics. Here we will only analyze the limitation
on frequency due to time delay factors.
dx dx
v(x) or dt …(6.51)
dt v(x)
The transit time can then be found by integrating, or
xB xB xB
dx enB( x )dx
b dt v( x )
( Jn )
…(6.51)
0 0 0
Note: If in a question any information to calculation e, b, d, and c is missing then we can neglect that delay or
transit time. For example if width of base region is not given in question then we can neglect b and can write
ec = e + d + c.
Example 6.7
In calculate the emitter-to-collector transit time and the cutoff frequency of a bipolar
transistor, given the transistor parameters.
Consider a silicon npn transistor at T = 300 K. Assume the following parameters:
IE = 1 mA C je = 1 pF
x B = 0.5 m D n = 25 cm 2 /s
x dc = 2.4 m r c = 20
C = 0.1 pF C s = 0.1 pF
Solution 6.7
We will initially calculate the various time-delay factors. If we neglect the parasitic capacitance, the emitter-
base junction charging time is
e = r'eCje
where
kT 1 0.0259
r'e 25.9
e IE 1 103
Then
e = (25.9)(10–12) = 25.9 ps
The base transit time is
xB2 (0.5 10 4 )2
b 50 ps
2Dn 2(25)
The collector depletion region transit time is
1 1
fT 1.53 GHz
2ec 2 (103.9 10 12 )
If we assume a low-frequency common-emitter current gain of = 100, then the beta cutoff frequency is
fT 1.53 109
f 15.3 MHz
0 100
RB RC
+
+ IB + VBB0
VBE
VBB – VCC
– Time
– VBB
–VR
t =0 t =t 3
(a) (b)
IC (sat)
0.9
ts
IC td tr tr
0.1
0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 Time
(c)
Fig 6.26 : (a) Circuit used for transistor switching (b) Input base drive for transistor switching
(c) Collector current versus time during transistor switching
During the next time period, t1 t t2, the base current is supplying charge, which increases the B-E
junction voltage from near cutoff to near saturation. During this time, additional carriers are being injected into
the base so that the gradient of the minority carrier electron concentration in the base increases, causing the
collector current to increase. We refer to this time period as the rise time, during which the collector current
increases from 10 percent to 90 percent of the final value. For t > t2, the base drive continues to supply base
current, driving the transistor into saturation and establishing the final minority carrier distribution in the
device.
When device is working in saturation mode form time t2 to t3 then both the junction (BE and BC) are
forward biased and emitter inject electron in base, collector inject electron in base, base inject hole in collector
and emitter. Thus in saturation region the minority carrier profile is as shown in FIg 6.27(a)
ni2
ni2 NC
Qbx ni2 NB
ni2 NE
ni2 QB
QC NC QC
NE
(a) (b)
ni2 ni2
NE NC
(c)
Fig 6.27 : (a) Minority carrier profile in saturation (b) minority carrier profile in equilibium
(c) minority carrier profile in cut off
So we can see that large amount of charges get stored in emitter, base and collector and when at t = t3
the voltage at base terminal is made highly negative then the current in the device should ideally go to zero but
practically the collector current will keep flowing with very little change or no change because of large amount
of excess minority carrier in collector, base and emitter (Fig 6.27(a)). Thus current will keep flowing as now
excees holes will move from collector to base and excees electron will move from base to collector and collector
current will flow from collector to base. Thus the excees carrier will keep on reducing and minority carrier
profile will change form that shown in Fig. 6.27 (a) to that shown in Fig 6.27 (b). Thus at time instant t4 the
carrier profile will be that shown in Fig. 6.27(b) thus from time t3 to t4 all excess carriers are removed and the
time t4 – t3 is called storage time t5, where all stoned charge are removed. This time delay is cailed the storage
time and is denoted by ts. The storage time is the time between the point at which VBB switches to the time when
the collector current is reduced to 90 percent of its maximum saturation value. The storage time is usually the
most important parameter in the switching speed of the bipolar transister.
Now after time t4 the current start reducing as now no excees carrier are left to support flow current.
Thus from time t4 to t5 the minority carrier profile changes from that shown in Fig.6.27 (b) to that shown in
Fig.6.27(c). Now at time t5 the device is in cut off. The time difference t5 – t4 is called fall time.
The final switching delay time is the fall tf during which the collector current decrease from the 90
percent to the 10 percent value. During this time, the B-C junction is reverse biased but excess carriers in the
base are still being removed, and the B-E junction voltage is decreasing.
and the effective turn on voltage of the Schottky diode is approximately half that of the pn junction. The amount
of excess stored charge in the base and collector is drastically reduced. The reduced excess stored charge in the
base of the Schottky transistor greatly reduces the storage time. The storage times of the order of 1 ns or less
are common in Schottky transistors.
C
C
B
B
E
E
(a) (b)
Fig 6.28 : (a) The Schottky-clamped transistor (b) Circuit symbol of the Schottky-clamped transistor
– –
B
Fig 6.29 : Common base configuration of npn BJT
Thus port 1 or input port has current and voltage IE and VEB (always current entering the port is taken
as positive). Thus for npn BJT the collector current enter the terminal, emitter current leave the terminal and
base current enter the terminal. Thus IE will be negative IB and IC will be positive
For defining BJT as a two port network we always use H parameter thus for common base configuration
VEB IE
I HCB
C VCB
Thus input charactistic of CB configuration will be plot of VEB as a function of IE and VCB
VCB open
–0.4
Emitter voltage VEB, V
VCB = 0V
–0.2 +1
+10
+20
IE=40 mA
+40
Collector current IC, mA
–30
+30
–20
+20
–10
+10
–0
0
ICO
VCB=0 Cutoff region
–0.25 0 +2 +4 +6 +8
Collector-to-base voltage drop VCB.V
Fig 6.31 : Typical common base output characteristics of a npntransistor.(we assumed =1)
Saturation Region The region to the left of the ordinate, VCB = 0, and above the IE = 0 characteristics,
in which both emitter and collector junctions are forward-biased, is called the saturation region. We say that
“bottoming” has taken place because the voltage has fallen near the bottom of the characteristic where VCB 0.
Actually, VCB is slightly negative in this region, and this forward biasing of the collector accounts for the large
change in collector current with small changes in collector voltage.
Cutoff Region The characteristic for IE = 0 passes through the origin, but is otherwise similar to the
other characteristics. The region below ithfe IE = 0 characteristic, for which the emitter and collector junctions
are both reverse-biased, is referred to as the cutoff region.
6.7.2 The Common Emitter Configuration
In this configuration we have emitter common between both the ports of two port network, the input
port is base emitter port and output port is collector emitter port. The common emitter configuration is shown
in Fig. 6.32.
IC
B C
+ IB npn BJT +
Common emitter
Input Configuration
port VBE VCE Output
port
– –
B
Fig 6.32 : Common emitter configuration of BJT
The port 1 parameters are IB and VBE and port 2 parameters are IC and VCE. Here IB and IC both are
positive and VBE will also be positive. The H parameter for CE confiquration are
VBE IB
I HCE
C VCE
VBE becomes zero, then IB will be zero, since under these conditions –0.4
both emitter and collector junctions will be short-circuited, +0.1
In general, increasing V CE with constantVBE causes a –0.3
0
decrease in base width W'B and results in a decreasing recombination
–0.2
base current. These considerations account for the shape of input
characterstics shown in Fig. 6.33.. –0.1
V the device is in saturation region. In cut off region current that flow in device ICEO and we know that ICEO =
( + 1) ICBO.
Saturation
iC region
vCE= …
Active
region vCE= …
vCE= …
vCE= …
–VA 0 vCE
IC ICBO
I ICBO
Fi E
iB
B
+ iE DE
(ISE = IS /F)
v BE
–
E
Fig 6.35 : Large-signal equivalent-circuit models of the npn BJT operating in the forward active mode.
Here we have shown forward biased BE junction as diode and collector current is FiE. Thus we can see
that
Is vBE
iE exp
F vT
iC = FiE
Here F is common base current gain in forward active mode.
Similarly we have large signal model for reverse active mode BJT where BC junction is forward biased
and it is shown by a diode and here emitter current will be RiC. Here R is common base current gain in
reverse active mode. Fig 6.36 show large signal model of reverse active mode BJT
C
iC DC
(ISC = IS/R)
Ri C
E
Fig 6.36 : Model for the npn transistor when operated in the reverse active mode
(i.e., with the CBJ forward biased and the EBJ reverse biased)
The model of Fig. 6.36 can be combined with that of Fig. 6.37 to obtain the circuit model shown in
Fig. 6.38. Note that we have relabelled the current through DE and DC, and the corresponding control currents
of the controlled sources, as iDE and iDC. Ebers and Moll, two early workers in the area, have shown that this
composite model can be used to predict the operation of the BJT in all of its possible modes. To see how this can
be done, we derive expressions for the terminal currents iE, iC, ad iB in terms of the junction voltages vBE and
vBC. Toward that end, we write an expression for the current at each of the three nodes of the model in Fig. 6.38
as follows:
i E = iDE – RiDC …(6.60)
iC = –iDC + FiDE …(6.61)
i B = (1 – F)iDE + (1 – R)iDC …(6.62)
Then we use the diode equation to express iDE and iDC as
C
iC
DC i DC Fi DE
B
iB
DE i DE Ri DC
iE
E
The diode DE in Fig 6.36 has scale current ISE and in Fig 6.37 diode DC has scale current ISC. Generally
the area of BC junction is mach greater than EB junction thus
ISC >> ISE
The two scale currents have, of course, the same ratio as the areas of the corresponding junctions.
Furthermore, a simple and elegant formula relates the scale currents ISE, ISC, and IS and the current gains F
and R, namely
FISE = RISC = IS …(6.65)
E B C
p n
R
R …(6.70)
1 R
As a first application of the EM model, we shall use it to predict the terminal currents of a transistor
operating in the forward active mode. Here vBE is is positive and in the range of 0.6 V to 0.8 V, and vBC is
negative. One can easily see that terms containing evBC / vT will be negligibly small and can be neglected to obtain
IS vBE / vT 1
iE e IS 1 …(6.71)
F F
v /v 1
iC IS e BE T IS 1 …(6.72)
R
IS vBE / vT 1 1
iB e IS …(6.73)
F F R
In each of these three equations, one can normally neglect the second term on the right-hand side.
Thus far, we have stated the condition for forward active mode operation as vCB 0 to ensure that the
CBJ is reverse biased. In actual fact, however, a pn junction does not
iC
Saturation Active mode
mode FIE
–0.4 V 0 vCB
Expanded
scale
Fig 6.39 : The iC–vCB characteristic of an npn transistor fed with a constant emitter current IE. The transistor enters the
saturation mode of operation for vCB < –0.4 V, and the collector current diminished.
Become effectively forward biased until the forward voltage across it exceeds approxi-mately 0.5 V. It
follows that one can maintain active mode operation of an npn transistor for negative vCB down to approximately
-0.4 V or so. This is illustrated in Fig. 3.9, which shows a sketch of iC versus vCB for an npn transistor operated
with a constant-emitter current IE. Observe that iC remains constant at FIE for vCB going negative to
approximately –0.4 V. Below this value of vCB > the CBJ begins to conduct sufficiently that the transistor leaves
the active mode and enters the saturation mode of operation, where iC decreases. We shall study BJT saturation
next. For now, however, note that we can use the EM equations to verify that the terms containing evBC/vT remain
negligibly small for vBC as high as 0.4 V.
10. Consider a uniformly doped npn bipolar transistor (a) Determine the hole diffusion current density in
at T = 300 K with the following parameters: the base for V BC = 5 V, V BC = 10 V, and
NE = 1018 cm–3 NB = 5 × 1016 cm–3 VBC = 15 V.
15
NC = 10 cm –3 (b) Estimate the Early voltage.
DE = 8 cm2/s DB = 15 cm2/s
2
14. The base width of a bipolar transistor is normally
DC = 12 cm /s
small to provide a large current gain and increased
TE0 = 10–8 s TB0 = 5 × 10–8 s
speed. The base width also affects the Early voltage.
C0 = 10–7 s
In a silicon npn bipolar transistor at T = 300 K, the
xE = 0.8 mm xB = 0.7 mm
Jr0 = 3 × 10–8 A/cm2 doping concentrations are N E = 10 18 cm –3 ,
For VBE = 0.60 V and VCE = 5 V, calculate NB = 3 × 1016 cm–3, and NC = 5 × 1015 cm–3. Assume
(a) the currents JnE, JpE, JnC and JR, and DB = 20 cm2/s and B0 = 5 × 10 –7 s, and let
(b) the current gain factors , T, , , and . V BE = 0.70 V. Using voltages V CB = 5 V and
VCB = 10 V as two data points, estimate the Early
11. Three npn bipolar transistors have identical voltage for metallurgical base widths of
parameters except for the base doping concentrations (a) 1.0 m, (b) 0.80 m, and
and neutral base widths. The base parameters for (c) 0.60 m.
the three devices are as follows:
Device Base doping Base width 15. Consider a silicon npn bipolar transistor with uniform
A NB = NB0 xE = xE0 dopings of NE = 5 × 1018 cm–3, NB = 1017 cm–3, and
B NB = 2NB0 xE = xE0 NC = 5 × 1015 cm–3. Assume the common base
C B = NB0 xE = xE0/2 current gain is = 0.9920. Determine
(a) BVCBO,
(The base doping concentration for the B device is
(b) BVCEO, and
twice that of A and C, and the neutral base width for
(c) the base-emitter breakdown voltage. (Assume
the C device is half that of A and B.)
n = 3 for the empirical constant.)
(a) Determine the ratio of the emitter injection
efficiency of (i) device B to device A, and (ii) 16. Consider a silicon npn transistor at T = 300 K. Assume
device C to device A. the following parameters:
(b) Repeat part (a) for the base transport factor. IE = 0.5 mA Cje = 0.8 pF
(c) Repeat part (a) for the recombination factor. xB = 0.7 mm Dn = 25 cm2/s
(d) Which device has the largest common-emitter xdc = 2.0 mm rc = 30
current gain ? Cs = C = 0.08 pF = 50
(a) Calculate the transit time factors.
12. Repeat problem 11 for three devices in which the
(b) Calculate the cutoff and beta cutoff frequencies,
emitter parameters vary. The emitter parameters for
fT and f, respectively.
the three devices are as follows:
Device Base doping Base width 17. Assume the base transit time of a BJT is 100 ps and
A NE = NE0 xE = xE0 carriers cross the 1.2 m B-C space charge region at
B NE = 2NE0 xE = xE0 a speed of 107 cm/s. The emitter-base junction
C NE = NE0 xE = xE0/2 charging time is 25 ps and the collector capacitance
and resistance are 0.10 pF and 10 W, respectively.
13. A silicon pnp bipolar transistor at T = 300 K has
Determine the cutoff frequency.
uniform dopings of NE = 1018 cm–3, NB = 1016 cm–3,
and NC = 1015 cm–3. The metallurgical base width is
1.2 m. Let DB = 10 cm2/s and B0 = 5 × 10–7 s.
Assume that the minority carrier hole concentration
in the base can be approximated by a linear
distribution. Let VEB = 0.625 V.
1
(a)
Objective Practice Problems (b) 2.25 × 104 4.5 × 102 2.25 × 105
(c) 2.25 × 105 2.25 × 104 4.5 × 102
Common Data for Q.1 and 2 (d) 4.5 × 102 2.25 × 105 2.25 × 104
8 . What will be the thermal equilibrium minority carrier 14. Consider the transistor shown in figure below :
concentrations, nB0, pB0 and nC0 (in cm–3)?
nB0 pB0 nC0
(a) 2.25 × 102 2.25 × 105 4.5 × 103
(b) 2.25 × 102 4.5 × 103 2.25 × 105
(c) 4.5 × 103 2.25 × 102 2.25 × 105
(d) 4.5 × 103 2.25 × 105 2.25 × 102
+
9 . For VEB = 0.650 V, total minority carrier hole 6V –
concentration, pB at x = 0 will be
(a) 4.68 × 103 cm–8 (b) 7.93 × 1013 cm–3
4
(c) 5.54 × 10 cm –3 (d) 3.57 × 1014 cm–3 The transistor is operating in
(a) Forward-Active region
10. For VEB = 0.650 V, total minority carrier (electron)
(b) Reverse-Active region
concentration, nE at x' = 0 will be
(c) Saturation region
(a) 1.78 × 1013 cm–3 (b) 7.91 × 1012 cm–3
2 –8
(d) Cutoff region
(c) 2.34 × 10 cm (d) 4.31 × 102 cm–3
15. Consider the transistor shown in figure below.
Common Data For Q. 11 and 12
+
6V –
17. An npn silicon transistor is biased in the inverse active The mode of operation of the transistor is
mode with VBE = – 3 V and VBC = 0.6 V. The doping (a) reverse active mode
concentrations are NE = 1018 cm–3, NB = 1017 cm–3 (b) cut off mode
and N C = 10 16 cm –3 . Other parameters are (c) forward active mode
x B = 1 m, E 0 = B 0 = C 0 = 2 × 10 –7 s, (d) saturation mode
DE = 10 cm2/s, DB = 20 cm2/s, DC = 15 cm2/s and 21. If the value of forward is on the order of 100, while
A = 10–3 cm2. The collector and emitter currents in reverse is on the order of 0.1, then what will be
the transistor will be respectively (Neglect geometry the value of F and R ?
factors and assume that the recombination factor is F R
unity) (a) 0.049 0.49
(a) 1.19 mA, 0.829 mA (b) 0.829 mA, 1.19 mA (b) 0.99 0.09
(c) 0.359 mA, 0.47 mA (d) 0.47 mA, 0.359 mA (c) 0.09 0.99
Common Data For Q. 18 and 19 (d) 0.49 0.049
The electron and hole currents inside a pnp BJT biased 22. To increase the upper frequency limit of pnp
in the active mode are plotted in figure. All the currents transistor with the help of
are referenced to I1, the hole current injected to the (1) Physical size of the device should be kept small
base. (2) Base width should be kept small to reduce transit
Hole current time
Ip In
(3) Base, emitter and collector areas should be kept
small to reduce junction capacitance
Which of the above statements are correct?
I1 I1 0.999I1 0.999I1 (a) (1), (2) (b) (2), (3)
(c) (1), (3) (d) (1), (2), (3)
0.001I1 10–6 I1
23. For an Si pnp transistor biased in the active region
0.001I1
with = 1, width of the base region = 0.5 m, hole
x diffusion coefficient Dp = 15 cm2/sec. If the frequency
E B C
response is dominated by transit time delay, what is
18. What is the value of common emitter dc current gain the approximate upper frequency limit ?
(dc) ? (a) 1.91GHz (b) 1.91MHz
(a) 100 (b) 99 (c) 8.33 GHz (d) 8.33 MHz
(c) 999 (d) 499
24. Consider the transistor whose IC–VCE curvese are
19. What is the base current (IB) ? shown in figure.
(a) .999 I1, mA (b) 0.999 I1 Amp IB=40 A
(c) 1.999 I1 mA (d) 1.999 I1 Amp 5.4
5
20. Consider the transistor shown in figure below.
30 A
+V 4
IC(mA)
3.7
3 20 A
RC 2
10 A
4.9 V 1
4.8 V
0
4.1 V 0 0.5 1 2 3 4 5
VCE(V)
RE
What is the value of early voltage (Volt)?
(a) –11 V (b) 0.5 V
(c) –100 V (d) –20 V
25. What is mode of operation of the transistor circuit 28. Which transistors have the largest value of collector
shown in figure below? junction capacitance with VCB reverse biased at
+V 10 V?
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 2 and 3
RE
29. Assume the base transit time of a BJT is l00 ps and
0.7 V carriers cross the 1.2 n B-C space charge region at
a speed of 107 cm/s. The emitter-base junction
charging time is 25 ps and the collector capacitance
–5 V
and resistance are 0.10 pF and 10 , respectively.
RC The cutoff frequency fT will be
(a) 2.3 GHz (b) 1.15 GHz
(c) 0.575 GHz (d) 7.24 GHz
–V
(a) reverse active mode 30. Consider the circuit shown below. If VS = 0.63 V,
(b) cut off mode I1 = 275 A, and I2 = 125 A then the value of I3 is
(c) forward active mode
(d) saturation mode
Common Data For Q. 27 to 28 31. Consider the circuit shown below. For the source
Three npn transistors in identical swept that tnmnrtcr voltage VS = 0.63 V, the currents are IC = 275 A
(2) has a bass region twioe as long as transistor (1), sad and IB = 5 A.
transistor (3), has a base ngioo doped twice as heavily as
tranaiater (1). All other dopings and lengths are Identical
for the three tranaistora.
w 2w
n p n n p n
VS +
Na = N1 N1 –
(1) (2)
w
The forward common emitter gain F is
(a) 56 (b) 55
(c) 0.9821 (d) 0.9818
2N1
(3)
32. Consider the transistor circuit shown in figure below. 38. What is base transit time (in psec) for electron in
VCC the npn prototype transistor base doping level of
1017 cm–3 and base width of wB = 0.1 m and electron
diffusion constant Dn = 20 cm2/sec?
Common Data For Q. 46 to 48 Assume that one-half of the base current enters from
Given a pnp BJT where IEp = 1 A, IEn = 0.01 A, each side of the emitter strip and flows uniformly to the
ICp = 0.98 A, and ICn = 0.1 A. centre of the emitter. Assume the following parameters
for the transistor:
46. What is the value of base current IB (in A)?
NB = 1016 cm–3 xB = 0.70 m
47. What is the value of dc? p = 400 cm3/V-s S = 8 m
Emitter length L = 100 m
48. What is the value of ICEO?
52. The resistance between x = 0 and x = S/2 for the
Common Data For Q. 49 to 50
flow of base current (IB) will be _______ .
A Si pnp BJT with NAE = 5 × 1017/cm3, NDB = 1015/cm3,
NAC = 1014/cm3 and wB = 3 m is maintained under 53. If IB = 20 A then, the voltage drop between x = 0
equilibrium conditions at room temperature. and x = S/2 will be ______ mV.
49. What is the net potential difference (in volt) between 54. If VBE = 0.6 V at x = 0 then what will be the
the collector and emitter ? percentage of the number of electrons being injected
into the base at x = S/2, compared to x = 0.
50. If built in potential of E-B junction is 0.757 V, then
the maximum magnitude of the electric field in the Common Data For Q.55 to 56
E-B depletion region is ___________ × 104 V/cm. An npn silicon bipolar transistor has a base doping
concentration of NB = 1017 cm–3, a collector doping
51. In a particular bipolar transistor, the base transit time
concentration of NC = 1016 cm–3, a metallurgical base
is 20 percent of the total delay time. The base width
width of 1.1 m and a base minority carrier diffusion
is 0.5 m and the base diffusion coefficient is
coefficient of DB = 20 cm2/s. The transistor is biased in
DB = 20 cm2/s. The cutoff frequency, fT will be
the forward-active region with VBE = 0.60 V. If VCB changes
_______ MHz.
from 1 V to 5 V then answer the follwoing.
Common Data For Q. 52 to 54
55. The corresponding change in the neutral base width
Consider the npn transistor shown in figure.
will be _________ m.
S
IB/2 Emitter IB/2
Base
Collector
x =0 x B x =S/2