Management Leadership in Education - U1

UNIT 1 A
What is administration?
Unit 1
EED 214/05
Management and Leadership
in Education
What is
Administration?
B WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
EED 214/05 Management and Leadership in Education
COURSE TEAM
Course Team Coordinator: Mr Khoo Chiew Keen
Course Writers: Dr Soaib Asimiran and Professor Dr Abdul Rahman Md Aroff
Instructional Designer: Ms Marnisya Abdul Rahim
Academic Members: Dr Malachi Edwin Vethamani and Kasthoori Bai a/p Munusamy Naidu
COURSE COORDINATOR
Mr S. Vighnarajah
EXTERNAL COURSE ASSESSOR

Professor Dr Zaidatol Akmaliah Lope Pihie, Universiti Putra Malaysia
PRODUCTION
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© 2010 Wawasan Open University
First revision 2012
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UNIT 1 C
Contents
Unit 1 What is Administration?
Course overview 1
Unit overview 3
Unit objectives 3
1.1 Theories of educational management 5
Objectives 5
Introduction 5
Definition of management 5
Definition of administration 6
Definition of leadership 6
Models of educational management 7

Formal models 7
Collegial models 8
Political models 10
Subjective models 11
Ambiguity models 12
Cultural models 14
Models of educational leadership 15

Managerial model 15
Participative model 15
Transformational model 15
Transactional model 16
Contigency model 16
Instructional model 16
Suggested answers to activities 17
1.2 Administration and responsibilities of 19

administrators
Objectives 19
Introduction 19
D WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
Administration 19
Policy making in administration 19
Key elements of schools 20

Schools as an organisation 20
Schools as a social system 21
Schools and the environment 24
Policy making process 25

Governance 25
Decision making 27
Models of decision making in administration 28

Classical model of decision making 28
Incremental model of decision making 29
Mixed-scanning model of decision making 29
Administrative model of decision making 30
Administrative skills 32
Roles of school administrators 32

Interpersonal roles 32
Informational roles 32
Decisional roles 33
1.3 Leadership and management 35
Objectives 35
Introduction 35
Leading and managing people 35
Key concepts in management 37

Decentralisation and self-management 38
Centralisation 38
Culture 38
Managing for performance 39

Leading 39
Motivating 40
Mentoring and coaching 41
Professional development 42
Time management 43
UNIT 1 E
Efficiency 43
Effectiveness 44
Summary of Unit 1 49
Unit practice exercise 51
Suggested answers to self-tests 55
Suggested answers to unit practice exercise 57
References 59
F WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
UNIT 1 1
Course Overview
anagement and Leadership in Education is a five-credit, one semester course,
M designed to expose you to the basic concepts of excellent leadership characteristics
in schools in relation to realising and developing the potential of personal leadership.
This course introduces you to management approaches, functions, concepts and
principles of management in education.
By the end of the course, you should be able to:
1. Explain the meaning of administration, management and leadership with

confidence and professionalism.
2. Apply management approaches and functions of management in educational

settings.
3. Utilise the managerial skills and attributes in appropriate workplace

situations.
4. Differentiate various leadership theories, styles, and models suitable for the
management of educational organisations.
5. Discuss the key elements of leadership characteristics, styles, functions and

models suitable for educational organisations.
6. Illustrate the characteristics of effective and successful educational institution.
7. Lead in the management of appropriate educational settings.
8. Display professionalism and accountability in the management of work-

related situations.
9. Organise appropriately a variety of tasks which require the integration of

management and leadership skills.
10. Relate to educational institution reform and changes.
11. Create and justify teamwork in workplace situations.

2 WAWASAN OPEN UNIVERSITY
UNIT 1 3
Unit Overview
U nit 1 introduces the meaning of administration and the key concepts in

educational management and leadership. You are introduced to the concepts of
educational management, administration and leadership. You are also introduced
to the differences between management and leadership as well as the process in the
management of educational institutions. Several theoretical models of educational
management are defined. Key managerial skills and attributes, time management
and roles of administrators in educational institutions are also discussed in this unit.
Unit Objectives
By the end of Unit 1, you should be able to:
1. Explain administration, management and leadership.
2. Differentiate the concepts of management and leadership.
3. Describe key elements in school administration.
4. Discuss various theoretical models of educational management.
5. Identify roles of administrators in educational institutions.
6. Examine skills and attributes of administrators.
7. Utilise suitable skills in simulated and work-related situations.

UNIT 1 5
1.1 Theories of Educational

Management
Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
1. Explain what is meant by administration, management and leadership.
2. Discuss how management is different from leadership.
3. Describe the various theoretical models of educational management.
Introduction
This section will introduce the theories of educational management. Management
and leadership are two significant activities that have received great attention
and focus for the purpose of achieving the educational aims of the educational
institutions. Generally, these two concepts are linked with educational management.
There is no single generally accepted definition of educational management. Its
development has been drawn from several disciplines: sociology, political science,
economics and general management. In short, educational management is a field of
study and practice concerned with the operations, functions and overall management
of educational organisations (Bush 2003).
Definition of management
Management is a continuous process through which members of an organisation seek to
coordinate their activities and utilise their resources in order to fulfill the various tasks
of the organisation as efficiently as possible (Hoyle 1981, 8). Management also refers
carrying out the executive functions in line with the agreed predetermined policy
made by the relevant authority. It concerns the operations of the organisation
especially the management of educational resources and its relationship with the
environment. Above all, management in principle concerns the purpose or aims of
education (Bush and Middlewood 2005, 3).
Definition of administration
In this subsection, we will define administration from the perspective of school
administration. School administration is defined as a process of working with and
through others to accomplish school goals effectively and efficiently (Sergiovanni,
Kelleher, McCarthy and Fowler 2009, 52). Administration is linked with formal
position in the organisational structure. For the school principal for example, his
or her job is
to coordinate, direct, and support the work of others by defining objectives, evaluating
performance, providing organisational resources, building a supportive psychological
climate, running interference with parents, planning, scheduling, bookkeeping,
resolving teacher conflicts, handling student problems, placating the central office,
and otherwise helping to make things go. (Ibid, 52)
All these activities refer to the normal behaviour associated with a principal’s job.
Leaders are always proactive, shape ideas, motivate followers, establish goals and
directions, and influence others to think outside the box. Administration is also
related to policy.
Definition of leadership
On the other hand, leadership has three significant characteristics comprising
influence, values and vision (Bush 2003). Leadership involves influence because it
is not directly linked with structural position or rooted in authority. Influence has
no direct relationship with formal position and it plays a pivotal role to convince
others to achieve an intentional purpose especially in the achievement of agreed
goals. Leadership when should be based on personal and professional values. What is
important is the unification of followers around certain key values acceptable to the
organisation. Another crucial character is, leadership should provide the development
and articulation of organisational vision which is crucial for organisational success.
There are several models of educational management that can be learned in the
management of educational organisations. Bush (2003) has outlined six different
models and these models serve as the underpinning theoretical basis to help us
understand what educational management is.
Reading
Please read Chapters 1 and 2 of the book entitled Theories of

Educational Leadership and Management by Tony Bush (2003).
UNIT 1 7
Models of educational management

We will now discuss models of educational management. Models are essential
concepts to explain theories in practice and as such Bush (2003) has classified
educational management into six different models. These models include formal,
collegial, political, subjective, ambiguity, and cultural. Let us look at some of the
models of educational management.
Formal models
In simple terms, formal models assume that organisations are built around hierarchical
systems whereby managers use rational means to pursue the predetermined
agreed goals that have been decided by the organisation. Formal positions in the
organisational structure allow the holder of the position to exercise the legitimised
authority over the subordinates and as such the subordinates are required to follow
the decisions made by the superior. Bush (2003, 37 – 38) highlighted seven features
that characterise the formal models. These features are as follows:
1. Organisations are represented as systems because they are linked with others,
both inside and outside the organisations, and formally such links are
exemplified in the functioning of the organisations. A university, for example,
is regarded as an open system and although it maintains a definite boundary
(having its own constitution), it is related to a larger environment (we have
in Malaysia the Ministry of Higher Education) and it makes exchanges with
the environment. Even in schools, we can see that there are several sub-units
of subjects that are functioning together to achieve the schools’ aims through
their interactions with each other.
2. Official structures prevail and are portrayed through organisational charts,

by which formal positions are arranged according to one’s position to
represent a pattern of relationships between members of the organisation.
In schools and other educational organisations, there are organisational
charts to portray official structures.
3. Official structures are hierarchical and the emphasis is on vertical relationships

between positions. The hierarchical structures legalised the control function
of the superior over those being supervised. As an example, in school we
can see that the school principal is positioned at the top of the organisational
chart and has control over the school teachers. This is the same for
relationships between staff, for example the senior clerks with other office
staff. The same applies in other office structures where you will see the head
positioned at the top of organisational charts.
4. Educational organisations have goals and therefore they are regarded as

goal-seeking organisations. In Malaysia, we can see that schools are expected
to develop both students’ academic capability and nurture them to meet the
goal of becoming well rounded individuals as envisaged through the national
education philosophy.
5. Decision making in educational organisations are made through rational

process, and is derived after an intellectual process of decision-making
whereby decisions are weight against the aims to achieve organisational
goals. Normally, there are individuals who are invited or officially appointed
to participate in the decision-making process, for example through
committees, and decisions are considered to be objective and impartial.
6. Authority in the organisational function is represented through official

position and therefore leaders are considered to have such authority based
on their official positions in the organisation. School principals are assumed
to have the authority over the teachers due to their official positions as
arranged in the schools’ structure.
7. Educational organisations are accountable to their sponsoring agencies

or funding bodies. Accountability means that educational organisations
are answerable to the bodies that are funding them. In Malaysia, public
schools are funded by the Ministry of Education (MOE). Therefore, these
schools are accountable to the MOE.
Activity 1.1
Give an example of a formal model by presenting its organisational

structure and describing its key features.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Collegial models
The collegial models are regarded as more appropriate for educational organisations
because decision-making does not rest on an individual, but it should be shared
together with the members of the organisations. The collegial principles emphasise
on consensual decision-making and decisions are derived after a process of discussion
with some or all members of the organisation, who are assumed to have a common
understanding about the aims of the organisation (Bush 2003). Bush describes
five common features of the collegial models and we shall now discuss each of the
features in turn.
1. The first feature relates to the normative nature of the decision-making

approach. Normative means that it is believed that decision-making should
be made through democratic principles because agreement among members
of the organisation is crucial to the achievement of organisational goals.
In schools for example, it is believed that decisions should be made through
a participative process among the teachers. However, this may not be true
in practice.
UNIT 1 9
2. The models also favour full participation of the school community in the
decision-making process through power sharing. Teachers are professional
staff belonging to the community of intellectuals and are said to have the
authority of expertise through their professional knowledge and skills rather
than on the official positions in the organisational chart.
3. Members of the organisations are assumed to have a common set of values,

shared together to achieve the agreed educational goals. Teachers have
common values in schools focusing on teaching as their core activities, and
together they try to achieve the educational objectives.
4. Another salient feature of the collegial models relate to formal representation

and size. There will be individuals appointed to participate in the decision
making process through committees as determined by the institution. In
school, for example, we have a management committee whereby only
those involved in the administrative functions are invited to participate in
the meetings. The size of the committee is limited and it is sufficient to
explain that decisions made reflect the interests of various groups represented
by those in the committee structure.
5. An important feature of the collegial models rests on the assumption that

decisions are derived through consensus. Common set of values, shared
vision and objectives become the guiding principle and decisions are derived
out of agreement and compromises among the teachers, for examples,
although there might be conflicts. There will be arguments during the process
of decision-making, but these arguments provide for better decision-making.
Finally, the most favourable options will be adopted by the decision makers
as they are considered to be beneficial to the achievement of the organisational
goals.
Activity 1.2
What is the main difference between the collegial models and the
formal models?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Political models
The political models are based on three underlying theories; conflict theory,
community power theory, and interest group theory (Baldridge 1971). As an
institution, educational organisations are considered as complex organisations.
They are fractured into several competing interest groups or power blocs and Bush
(2003) regards the decision-making in educational organisations as a result of a
bargaining and negotiation process. Other scholars (Ball 1987; Hoyle 1999) as cited
in Bush have described educational organisations as “micropolitics”. Politically, many
bargaining processes occur within the organisations and politics influence the nature
of organisational functioning.
It is assumed that conflicts happen in educational organisations whether they are

universities or colleges or schools. These conflicts between groups can be termed
as politics. There are six common features that learners need to understand about
politics in organisations. These are listed as follows:
It is assumed that organisations are coalitions comprised of a variety of individuals and

diverse interest groups, and coalitions are formed because of interdependence among
the individuals and groups. Therefore, the focus is on group activity. They need each
other, although their interests and preferences may collide. Political approaches form
the major activities whereby groups will manoeuvre against each other for political
benefits, thus emphasising groups’ supremacy as opposed to institutional success.
However, ultimately, the groups will negotiate towards achieving an equilibrium
point of compromise.
1. The major concern of the political models is on interests and interest groups.
Differences exist among individuals and groups in terms of beliefs, values,
preferences, information and perceptions of reality. Individuals pursue
individual goals, but it is more beneficial if certain individuals form a
group that have common interests and pursue such group’s goals. Therefore,
in such conditions politics will be more visible and dominant. Bush (2003)
also argued that differences between groups can lead to fragmentation
affecting organisational unity.
2. Conflicts are central to organisational dynamics due to enduring differences

and scarce resources especially when financial assistance is becoming more
stringent due to criteria in budget allocation. Political activities are more
prevalent because individuals and groups will compete to get what they
want. Thus, power becomes the most important element, and the distribution
of resources for example and decisions made will reflect the outcome of the
political activities among the major players in the organisations.
3. The political models also assume that organisational goals are unstable,
ambiguous and contested (Bush 2003, 93). Organisational goals and
decisions are derived as a result of a process of bargaining, negotiation, and
politicking for position among the major players in the organisational
system, and it is not a simple decision made by those at the top (Bolman and
Deal 1991). These activities are illustrated by individuals and groups because
they have their own purposes and will act to ensure that their purposes are
UNIT 1 11
accomplished, which sometimes are in contrast between individuals’, groups’

and organisational goals.
4. Decision making is the outcome of a process of bargaining and negotiation.

It has to go through several stages before decisions are derived. Normally,
individuals and groups will pursue their interests, form coalition and
influence the decision-making process. Finally, although decisions have been
made through the process of bargaining and negotiation, they will not
resolve the problems or issues at hand, but will provide another avenue for
future negotiations especially by those unsuccessful individuals or groups.
5. Power is the foundation of politics. The final outcome of the political

activities determines who has more power, and as such the dominant
individuals and groups are more likely to gain the needed power. Therefore, to
solve many of the organisational problems, a political interpretation is
necessary whereby it sets the stage for power manipulations and struggles
in decision-making activities (Bolman and Deal 1991).
Activity 1.3
Identify the various groups in your workplace.

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Subjective models
Subjective models focus on individuals because each individual has a subjective and
selective perception of the organisation and organisations are indeed the creations of the
people within them (Bush 2003,113). It is normal to assume that different people
bring with them different perceptions and interpretations due to differences in
their background or experiences or upbringing, thus these will bring about different
meanings to them. According to Bush, there are five significant features related to
the subjective models.
1. The subjective models stress on the importance of individual’s beliefs and

perceptions, thus the focus is on individual rather than on the institution. As
an individual, the goal is to satisfy an individual’s aims, such as to get
promotion, rewards, and other individual benefits.
2. Meanings become the primary concern because people bring with them
their own perceptions and interpretations. Each individual has his or her
own interpretation of what is seen or is experienced that may not be the
same with other interpretation. Therefore, their interpretations and
behaviour will bring about different meanings although they are looking at
the same event.
3. Values, background and experience will produce different meanings. We all

come from different backgrounds. So, interpretations derived reflect different
values, background and experience. Sometimes, these can lead to conflicts
because it is normal as in the political models that conflicts can emerge as
a result of competing values between individuals.
4. Structure in the organisation is regarded as a result of human interactions

and is not fixed or predetermined (Bush, 2003, 117). The organisational
chart is just portraying the organisation. However, human behaviour and
interactions can lead to change regardless of what is shown in the
organisational chart.
5. The emphasis on goals is on the individual goals as opposed to organisational

goals. It is viewed that individuals have and will pursue individual’s goals.
As a teacher, the aim is to get promotion when the promotion is due.
Regardless of what transpired in the organisation, individual aim will focus
on getting promotion.
Activity 1.4
What are the important features of subjective models?

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Ambiguity models
The ambiguity models assume that organisations are unpredictable and their
objectives are not easily understood. Educational organisations are complex
organisations. There are nine common features that can explain the model.
1. Organisational goals are ambiguous and inconsistent. In schools for example,

teachers pursue individuals’ goals as opposed to organisational goals. Teachers
aim for promotion, while schools have goals either to achieve good
examination results, or good in sports, or produce disciplined students, or
good in everything.
2. Educational organisations have problematic technology and their processes

are not easily understood. Teachers can teach, but what the students learn
can only be seen through examinations and how they learn is not clear. It
is not like producing goods where the process is the same for all products.
UNIT 1 13
3. Educational organisations are also fragmented and divided into several

groups. They are loose coupling organisations. It is like having many families
and their relationships are made official based on their existence as members
of the organisation.
4. The organisational structure of educational organisations is problematic

and unlike the formal model, the structural relationships may overlap because
power is distributed among the members. School principals may have power
over the teachers, but there are expert teachers who have superior knowledge
in their fields as compared with the principals.
5. Educational organisations are viewed as client-serving organisations. Teachers

in schools are basically giving their services to fulfil the needs and expectations
of the students. Teachers are considered professionals who serve to respond
to the needs of the students.
6. The participation of the members in the decision-making process is fluid,

meaning that teachers, involvement in many activities is dependent on their
available time and the effort put in to participate.
7. Schools as educational organisations are susceptible to their environment.

There are communities, parents, government agencies and many other
organisations around schools. Therefore, they are open to external
environment and have to react and respond to the external pressures.
8. Decisions in educational organisations are unplanned because unlike the

formal models which assume that decisions are derived through rational
process, in the ambiguity models decisions are not necessarily made through
rational process. There are decisions that have to be made based on the merit
of the case or situation and not necessarily based on official decision-making
bodies.
9. Decentralisation of decision making is emphasised because educational

organisations are complex and unpredictable, and decisions are better made
at the sub-units and individual levels. Teaching activities are good examples.
How teachers teach and what teachers should do in class, are left to the
teachers to decide.
Activity 1.5
Identify the advantages and disadvantages of the ambiguity models.

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Cultural models
The final educational model discussed by Bush (2003) is the cultural models. Morgan
(1997) and Beare, Caldwell and Milikan (1989) have also mentioned the cultural
models in educational organisations. The cultural models assume that beliefs, values
and ideology are at the heart of organisations (Bush, 2003, 156). These informal
components of the organisations are dominant as opposed to structural components
of the organisations. Rituals and symbols are prevalent as culture and these make the
organisations have unique qualities as reflected through shared meanings among the
members in the organisations. There are four major characteristics of the cultural
models.
1. The cultural models focus on the values and beliefs of the members of the
organisations. You can see that there are values and beliefs that become the
underlying component that shape the attitudes and behaviours of the
members in your work place. Normally, these beliefs and values are shared
by the members and are translated into actions and behaviours.
2. Shared norms and meanings are translated into organisational culture because
it is assumed that the members will interact in ways that eventually lead to
a common behaviour that is acceptable to the organisation. In the short term,
it becomes the norms and over time it becomes the culture of the organisation.
3. Beliefs and norms are expressed through rituals and ceremonies throughout
the organisation. We always celebrate the school success in sports or
examination results. Schools also organise an annual prize giving day.
4. The existence of heroes and heroines is accepted because heroes and heroines
are those members who have achieved certain accomplishments and have
carried with them the values, beliefs and ideology that fit with the
organisational culture. There are excellent teachers who become our school
heroes and there are also students who represent the country in various
activities, and there are also former students who have excelled in their
careers whom the school is proud of.
Activity 1.6
Illustrate the characteristics of the cultural models.

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
UNIT 1 15
Models of educational leadership

Several types of educational leadership can be identified in the literature. If educational
management is concerned with operations of the organisation with the purpose of
achieving educational goals, educational leadership is concerned with the leadership
functions to ensure that behaviours of the members of the organisation will lead to
the achievement of educational goals (Bush, 2003). This section will discuss eight of
the educational leadership models. You are advised to read again the book by Bush.
Managerial model
The managerial model of educational leadership is closely associated with the

formal model because leaders in educational organisations should ensure that
they focus on the managerial functions in the organisations to promote students’
learning. School principals, for example, have to lead the organisation to achieve
the organisational goals. There are seven managerial functions including goal-
setting, needs identification, priority-setting, planning, budgeting, implementing,
and evaluating (Caldwell, 1992, cited in Bush 2003, 55). As principals, they have
goals to accomplish and they are entrusted to carry their duties to achieve the
predetermined goals.
Participative model
Participative leadership is closely related to the collegiate models because it assumes

that decision-making process invites participation from the members of the
organisation. In schools, for example, teachers’ participation will increase effective
decision-making and enhances bonding among the teachers and at the same time
lessens the burden of making decision solely on the school principal.
Transformational model
Transformational leadership is another model that is related to the collegial models,

whereby the leaders and followers share common values and interests (Bush, 2003).
Principals as we have seen in schools are usually proactive, raise the awareness levels
of teachers and help the teachers to perform at their maximum performance.. They are
viewed as transformational leaders because they manage to gain the commitment
from the teachers, provide the vision and goals, provide intellectual stimulation, offer
individual support, demonstrate high performance expectations, create productive
culture, and develop workable structure for decision-making (Bush, 2003) in the
schools.
Transactional model
Transactional model is related to the political models and transactional leaders

motivate followers by exchanging rewards for services rendered (Hoy and Miskel
2005, 396). School principals have the authority based on formal positions and hold
the power to reward teachers, for example for promotion. Therefore, they have the
power to recommend teachers for promotion.
Contingency model
The contingency model is a model that puts the emphasis on leaders to adapt an
appropriate style that fits a particular situation as opposed to adapting a model that
fits all situations (Bush, 2003). School principals have to respond to the unique
nature of the circumstances faced, and therefore they must be able to use a different
style of leadership depending on the situation faced.
Instructional model
Instructional leadership is more concerned with teaching and learning, and this
emphasis makes it different from other models of leadership. This model focuses
on the core activities of educational organisations, teaching and learning. Several
authors as cited in Bush (2003), 16; Hallinger and Murphy (1985); Blasé and Blasé,
(1998); Southworth 2002) have listed the strategies consistent with this model.
School principals have to play the roles of instructional leaders.
Self-test 1.1
Answer the following question using your own words. Please do

not look at the suggested answer at the end of the unit until you
have completed this self-test.
Define management and leadership.
Summary
This section discussed the definitions of leadership and management

and the differences between these two concepts. The link between
management, administration and leadership is also highlighted.
The various models of educational management as well as eight
different models of educational leadership have also been presented.
UNIT 1 17
Suggested answers to activities
Feedback
Activity 1.1
Schools subscribe to the formal model and hence an example of a

school organisational chart will illustrate its key features.
Activity 1.2
Formal models focus on system while collegial models focus on

consensual agreement among members.
Activity 1.3
In school we can identify teachers according to their teaching

subject, ethnic background, cultural background, and position in
the organisational chart.
Activity 1.4
The important features of subjective models are individual’s beliefs

and perceptions, meanings, values, background and experience,
structure and individual goals.
Activity 1.5
Advantages: Decentralisation of decision-making is emphasised;

able to react to external environment.
Disadvantages: Goals are ambiguous; organisations are also

fragmented; decisions are unplanned
Activity 1.6
Four major characteristics: focus on the values and beliefs; shared

norms and meanings are translated into organisational culture;
rituals and ceremonies reflect norms and beliefs; existence of heroes
and heroines is accepted.
UNIT 1 19
1.2 Administration and Responsibilities

of Administrators
Objectives
1. Describe the key elements in school administration.
2. Identify the roles of administrators in educational institutions.
3. Examine and discuss the skills and attributes of administrators.
Introduction
This section will define administration and describe the responsibilities of
administrators in educational organisations. Key elements in school administration
are presented, theoretical models of educational management, and the roles of
administrators in educational institutions are highlighted and the skills and attributes
of administrators are discussed.
Administration
The administration of an educational organisation is crucial because educational
organisations are among the largest organisations in terms of size and number in
many countries.
Policy making in administration
Policy making is always coined with establishing mission statements, guidelines, general
regulations, and mandates. Policy makers will assume the role of creating policy and
once the policy has been determined, the professionals will implement the policy.
Policy in practice is defined as policy in use (Sergiovanni, Kelleher, McCarthy and
Fowler 2009, 51).
Policy in use refers to
policy that is created as guidelines are interpreted, mandated characteristics are

weighted, differential priorities are assigned, action theories are applied, and ideas
come to life in the form of implementing decisions and professional practice (Ibid, 51).
As an example, the central agency, the Ministry of Education creates a policy and
gives directions for the schools to implement such policy. Administrative actions
will translate the policy into activities that are consistent with the policy made.
Reading
You are encouraged to read the following article to enrich your

understanding on policy making:
‘Internationalisation of higher education: A case study of policy

adjustment strategy in Malaysia’,
http://infonomics-society.org/IJCDSE/Internationalization%20
of%20Higher%20Education_%20A%20Case%20Study%20
of%20Policy%20Adjustment%20Strategy%20in%20Malaysia.pdf
Key elements of schools

In this subsection, four key elements of schools will be discussed. The four elements
are as follows:
1. Schools as an organisation
2. Schools as a social system
3. Structure in schools
4. Schools and the environment
Schools as an organisation
Schools are basically organisations that are established for the purpose of teaching
and learning (Hoy and Miskel 2005). The main aim of educational organisations
such as schools is to enhance and promote students’ learning. Schools are places
where students should be able to expand their capacities as individuals, creative and
innovative, encouraged to think critically, develop collective aspirations and nurture
soft skills required for self-development. Therefore, schools as organisations have
an ultimate goal to show that they are committed to teaching and learning. This
commitment shows that schools are basically learning organisation.
Life in schools as learning organisations should be supported by several features as

follows:
1. Have structure elements to support school activities.

UNIT 1 21
2. Teaching and learning as core activities.
3. Have organisational cultures.
4. Have individuals to support the core activities.
5. Leadership functions to enhance organisational performance.
6. Adaptive and responsive to changes.
Schools as a social system
In the previous section, we have been introduced to several educational models.

According to the systems approach, schools belong to a bigger system, thus they
are regarded as open organisations, belonging to the open social systems (Hoy and
Miskel 2005). There are five important elements that support the systems argument:
the structural; the individual; the cultural; the political and the pedagogical. The
functioning of schools is supported by the interactions of the five elements. In order
to get a deeper understanding of the topic, learners are advised to read Chapter 1 of
the book by Hoy and Miskel (2005) Educational Administration  Theory, Research
and Practice.
Organisations such as schools and even colleges and universities are made up of a
coalition of shifting interest groups that develop goals by negotiation; the structure of
the coalition, its activities, and its outcomes are strongly influenced by environmental
factors.
(Scott 1981, 22–23)
In this system, the boundaries are relatively permeable, and this permits interactions
to occur between the environment and the elements that make up the system.
Below are some of the properties that show that schools are open systems (Hoy and
Miskel 2005, 20 – 22).
1. As open systems, schools are concerned with structure and process, and there
are proper arrangements on roles and their relationships.
2. Subscribing to the economic arguments, the systems have inputs from the
environment (people, materials, and finances), transformation process, and
outputs in the form of services that are given back to the environment.
3. As systems, schools have boundaries, to which show that they are

differentiated from the environment. The environment is anything that
resides outside the schools.
The key elements of the school as a social system comprise the following (Hoy and
Miskel 2005, 23 – 26):
1. Structure shows the various positions emphasising the bureaucratic nature

of schools whereby the position of principals, teachers and students is
delineated to reflect the expectations related to the position.
2. The organisation is formed up by the presence of individuals in the official

structure, who basically have individual needs and beliefs. At the same time,
these individuals are assumed to understand what are expected from their
roles.
3. Culture reflected through shared values, norms, beliefs, and ways of thinking
binds the members of the organisation.
4. Politics is inescapable because there will be members who are power seekers
and will strive through political means by mobilising and articulating their
interests to secure more power.
Therefore, to understand the life of educational organisations, we have to look at

them from various perspectives.
Structure in schools
The structure of organisations such as schools refers to the collective ways of

organising the activities through division of labour. Structure is commonly
linked with bureaucracy. Below is an example of a chart depicting a bureaucratic
organisation.
Principal
Senior Teacher
Senior Teacher 1 (Students) Senior Teacher
(Administration) (Student Affairs) (Co-curriculum)
Figure 1.1 Organisational structure of a secondary school

UNIT 1 23
The bureaucratic theories of Max Weber dominates the bureaucratic model

which focuses on hierarchies, tied together by formal chains of command and
communication; on organisational goals; on predetermined rules and regulations;
and on maximising efficiency. Weber (1921) as cited in Ritzer (1996, 128) argued
that bureaucracy is “the purest type of exercise of legal authority”. In this sense,
authority is legitimised rationally by enacted rules and those elevated to authority
by rules may issue commands, which have to be obeyed by those on the receiving
sides. Weber added that,
“From a purely technical point of view, a bureaucracy is capable of attaining

the highest degree of efficiency, and is in this sense formally the most rational
known means of exercising authority over human beings. It is superior to any
other form in precision, in stability, in the stringency of its discipline, and in
its reliability”.
(Weber, 1921, quoted in Ritzer, 1996, p. 128)
However, bureaucratic structure has several weaknesses (Hoy and Miskel 2005, 87)
including:
1. Although it can produce expertise through division of labour, it can lead to

boredom. Highly bureaucratic organisations have experienced boredom
among their employees due to specialisation.
2. It tends to neglect the informal organisation. Although it may improve

rational decision-making, it may impede humanistic aspects of interactions,
which can lead to low morale.
3. Hierarchy of authority enhances disciplined compliance and coordination,

but it can block communication because subordinates may refuse to speak
up on anything to portray the goodness of their doings.
4. Rules and regulations ensure continuity and uniformity, but they can also
lead to organisational rigidity and goal displacement.
5. Career orientation induces members’ loyalty to the organisation and

motivates them to maximise efforts, but may create conflicts because
promotion, for example, may be made based on achievement rather than
seniority.
Schools and the environment
The environment is defined as everything that is outside the organisation (Hoy

and Miskel 2005, 29). Since schools are open systems as discussed in the previous
section, their boundaries become ambiguous, allowing the environment to penetrate
the school environment. Environmental factors affect schools in many ways. The
stakeholders including parents, taxpayers, government agencies, regulatory agencies,
political organisations, non-governmental groups, accrediting agencies, colleges
and universities, associations, and alumni are examples of interested groups and
individuals that have influence on the functioning of schools. An example of schools’
relationship with the environment is shown below:
Ministry of Higher
Education
District
Parents Education
Department
Taxpayers and
Political Schools interested
organizations individuals
Ministry of
Education Educational
Associations
Colleges and
Teachers universities
associations
Figure 1.2 Relationship of schools with stakeholders
As a social system, the environment provides inputs to schools in the forms of

human and capital resources, environmental constraints, materials and methods,
equipment, and missions and policies. These resources are turned into outputs
through a transformation process. The transformation process comprises teaching
and learning that are influenced by four internal systems that exist in the schools.
These internal systems are made up of the structural system, the cultural system,
the political system, and the individual system.
The structural system translates bureaucratic expectations through official positions

and division of tasks, while the cultural system reflects the shared values and norms
that are prevalent in the functioning of the schools. The political system, on the
other hand, exemplifies the power relations in the organisation. The individual
system reflects the individual cognition and motivation.
Outputs are shown in various forms. Achievement of the students is the prime output,
while the members’ job satisfaction is the other outcome of the system. Students
drop out rate and absenteeism may become two other outputs.
UNIT 1 25
Activity 1.7
List three stakeholders according to their importance in influencing

school leadership.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Policy making process

Governance
Policy making is related to governance. The word governance is derived from the
Latin verb gubernare, which means to steer (Pierre and Peter 2000) and it is open
to various interpretations (Gayle et al., 2003). At times its conceptualisation is
ambiguous although its usage in the current period is gaining popularity (Keller
2001).
An organisation’s direction is influenced by the way it is governed and because

educational organisations are complex organisations, the structures and processes
are complicated and it is therefore significant that all stakeholders involved in
governance have to perform their functions wisely. Governance as defined here is
a critical process and the organisational success depends on it. Governance sits at
the heart of any success or failure in the organisational effort.
It is also important to point out that there is a distinction between governance and
management. As educational organisations are getting more complex and more
interconnected with the larger society, involving many more participants, the
boundary between governance and management has become blurred. Governance
is distinct from management and as explained by Tricker (1984),
The governance role is not concerned with running the business of the company, per
se, but with giving overall direction to the enterprise, with overseeing and controlling
the executive actions of management and with satisfying legitimate expectation
for accountability and regulation by interests beyond corporate boundaries. If
management is about running business, governance is about seeing that it is run
properly (p.6 – 7).
Since education in Malaysia is a federal matter, policy is determined by the central

agencies and for the education sector, two ministries are currently the main policy
makers, namely the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education.
Education also has the proper structure at the state level and the district level and
each has the appropriate roles related to policy making. In this sense, public policy
shapes the directions of our education system. Policy can be defined as any substantive
decision or action by local, state, or federal education officials designed to affect the
educational organisations, schools, colleges and universities (Sergiovanni, Kelleher,
McCarthy and Fowler 2009, 1).
Policy can be regarded as instruments that guide organisations. It can be divided into
four categories (Sergiovanni, Kelleher, McCarthy and Fowler 2009): as mandates,
as capacity-building strategies, as inducements, and as system changing-strategies.
1. Mandates refer to the rules and regulations that require direct adherence
to create uniformity, reduce variation and provide minimum standards for
requirement. Here, action is required regardless of the organisation’s capacity
because compliance is the main emphasis.
2. Inducements are the exchange of money, status, and other benefits to

educators and schools in return for desired choices and actions (p. 4). The
assumptions are additional money is needed to motivate members to
consistently perform better, and individuals have different capacity to
produce. It is assumed that money will elicit higher performance.
3. Capacity building refers to the investment of financial resources to develop

the required knowledge and skills for future usage. It is assumed that capacity
building is a requirement to enable members of the organisation such as
teachers to produce the desired performance.
4. The fourth category is the system-changing. System-changing seeks to

bring about desired choices and actions by the reallocation of power and
authority among those involved (p. 4), because it is assumed that existing
current arrangement of incentives will not be able to produce the desired
outcomes.
Examples of educational policies in Malaysia
Here are some of the major policies that have been made in our education system.
1. The Malay language as the main medium of instruction from primary to

university education
2. A standard national curriculum for schools
3. Standard national examinations for primary and secondary schools
4. Centralised educational administration
5. English as Second Language for schools
6. Minimisation of school dropouts
7. Meritocracy in higher education

UNIT 1 27
8. Vision schools
9. Integrated school curriculum
10. Use of English in the instruction of Science and Mathematics
Activity 1.8
In your opinion, should the government abolish public examinations?

Discuss and suggest an alternative.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Reading
You are encouraged to read the following article to enrich your

understanding on policy making:
‘Decision making quality of higher education institutions leaders in

Malaysia: Leadership style, decision style, managerial process and
competitive intensity relationships’,
http://www.nikmaheran.com/v2/attachments/040_NIK%20
MAHERAN-Quality%20Decision%20Making.pdf
Decision making
Administration involves the process of working with and through others and in
schools, administration involves teachers, senior teachers and principals, aims to
achieve educational success both in academic results and students’ development.
Planning, organising, leading, and controlling are the four core functions in
administration (Sergiovanni, Kelleher, McCarthy and Fowler 2009, 65).
1. Planning involves setting goals and objectives for the school, and developing
blueprints and strategies for implementation.
2. Organising requires bringing together the factors of production including

human resources, financial resources, and physical resources to produce the
services in an effective and efficient manner.
3. The leader’s role is to lead by providing guidance and proper supervision to

the subordinates. The plan that has been developed has to be implemented.
As such motivation induces members to perform, expectation has to
be guided by proper supervision, and directions are communicated to the
subordinates.
4. Controlling involves the process of evaluating the operations by reviewing,

monitoring and controlling performance, giving feedbacks, and comparing
the current achievement with the desired outcomes.
Models of decision making in administration

Decision making is the major responsibility of administrators. Hoy and Miskel
(2005) argue that decision making in schools can be made through several models:
the classical model; the incremental model; the mixed-scanning model; and the
administrative model. Each of the models is discussed in turn.
Classical model of decision making
The classical model rests on the classical decision theory, which emphasises that
decisions should be made through rational decision-making process. The aim is to
optimise the best decision to achieve organisational goals. There are seven steps to
be followed during the decision-making process.
1. A problem is identified.
2. Goals and objectives are established.
3. All the possible alternatives are generated.
4. The consequences of each alternative are considered.
5. All the alternatives are evaluated in terms of the goals and objectives.
6. The best alternative is selected  that is, the one that maximises the goals
and objectives.
7. Finally, the decision is implemented and evaluated (Hoy and Miskel 2005,
300).
This model of decision making is an ideal model because in real practice, it is difficult
to come up with all possible alternatives and the consequences of each alternative.
The assumption is that administrators will not have all the information although it
can be very useful in practice if we could adhere to the steps mentioned above. We
shall now look at the incremental model of decision making.
UNIT 1 29
Incremental model of decision making
The incremental model of decision making rests on incremental strategy of decision-

making.
This model has several features that you can follow:
1. The setting of objectives and the generation of alternatives are not separate
activities. You should develop goals and objectives prior to decision-making
activities. However, your goals and objectives might change as decision
evolves.
2. The incremental model reduces the number of alternatives. You should

consider only those alternatives that are very similar to the current situation.
This will limit options and will make decision-making more manageable.
3. During analysis you should focus on the differences between the existing
situation and the proposed alternatives.
4. Make comparison between theory and practical alternatives.
In this model, it is assumed that in complex situations, decision makers will be able
to make better decisions if they can successfully compare practical alternatives with
the theoretical analysis. Decision makers, who manage to limit alternatives available
to them, will be able to come up with better predictions on the consequences of
decisions made.
Now try to relate this model to a situation in your organisation and visualise a
decision-making process that requires a small set of alternatives.
Mixed-scanning model of decision making
The mixed-scanning model of decision making is also known as adaptive model of

decision making. It rests on the assumption that decision makers encounter pressure
to make decisions and are constrained by limited time. They only have partial
information to make decisions.
Two sets of questions (Hoy and Miskel 2005, 314) are asked by the decision-makers:
1. What is the organisation’s mission and policy?
2. What decisions will move the organisation towards its mission and policy?
Various principles (p. 314 – 315) that you can follow are:
1. Focus on trial and error.
2. Be attentive; proceed with caution.
3. If uncertain, postpone.
4. Stagger decisions.
5. If uncertain, fractionalise decisions.
6. Hedge your bets.
7. Be prepared to reverse your decision.
In summary, the mixed-scanning model has the following distinctive features:
1. Organisational policy guides decision making.
2. Good decisions have favourable outcomes consistent with organisational

policy and mission.
3. Analysis to arrive at the preferred decision is based on the assumption that

only important information close to the problems at hand is considered.
4. The combination of theory and practice is valued in decision making.
Administrative model of decision making
The administrative model of decision making was introduced by Herbert Simon in

1947. It aims to find a satisfactory solution to problems as opposed to finding the
best solution (Hoy and Miskel 2005). As organisations are becoming more complex,
finding the best solution is difficult and unrealistic. Several assumptions have been
listed by Hoy and Miskel (2005, 300 – 302).
1. Administrative decision making is a dynamic process that solves some

organisational problems and creates others.
2. Complete rationality in decision making is impossible; therefore,

administrators seek to sacrifice because they have neither the ability nor the
cognitive capacity to optimise the decision making process.
3. Decision making is a general pattern of action found in the rational

administration of all major tasks and functional areas in organisations.
4. Values are an integral part of decision making.

UNIT 1 31
The basic principles that should be followed in this model can be arranged into
four steps as describe below:
Step 1: Recognise and define the problem or issue
Recognising the problem is crucial because the way we see a problem and
conceptualise it can affect our analysis and solution. Can you identify a problem
that needs decision in your workplace?
Step 2: Analyse the difficulties in the existing situation
This step can be conducted together with step 1. However, we have to determine
whether the problem at hand is a generic problem or a unique problem. Generic
problems can be followed by generic solutions because the problems are basically
routine problems and solutions can be derived from established principles, policies
and rules. Now analyse the problem and list your analysis.
Step 3: Establish criteria for a satisfactory solution
Decision makers must determine the criteria relevant to the proposed solution. This
has to be done after the problem has been analysed. It is easier if you use ranking
so that the possible outcomes are ranked together and selection will be made based
on the ranking.
Step 4: Develop a plan or strategy of action
After the problem has been recognised, analysed, and criteria determined for decision
alternatives, you should now develop a systematic and reflective action plan. At this
stage, it is wise to follow the following procedures:
1. Specify the alternatives
2. Predict the consequences of each alternative
3. Deliberate in the decision-making
4. Select a plan of action
5. Initiate the plan of action
In making decisions, several precautions should be taken:
1. Decide only on things that are relevant
2. Avoid making premature decisions

3. Make decisions that can be effective
4. Make decisions that are under your jurisdiction and avoid interfering, in
making decisions that should be made by others
Administrative skills
Administrators in educational organisations must have the required skills to perform
well. Sergiovanni, Kelleher, McCarthy and Fowler (2009) have identified three basic
skills for administrators: technical skills; human skills; and conceptual skills.
Technical skills require an understanding and proficiency in the methods, procedures,

and techniques of teaching and learning, curriculum, and assessment (p. 66).
Human skills are related to the ability to work effectively and efficiently with others on
a one-to-one basis and in group settings, while the conceptual skills refer to the ability
to view the school, the district, and the educational programme as a whole.
Administrators must have the ability to combine the three important components;
the school as organisation, the educational programmes and instructions, and the
organisation as human organisation so that they will be able to carry out their
administrative and leadership roles efficiently and effectively.
Roles of school administrators

What are the roles, tasks and key responsibilities of school administrators? According
to Mintzberg (1973) as cited by Sergiovanni, Kelleher, McCarthy and Fowler (2009),
there are three categories of roles that school administrators can play; interpersonal
roles, informational roles, and decisional roles.
Interpersonal roles
School administrators must participate in the activities conducted by the members of

the schools to portray their interpersonal roles. There are three interpersonal roles: as
a figurehead, as a leader, and as a liaison officer. As figurehead, it is the symbolic head
of the school. As a leader, one is responsible for the motivation, capacity building,
and activation of others, including students, teachers and parents. As liaison officer,
they have to maintain networking and contacts with others outside the school.
Informational roles
School administrators receive information from outside the school, process the
information, and relate them to the members of the organisation. There are three
sub-roles: as a monitor, as a disseminator, as a spokesperson. As a monitor, they
UNIT 1 33
receive information. As a disseminator, they transmit information received to other

members of the organisation. As a spokesperson, they relate information about the
organisation to outsiders.
Decisional roles
Schools administrators assume the decisional roles because they make significant
decisions in schools. Their positions in the organisational structure allow them
to make such decisions. With regard to these roles, there are four decisional
roles; entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator, and negotiator. As an
entrepreneur, they have to behave like entrepreneurs to look for opportunities and
initiate changes. The second role demands them to be able to handle disturbance in
schools. As resource allocator, administrators are responsible for resource allocation
and making significant organisational decisions. Fourth, as negotiator, they have to
play the role of negotiator between conflicting parties.
Activity 1.9
Which of the three roles (interpersonal, informational, and

decisional) do you think is the most crucial and why?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Self-test 1.2
Answer the following questions in your own words.
1. What are the groups attempting to make issues important to

schools?
2. Assume you are a teacher in a school. Identify a recent

administrative problem in your school. Explain how the
administration responded. What was the decision strategy used?
Summary
This section defined administration and described the responsibilities

of administrators in educational organisations. The key elements
in school administration have been presented, theoretical models
of educational management, and the roles of administrators
in educational institutions were highlighted and the skills and
attributes of administrators were discussed.
Feedback
Activity 1.7
The Ministry of Education (MOE) is number one because they make

policies about education. Parents are also increasing their influence
because schools are expected to enhance their collaboration with
the community especially through the Parent Teacher Associations
(PTAs). Teachers association and unions are also important because
if teachers are satisfied, they will perform better and consequently,
students’ results would improve.
Activity 1.8
The facilitator should guide students to discuss this topic. Try to

list down the pros and cons of having public examinations. As an
alternative, the school-based assessment system can be utilised to
assess students’ performance.
Activity 1.9
While you may choose one role and argue why it is the most crucial,
it must be stressed that all the three roles are important. As a leader,
one should know when to apply which role. You can practise this
in a work situation.
UNIT 1 35
1.3 Leadership and Management

Objectives
1. Describe the skills and attributes of administrators.
2. Identify the major roles of administrators in educational institutions.
3. Utilise suitable skills in simulated and work-related situations.
Introduction
Bush and Middlewood (2005) have pointed out several features of successful
educational leadership. Successful leaders according to them will focus on peoples’
motivation and strengthen people’s capacity as opposed to focusing on system and
structure. It is assumed that people will show undivided commitment to their work
if they are valued as individuals. In trying to answer the question of which types
of leadership are most likely to produce positive outcomes, they pointed out that
transformational leadership is the most often type of leadership linked to the success
on building a unified common interest between leaders and followers (p.11).
They also listed four levels of leadership that are needed in developing the character
of a visionary leader. At the basic level, a school leader possesses a set of goals
determined by the Ministry of Education and state education department such as
the case in our education system. At the second level, the intermediate level, a school
leader develops goals consistent with the articulated vision of the leader. At the
advanced level, a school leader works together with the teachers to develop school
goals, to reflect togetherness and to show that they have common agreeable goals.
At the fourth level, the expert, a school leader collaborates with representatives of
the school community as well as the Parent- Teacher Association to develop school
goals. Leaders need to possess certain competencies to be able to lead and manage
their followers.
Leading and managing people

There are eight basic competencies to enable administrators to become effective
administrators (Sergiovanni, Kelleher, McCarthy and Fowler 2009). These are listed
as follows:
1. The management of attention  focus on values, ideas, goals, and purposes

that bring people together.
2. The management of meaning  connect teachers, parents, and students to

the school so that they will find their lives useful, sensible, and valued.
3. The management of trust  be viewed as credible, legitimate, and honest.
4. The management of self  know who they are, what they believe, and why
they do things they do.
5. The management of paradox  able to bring contradicting ideas into a

coherent one.
6. The management of effectiveness  focus on developing a school’s capacity

so that it improves performance.
7. The management of follow-up  able to get the school from here to there.
8. The management of responsibility  internalising purposes and values.
Based on the competencies, the performance of a leader can be assessed into three
categories: very good; satisfactory; poor. As an example, this categorisation was
implemented in England and Wales (Bush and Middlewood 2005). The categories
are quoted below (p.17).
Very good
Leadership is dedicated to ensuring the highest possible standards and achievements

in all areas of the school’s work. It is reflective, self-critical and innovative. It is
reflective, self-critical and innovative and articulates a clear vision of the school in
the future, so that all staffs know what they are working towards. It results in clear
strategic thinking and planning for improvement.
Satisfactory
Leadership is firm, competent and committed, and there are clear lines of
responsibility. The staff reflect the school’s aims and policies in their work; they
understand the school’s goals and their role in achieving them. The school monitors
its performance and tackles weaknesses.
Poor
Poor leadership is muddled, besieged or incompetent. The school lacks a sense of

direction. Senior staff preoccupied with daily tasks and incidents; find it difficult to
prioritise the most important issues and focus their efforts accordingly. Teamwork
is weak or little in evidence.
UNIT 1 37
Activity 1.10
Read the following excerpt and try to relate to yourself.

Get your teammates together and discuss how you can improve
the process.
Developing competency
A competent person does what he does well, continually

persevering and distilling what’s best − and he stops doing what he
doesn’t do well. Does that describe you? Do you focus your energy
on what you can do well so that you become highly competent at
it? Can your teammates depend on you to deliver in such a way
that it brings the entire team success? If not, you may need to get
better focused and develop the skills you need so that you can do
your job and do it well.
To improve your competence …
Focus yourself professionally. It’s hard to develop competence if

you’re trying to do everything. Pick an area in which to specialise.
What is the one thing that brings together your skills, interests,
and opportunities? Whatever it is, seize it.
Sweat the small stuff. Too many people don’t take their work as far
as they can. To do that, you need to develop an ability to get all
the details right. That doesn’t mean becoming a micromanager or
control freak. It means doing the last 10 percent of whatever job
you’re doing. Try doing that on the next project or big task that is
your responsibility.
Give more attention to implementation. Since implementation is

often the most difficult part of any job, give it greater attention.
How can you improve the gap between coming up with ideas and
putting them into practice?
(Maxwell 2008, p. 85)
Key concepts in management

There are several important concepts in the management of educational organisations.
Quality leadership is paramount to successful educational outcomes and in practice;
we can divide the management of educational organisations into decentralisation
and centralisation (Bush, 2003). It is well known that our educational organisations
operate within the legalised framework provided by the law. They either operate
through the decentralisation concept or subscribe to centralised management. Highly
centralised systems are assumed to be highly bureaucratic, making schools for example
less flexible. On the other hand, decentralised systems will allow a significant degree
of freedom and powers are devolved at the institutional level.
Decentralisation and self-management
The concept of decentralisation is also referred to as self-management. Lauglo (1997)

cited in Bush and Middlewood (2005, 5), has defined the concept of decentralisation
as a shift in the authority distribution away from the central top agency in the
hierarchy of authority. For educational organisations such as schools, decentralisation
management occurs when self-management is given to them. It was argued by Bush
and Middlewood that a self-managing school has more potential to be more effective
and efficient. Normally, there will be a significant degree of authority given to the
schools to make important decisions on resource allocation.
Centralisation
Centralisation management tends to be linked with bureaucratic management, which

puts the emphasis on structure and hierarchy. Centralisation management implies
concentration of management at the top level.
… a ministry could make decisions in considerable detail as to aims and objectives,

curricula and teaching materials to be used, prescribed methods, appointments of
staff and their job descriptions, admission of students, assessment and certification,
finance and budgets, and inspection/evaluations to monitor performance (Bush and
Middlewood 2005, 5),
Activity 1.11
The above quotation seems familiar to us. Do you agree that this
mode of management exists in our education system? State the
reasons for your agreement or otherwise.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Culture
Organisational culture is one way to identify the uniqueness of educational

organisations. Culture is manifested in shared values, norms, basic assumptions, and
practices that continuously occurr in the organisation. For schools, school cultures
can be interpreted by analysing their symbols, artefacts, rites, ceremonies, icons, heroes,
myths, rituals, and legends (Hoy and Miskel 2005,163).
UNIT 1 39
Managing for performance

Performance is related to the accomplishment of a task assigned to a leader and
as the administrator, your achievement will determine whether you have attained
the required standard. However, the interpretation of standard can be debated
because it is a subjective judgement. Nevertheless, in practice, normally a standard
is determined through quantitative means such as achieving a high percentage of
examination results or spending 80 percent of the allocated financial resources. In
order to do that, various roles are required from a leader. These functions can be
divided into four categories:
1. Leading
2. Motivating
3. Mentoring and coaching
4. Professional development
Leading
Now read the following quotation by John Maxwell (2008,67)
Developing competency
A leader is great, not because of his or her power, but because of his or her ability to
empower others. Success without a successor is failure. A worker’s main responsibility
is developing others to do their work.
Activity 1.12
So, what can you say about the expected role of a leader as mentioned
in the above quotation? Discuss it with your friend who sits next to
you and try to relate to your experience. Do you see this happening
in your organisation?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Motivating
There are many theories of motivation. The most commonly referred theories are
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Maslow 1970), McGregor’s theory X and Y (McGregor
1960), and Herzberg’s two factor theory (Herzberg 1966). In simple terms,
motivation refers to getting results through people or getting the best out of people
(Everard, Morris and Wilson 2004, 5). It is assumed that if people are motivated,
they will perform well.
If we could understand, and could then predict, the ways in which individuals were
motivated, we could influence them by changing the components of that motivation
process (Bush and Middlewood 2005, 21).
Theoretically, Bush and Middlewood made three assumptions about motivation.
1. Satisfied workers will be more productive according to satisfaction theories.
2. Based on incentive theories, workers work hard if they are given specific
rewards and encouragement.
3. According to intrinsic theories, people work best if given a worthwhile job

and allowed to get on with it (p. 21).
Factors affecting motivation
Bush and Middlewood (2005) divide the factors affecting motivation into four
groups:
1. Individual factors referring to the gender, abilities, age and experience.
2. Organisational factors referring to the conditions of service, physical facilities,

workload and incentives, and structure opportunities for career development.
3. Cultural factors referring to the feeling and sharing of values in the

organisation.
4. Social factors referring to the relationships among the members of the

organisation.
UNIT 1 41
Let us look at following inspiring excerpt written by John Maxwell (2008, 126).
What is the importance of this excerpt?
Instil motivation
Vince Lombardi, the famed Green Bay Packers football coach, was a feared
disciplinarian. But he was also a great motivator. One day he chewed out a player
who had missed several blocking assignments. After practice, Lombardi stormed
into the locker room and saw that the player was sitting at his locker, head down,
dejected. Lombardi mussed his hair, patted him on the shoulder, and said, “one of
these days, you’re going to be the best guard in the NFL.”
That player was Jerry Kramer, and Kramer says he carried that positive image of
himself for the rest of his career. “Lombardi’s encouragement had a tremendous
impact on my whole life,” Kramer said. He went on to become a member of the Green
Bay Packers Hall of Fame and a member of the NFL’s All-50-Year Team.
Everybody needs motivation from time to time. Never underestimate the power of it:
1. Motivation helps people who know what they should do … to do it!
2. Motivation helps people who know what commitment they should make
… to make it!
3. Motivation helps people who know what habit they should break … to
break it!
4. Motivation helps people who know what path they should take … to take
it!
5. Motivation makes it possible to accomplish what you should accomplish.
Mentoring and coaching
Mentoring and coaching add another function to leadership. By focusing on the

individual and giving personal support, the organisation can gain a win-win situation.
Mentoring is a situation where an individual who has more experience is willing to
share his or her knowledge and experience with someone who has less experience.
By definition, as a mentor, a leader is
a trusted experienced professional, who is willing to assist a less experienced person

by listening, sharing experiences, advising, guiding, and coaching (Davies, Ellison,
and Bowring-Carr 2005, p.104).
On the other hand, as a coach, a leader is
a trusted colleague who is willing to assist by observing performance, gathering and

analysing data, and providing meaningful positive feedback (Davies, Ellison and
Bowring-Carr 2005, p.104).
Davies, Ellison and Bowring-Carr (2005) regard mentoring as more inclusive, while
coaching to them is regarded as a subset of mentoring. Coaching is done from time
to time, but mentoring is far more than coaching. As an example, a leader may
help his or her follower to identify his or her potential, then refine the needs, and
develop a personal development plan that will give the opportunity for the followers
to raise his or her potential.
Activity 1.13
Mentoring involves a mentor and a protégé. What is the

responsibility of the protégé and the mentor?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Professional development
Professional development is essential in anyone’s career. A leader must provide a space

for professional development because it is fundamental to not only improving one’s
performance, but also improving organisational performance. For an educational
organisation, professional development comprises the following:
1. It is an ongoing process of education, training, learning and support activities.
2. Taking place in either external or work-based settings.
3. Proactively engaged in by professional teachers, head-teachers and other

school leaders.
4. Aimed primarily at promoting learning and development of their profession.
5. Help teachers to decide on and implement valued changes in their teaching

and leadership behaviour (Bush and Middlewood 2005, 22).
For those in the teaching profession, professional development programme is a vital

mechanism to improve teachers’ skills and capabilities. Ultimately, such development
will contribute to school improvement despite may reduce the possibility of teachers
as well as opting for early retirement or resigning from the profession.
UNIT 1 43
Activity 1.14
Look at your organisation and ask yourself, “Does your organisation

have a proper staff development programme?” What are the
problems?”
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Time management
The work of an administrator demands a lot of energy and is time consuming. It
is obvious that the environment of educational management in 1990s and 2000s
is very different from the earlier periods. Therefore, it is crucial for educational
administrators to have good time management skills.
Activity 1.15
Discuss with your partner who sits next to you and list down
activities that you have to do tomorrow. Can you allocate how
much time you will spend on each activity? Which one is at the
top of your list, and why? On the next day, can you identify which
activity (activities) that you cannot perform, and why?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Efficiency
Efficiency is related to maximising the given resources to perform the required tasks
and to achieve the fullest possible attainment of specific objectives or standards. As
an example, in school, a timetable which deploys staff fully and teachers teaching
assigned to appropriate subjects according to their specialisation will reflect an
efficient use of the human resources and time. If we examine from the financial
perspective, this shows that the amount paid to the teachers is commensurate with
the work that they have to perform, that is, teaching the relevant subjects and
maximising usage of funds received for the purpose of salary payment.
In education, administrators must also understand the term cost-efficiency. Cost-

efficiency relates to how efficient you are in using the resources, for example, X is
more cost-efficient than Y because it achieves greater efficiency at the same cost or
the same efficiency at a lower cost. So, when all teachers in a school have the proper
timetable to teach and are able to teach the required subjects, this shows that the
school administrator has managed to achieve cost-efficiency. On the other hand, if

many teachers are under-utilised or are not teaching the proper subjects, this show
that efficiency is not met.
Other examples of cost-efficient use of financial resources are the preventive

maintenance of buildings which avoids long-term maintenance costs, and the
purchase of slightly more expensive equipment which can last longer and incur less
maintenance cost.
Effectiveness
Effectiveness is related to achieving the maximum output in relation to the utilisation
of the given resources. As opposed to efficiency, effectiveness in educational
organisations such as schools relates to the fullest possible attainment of the goals
and objectives of the school as an organisation. By now you should remember that
schools are organisations that have goals to achieve. Examples of effectiveness for
schools include improved performance, notably against key performance indicators
such as improved examination results in public examination; improved student
attitudes and behaviour (less number of students facing disciplinary actions; improved
school environment; and less vandalism).
Effectiveness also relates to cost-effectiveness. It is linked to the cost incurred. Greater

effectiveness for the same or lower cost reflects cost-effectiveness. As an example, an
increase in size of a class does not drop the examination results or bring better results.
Activity 1.16
List down the important steps that can be taken to improve time
management. To begin with, here is the first step:
1. Do not waste time. Start thinking.

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
UNIT 1 45
Self-test 1.3
Read the following case study on serving the stakeholders interests

and giving the wrong advice and answer the questions that follow.
You are working as the human resource director in a private college

and most of the college students receive financial assistance from
sponsorship agencies, especially from Yayasan Manja. You’ve
looked at the registration figures and you know that 70% of the
students are sponsored students. On Monday morning as early
as 7.55 am, you received a panic phone call from the college
president. “I want you to terminate the new head of Department
of Fundamental Studies, immediately. We are in trouble.” says the
angry president.
The head of department was appointed about a month ago and

he took the job because he considered that was his way of paying
back to the college as his alma mater, knowing that the pay is poor
and future professional development is vague.
The president gives his explanation in anger. It has come to his

attention that the biggest sponsor, Yayasan Manja refuses to send
new students and will stop financing present students because the
college has lost sight of its fundamental purpose. The college was
supposed to focus on giving fundamental courses for those who
aspire to further their studies in the Middle East.
After discussion, the reason was quite clear. It became apparent

that the new head of department had given advice to one of the
sponsored students (who was the top academic achiever in the
previous semester) to transfer to another college which suits the
student's interest. When the student indicated that he wanted to
change his programme of study from the foundation studies for
preparation to the Middle-East to that of Computer Studies, the
head suggested that the student might consider transferring to a
nearby college. The college has been facing problems in offering
the course due to lack of qualified lecturers.
The president was furious because if the student transfers, the

college will not only lose future sponsored students from Yayasan
Manja, but the college will also lose one of the bright students who
can lift up the name of the college. According to the president, “all
because the head had made a bad judgement and gave a wrong
advice.”
1. Who are the stakeholders and what are their interests?
2. Should you fire the head of department and what factors should
you consider to come up with your decision?
3. Describe the problem in Self-test 1.3.

Summary
In this section, we have discussed the key competencies and core

concepts in management and leadership such as centralisation
and decentralisation, effectiveness and efficiency, performance,
motivation, mentoring and coaching, professional development
and time management.
Feedback
Activity 1.10
You have to reflect on it, on your own and then discuss with your
friends.
Activity 1.11
Our education system is a centralised system. However, we are given

the appropriate framework to operate. The central agencies are there
to monitor and to ensure that our functions are in tandem with
the government's policies and national plans. It is also important
to ensure that our educational institutions uphold the national
education philosophy.
Activity 1.12
You have to reflect on your experience and share it with your friends.
Activity 1.13
It is critical that the protégé takes responsibility for managing an

individual developmental plan, while the mentor acts as supporter,
helper and encourager. Consequently, the role involves far more
listening than it does talking, and is much more subtle than giving
lots of good advice and suggestions based on experience.
UNIT 1 47
Activity 1.14
Nowadays most organisations have their own staff development

plans. However, problems might arise in their implementation
because of several factors. Financial constraints may hinder the
department’s ability to conduct the training programme for all staff.
Lack of commitment from the staff is another problem because
training needs time and some staff may not want to leave their
families to attend such programmes. Lack of proper planning also
contributes to the failure of any development programme.
Activity 1.15
Check your dairy and list down the important activities. Identify
those that you could not perform and explain why.
Activity 1.16
You will have to try this on your own and discuss with your
coursemates when the opportunity arises during the tutorial session.
UNIT 1 49
Summary of Unit 1
Summary
This unit has introduced the concepts of educational management,

administration and leadership. You are also introduced to the
differences between management and leadership as well as the
process in the management of educational institutions. Several
theoretical models of educational management are defined. You
should be able to describe key elements in school administration,
identify the roles of administrators in educational institutions and
examine the skills and attributes of administrators.
UNIT 1 51
Unit Practice Exercise

Read the following case. Then, answer the questions using your own words.
Management of educational institution
Two groups of students from Gambia, Africa that were attending a Masters
programme in their home universities came to Malaysia to take several courses in
Noname University (NNU) under a special non-graduating graduate programme.
The programme was made possible after several discussions between NNU and
two universities in Gambia. Initial steps took place between one of the professors
from NNU with his former students who are now lecturers in the two universities
in Gambia. Later, officials from NNU and the Gambian universities made formal
communications and arrangements so that the students could come to NNU during
the first semester of the 2010/2011 academic session.
Officials from NNU who were involved in the discussions were the Dean of the
Graduate School, the Deputy Dean of the Graduate School, and the Head of the
Administrative Officers while their counterparts from the Gambian universities were
the Director of Postgraduate programme and the Director of Ministry of Education.
During the initial discussions, the Dean of the Faculty of Adult Education was not
invited, more so was the coordinator of the Master programme from the faculty.
Offer letters were sent by the Graduate School to the students and copies of the letters
were given to the Dean of Faculty of Adult Education, International Students’ Office
and University Bursar. Students were required to register during the first week of
the academic session. At the same time, the programme coordinator in the Faculty
of Adult Education was asked by the Dean of the Faculty of Adult Education to
prepare a schedule for the courses which would be taken by the students. As usual,
the coordinator prepared the required timetable and contacted the relevant lecturers
who would be teaching the courses.
The first group of students arrived a week after the academic session had started and
they were accompanied by the respective programme coordinators from the Ministry
of Education in Gambia and a professor from one of the Gambian universities. They
were attended to by the officers from the Graduate School and later went to the
Faculty of Adult Education to discuss the programme. Unfortunately, the Dean was
away attending an international seminar in China. As a result, the representatives were
ushered to meet the Deputy Dean, who was not informed about the arrangement
of such programme. To his surprise, the programme coordinator was also invited
to the discussion. The discussion went smoothly and the students managed to start
the class one day after their arrival.
Problems occurred when the second group of students came to the university.
Before departing for Malaysia, they were told by their colleagues who had the initial
discussions with one of the professors that they should meet Professor Handsome
at the university. Since this trip was their first to Malaysia, they followed exactly
the advice given by their colleagues. Professor Handsome was also informed by his
former students that the group will be arriving at the university during the second
week of the academic session. Having arrived at the Kuala Lumpur International
Airport, they chartered an airport coach to the university. They went straight to
the Graduate School Office but the officer directed them to the Faculty of Adult
Education. Upon arrival at the Faculty, they started looking for Professor Handsome.
By coincidence, Professor Handsome’s name was the same as the Dean’s name.
Neither Professor Handsome nor the Dean was available when the students arrived.
The students were ushered to the office of the Deputy Dean for Academic and
International Affairs, and he himself was not aware of the whole thing. The
programme coordinator managed to see the students after finishing his lecture and
that happened only when he realised that there were several missed calls on his
mobile phone made by the Office of the Deputy Dean.
On the following week, the students were supposed to register but could not do so
because they had not paid the tuition fees and had not done their medical check-up.
The programme coordinator meanwhile was looking for the students, but they went
to meet Professor Handsome. At the same time, Professor Handsome was getting
upset because he thought the students were not given the necessary help and being
a senior academician he started harassing the Deputy Dean asking for explanations.
In return, the Deputy Dean was going after the programme coordinator demanding
that necessary help should be given to the students. The coordinator went to meet
Professor Handsome but was scolded by the professor because according to him,
the students were not given the necessary assistance. The coordinator, who himself
was confused with the whole situation, finally managed to help the students with
the registration and the medical check-up. The students managed to find suitable
accommodation and attended the programme as scheduled.
Questions:
1. Explain the whole situation in relation to educational management and

leadership.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
2. Identify who the leaders are in this case.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. Explain what should the leaders do in this case.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
UNIT 1 53
4. What are the aspects that are relevant to educational management and leadership?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
5. What should you do if you are the Dean of the Faculty of Adult Education?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
UNIT 1 55
Suggested Answers to Self-tests
Feedback
Self-test 1.1
Management concerns with carrying out organisational activities

and tasks through a process of coordination and utilisation of
organisational resources to achieve efficiency.
Leadership concerns with influencing others, instilling values and

creating organisational vision that are tied with change, so that
efficient use of organisational resources will lead to the achievement
of organisational change.
Leadership characteristics: provide direction, influence; motivate

and inspire others; instil values; produce change.
Self-test 1.2
1. Teachers as a group will make issues important because they are

the main players to shape the school’s success in terms of teaching
and learning.
2. One suggestion is about having in-house training during

weekends. This programme will deprive teachers of time with
their families. As an administrator (school principal), there is a
need to discuss the importance of the training and in return there
should be a reward proposed to the teachers. An example would
be to have a family day at the end of the year for the teachers
and their family, at no charge. However, the school needs to
have a budget for this activity.
Self-test 1.3
1. Students, parents, Board of Directors for Yayasan Manja, future

employers.
2. Consider the following points before making any decision:

benefits to the institution, benefits to the students, opportunity
fees coming into the institution, steps to improve the lack of
quality lecturers, the head of department’s view. Weigh all
options and make the decision.
3. One thing to consider, do not fire the head because the

institution lacks qualified lecturers. Firing him would make the
institution lose a lecturer and that can affect future operations.
UNIT 1 57
Suggested Answers to Unit Practice

Exercise
Feedback
1. Leaders should provide the guidance because in this example,

he was not clear on what was the objective of the institution
with regard to attracting international students. On the
management side, there should be good planning on the matter
and proper coordination right from the initial steps taken by
the parties, the institution and the counterparts in Gambia.
2. Leaders; Dean of the Graduate School, the Deputy Dean of

the Graduate School, while their counterparts from the Gambian
universities were the Director of Postgraduate programme and
the Director of Ministry of Education.
3. Leaders should set the objectives clearly and communicate them

to the implementers at the lower level so that proper preparations
could be made. Most likely, there were communication
problems. So, this should be rectified early.
4. Salient aspects for leadership: provide direction, get people

motivated, initiate change and get others to accept. Salient
components for management: good planning, efficient use of
resources and proper monitoring.
5. The Dean should have arranged initial meeting with the various
parties in the faculty and communicate to them what was to be
done and get things going. Discussions were necessary because
the faculty’s image and university’s reputation are at stake.
UNIT 1 59
References
Bush, T (2005) Theories of Educational Leadership and Management, 3rd edn, London:
SAGE Publications.
Bush, T and Middlewood, D (2005) Leading and Managing People in Education,

London: SAGE Publications.
Davies, B, Ellison, E and Bowring-Carr, C (2005) School Leadership in the 21st

Century, London: Routledge.
Everard, K B, Morris, G and Wilson, I (2004) Effective School Management, 4th edn,
London: Paul Chapman.
Hoy, W K and Miskel, C G (2005) Educational Administration: Theory, Research,

Practice, 7th edn, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Maxwell, J C (2008) The Maxwell Daily Reader: 365 Days of Insight to Develop the
Leader Within You and Influence Those Around You, New York: Thomas Nelson Pub.
Razik, T A and Swanson, A D (2010) Fundamental Concepts of Educational Leadership

& Management, 3rd edn, Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Sergiovanni, T J, Kelleher, P, McCarthy, M and Fowler, F C (2009) Educational

Governance and Administration, 6th edn, Boston: Pearson.

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UNIT 1 A

EXTERNAL COURSE ASSESSOR

© 2010 Wawasan Open University

First revision 2012

Wawasan Open University

1.1 Theories of educational management 5

Models of educational management 7

Models of educational leadership 15

Suggested answers to activities 17

1.2 Administration and responsibilities of 19

Key elements of schools 20

Policy making process 25

Models of decision making in administration 28

Roles of school administrators 32

Suggested answers to activities 34

1.3 Leadership and management 35

Leading and managing people 35

Key concepts in management 37

Managing for performance 39

Suggested answers to activities 46

Unit practice exercise 51

Suggested answers to self-tests 55

Suggested answers to unit practice exercise 57

By the end of the course, you should be able to:

1. Explain the meaning of administration, management and leadership with

2. Apply management approaches and functions of management in educational

3. Utilise the managerial skills and attributes in appropriate workplace

5. Discuss the key elements of leadership characteristics, styles, functions and

6. Illustrate the characteristics of effective and successful educational institution.

7. Lead in the management of appropriate educational settings.

8. Display professionalism and accountability in the management of work-

9. Organise appropriately a variety of tasks which require the integration of

10. Relate to educational institution reform and changes.

11. Create and justify teamwork in workplace situations.

U nit 1 introduces the meaning of administration and the key concepts in

1. Explain administration, management and leadership.

2. Differentiate the concepts of management and leadership.

3. Describe key elements in school administration.

4. Discuss various theoretical models of educational management.

5. Identify roles of administrators in educational institutions.

6. Examine skills and attributes of administrators.

7. Utilise suitable skills in simulated and work-related situations.

1.1 Theories of Educational

1. Explain what is meant by administration, management and leadership.

2. Discuss how management is different from leadership.

3. Describe the various theoretical models of educational management.

Please read Chapters 1 and 2 of the book entitled Theories of

Models of educational management

2. Official structures prevail and are portrayed through organisational charts,

3. Official structures are hierarchical and the emphasis is on vertical relationships

4. Educational organisations have goals and therefore they are regarded as

5. Decision making in educational organisations are made through rational

6. Authority in the organisational function is represented through official

7. Educational organisations are accountable to their sponsoring agencies

Give an example of a formal model by presenting its organisational

1. The first feature relates to the normative nature of the decision-making

3. Members of the organisations are assumed to have a common set of values,

4. Another salient feature of the collegial models relate to formal representation

5. An important feature of the collegial models rests on the assumption that

It is assumed that conflicts happen in educational organisations whether they are

It is assumed that organisations are coalitions comprised of a variety of individuals and

2. Conflicts are central to organisational dynamics due to enduring differences

accomplished, which sometimes are in contrast between individuals’, groups’