TOPIC 18 : ELECTRIC CURRENT AND SUBTOPIC :

DIRECT-CURRENT CIRCUITS 18.1 Electrical Conduction

18.1 Electrical Conduction LEARNING OUTCOMES :
18.2 Ohm’s law and Resistivity
At the end of this lesson, the students
18.3 Variation of resistance with temperature
should be able to :
18.4 Electromotive force (emf), internal
resistance and potential difference a) Describe microscopic model of current.
18.5 Electrical energy and power
18.6 Resistors in series and parallel dQ
b)Define and use electric current formula, I =
18.7 Kirchhoff’s Laws dt
18.8 Potential divider
18.9 Potentiometer and Wheatstone Bridge 1 2
18.1 Electrical Conduction 18.1 Electrical Conduction
18.1 Electrical Conduction
• The drift velocity, vd of the free electrons is the mean velocity

Conductors contain many free electrons and move randomly.
of the electrons parallel to the direction of the electric field

If a continuous wire is connected to the terminal of a battery, the when a potential difference of a battery is applied.
potential difference between the terminals of the battery sets up an
electric field inside the wire and parallel to it, directed from the positive Consider the circuit such as that in figure below, the battery
toward the negative terminal. creates an electric field within and parallel to the wire, directed

Thus free electrons are attracted into the positive terminal (are from the positive toward the negative terminal.
forced to drift in one direction).

This direction is in the direction opposite to the field, E.
The velocity of these free electrons is called drift velocity.
wire
3 battery 4
battery
18.1 Electrical Conduction 18.1 Electrical Conduction
Electric Current, I
• Thus free electrons at one end of the wire are attracted into
the positive terminal, and at the same time, electrons leave • Electric current is defined as the amount of charge that
the negative terminal of the battery and enter the wire at the passes through the wire’s full cross section at any point per
other end. unit time ( the rate of charge flow through a conductor).
• There is a continuous flow of electrons through the wire that ∆Q
•The average current , I is defined as I = .
begins as soon as the wire is connected to both terminals. ∆t
• However, when the conventions of positive and negative •The instanstaneous current is defined as
charge were advised two centuries ago, it was assumed that
positive charge flowed in a wire. dQ
I=
• For nearly all purposes, positive charge flowing in one dt
direction is exactly equivalent to negative charge flowing in
the opposite direction. •The steady current is defined as
• Today we still use the historical convention of positive current Q
when discussing the direction of a current. So when we speak I=
t
of the current in a circuit, we mean the direction positive
• Unit of I is A (ampere). 6
charge would flow. 5
 18.1 Electrical Conduction
SUBTOPIC :
Example 18.1
18.2 Ohm’s Law and Resistivity
A wire carries a current of 1.5 A.
a) How much charge flows through a point in the wire in 5.0 s LEARNING OUTCOMES :
b) How many electrons cross a given area of the wire in 1.0 At the end of this lesson, the students should
s? be able to :
Solution;
a) a)State and use Ohm’s Law.
RA
b)Define and use resistivity formulae, ρ=
l
b)
8
7
18.2 Resistivity and Ohm’s Law 18.2 Resistivity and Ohm’s Law
V
18.2 Ohm’s Law and Resistivity = constant
Ohm’s Law V
I V
V
• Ohm’s law states that the potential difference across =R
a conductor, V is directly proportional to the current, I
I through it, if its physical conditions and the
temperature are constant.
V ∝I Figure A I Figure B I
V
= constant • Ohmic conductors are conductors which obey
I
Ohm’s law. Examples: pure metals. (Figure A)
V
= R → V = IR Ohm's Law • Non-ohmic conductors do not obey Ohm’s law.
I
9 Example: junction diode. (Figure B) 10
18.2 Resistivity and Ohm’s Law
Resistivity 18.2 Resistivity and Ohm’s Law
Resistivity is a measure of a material’s ability to oppose the Example 18.2
flow of electric current through the material.
A wire (length=2.0 m, diameter=1.0 mm) has a resistance of
Resistivity is defined as the resistance of a sample of the 0.45 Ω. What is the resistivity of the material used to make the
material of cross-sectional area 1 m2 and of length 1m. wire?
• It is a constant value. RA Solution;
• Its formulae is given by ρ =
l
where l = length of the conductor (m)A = area of cross-
section of the conductor (m-2)
• Its unit is Ωm.
• Its value depends on the material.
• All conductors have smaller resistivity.
• Insulators have larger resistivity.
12
11
 18.2 Resistivity and Ohm’s Law SUBTOPIC :
Example 18.3
18.3 Variation of Resistance with
What voltage will be measured across a 1000 Ω resistor in a Temperature
circuit if we determine that there is a current of 2.50 mA flowing
through it? LEARNING OUTCOMES :
Solution; At the end of this lesson, the students should
be able to :
a) Explain the effect of temperature on electrical
resistance in metals.
b) Use resistance, R = Ro [1 +α (T - To)].
13 14
18.3 Variation of Resistance with Temperature
18.3 Variation of Resistance with
Temperature More collisons occur between free electrons and ions.
Metal These electrons are slowed down thus increases the
resistance.
• The resistance of a metal (conductor) depends on
The resistance of a metal can be represented by the
a) the nature of the material, equation below
(ρ, resistivity) R=Ro[1+α(∆T)]
b) the size of the conductor, R = Ro + Roα ∆T
(l, the length and A, cross-sectional area)
R – Ro = Roα ∆T , R - Ro = ∆R
c) the temperature of the conductor.
so, ∆R=Roα∆T
The resistance of metals increases with where, R = the resistance at temperature T,
increasing temperature. (T↑, R↑) Ro= the resistance at temperature To = 20o C or 0oC,
As temperature increases, the ions of the conductor α = the temperature coefficient of resistance ( oC-1)
vibrate with greater amplitude.
15 16
18.3 Variation of Resistance with Temperature 18.3 Variation of resistance with temperature
Temperature coefficient of resistance , α is defined as the Example 18.4
fractional change in resistance per Celsius degree.
A platinum wire has a resistance of 0.50Ω at
0oC. It is placed in a water bath, where its
∆R
Ro resistance rises to a final value of 0.60Ω . What
α=
∆T is the temperature of the bath ?
(α = 3.93 x 10-3 oC -1)
α is a constant value and it is depends on the material.
Solution;
17 18
 18.3 Variation of resistance with temperature Example 18.6 : 18.3 Variation of resistance with temperature
Example 18.5 Two wires P and Q with circular cross section are made
of the same metal and have equal length. If the
A narrow rod of pure iron has a resistance of 0.10 Ω resistance of wire P is three times greater than that of
at 20oC. What is its resistance at 50 oC ? wire Q, determine the ratio of their diameters.
(α= 5.0 x 10-3 oC-1) Solution;
Solution;;
19 20
SUBTOPIC : 18.4 Electromotive force (emf), internal
18.4 Electromotive force (emf), internal resistance and potential difference
What is electromotive
resistance and potential difference force,emf (ε or ξ) of a
battery?
LEARNING OUTCOMES : The e.m.f of a battery is defined as the electrical energy that
generated by a battery so that the charges can flow from one
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to :
terminal to another terminal of the battery through any resistor.
a) Define emf , ε of a battery.
Or The e.m.f of a battery is the work done per unit charge.
b) Explain the relationship between emf of a battery
and potential difference across the battery • The e.m.f of a battery is the potential difference across the
terminals. terminals in open circuit (no charge is flowing, I = 0).
c) Use terminal voltage, V= ε – Ir. • The e.m.f of a battery is the potential difference across its
terminal when it is not connected to a circuit.
22
21 • SI unit : Volt (V)
18.4 Electromotive force (emf), internal resistance and potential difference 18.4 Electromotive force (emf), internal resistance and potential difference
What is internal resistance?
• In a cell or battery, the negative ions are attracted by
anode and the positive ions are attracted by the
cathode.
• The flow of these ions produces current.
• However the collisions between the ions and the
recombination of opposite ions reduce the flow of
current. This resistance in the cell is called internal
resistance, r.
• Suppose a battery of emf, ε and internal resistance r is
connected to an external resistor, R.
• Total resistance in the circuit is (R + r).
23 24
 18.4 Electromotive force (emf), internal resistance and potential difference 18.4 Electromotive force (emf), internal resistance and potential difference
• The e.m.f of this battery is given as
• In a circuit diagram, this symbol
ε = I (R + r) represents a resistor in a circuit that dissipates
ε = Ir + IR electrical energy.
• A straight line represents a
ε = Ir + Vab
conducting wire with negligible resistance.
Vab = Vdc
Vab = Vb – Va = terminal voltage (potential
difference across the battery terminals)
r = internal resistance
R = external resistance 25 26
18.4 Electromotive force (emf), internal resistance and potential difference 18.4 Electromotive force (emf), internal resistance and potential difference
ε = Ir + Vab Example 18.7
Vab = ε − Ir A battery with a terminal voltage of 11.5 V when
terminal voltage potential difference delivering 0.50 A has an internal resistance of 0.10 Ω.
(potential difference emf across internal
across terminals), Vab = resistance What is its emf?
Vt Solution;
Notes:
a) Vab < ε when the battery of emf ε is connected to
the external circuit with resistance R.
b) Vab > ε when the battery of emf ε is being charged
by other battery.
c) Vab = ε when the battery of emf ε has no internal
resistance (r =0) and connected to the external
circuit with resistance R. 27 28
18.4 Electromotive force (emf), internal resistance and potential difference
SUBTOPIC :
Example 18.8 18.5 Electrical Energy and Power
The battery in a circuit has an emf of 9.0 V. It is
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
attached to a resistor and an ammeter that shows a At the end of this lesson, the students should
current of 0.10 A. If a voltmeter across the battery’s be able to :
terminals reads 8.9 V, what is its internal resistance ? Use
Solution;
a) Power, P = IV
b) Electrical energy, W = VIt.
29 30
 18.5 Electrical energy and power
18.5 Electrical Energy and Power
•The electrical (potential) energy, W is the energy gained by
• Electric energy is useful to us because it can be the charge Q from a voltage source (battery) having a
transformed into other forms of energy (thermal terminal voltage V.
energy, light). •W= QV (the work done by the source on the charge)
• According to the conversation of energy , all the • But Q=It, then, W= VIt
energy delivered to the charge carriers by the
• Unit : Joule (J)
battery must be lost in the circuit .
• The rate of energy delivered to the external circuit by the
• That is, a charge carrier traversing the circuit battery is called the electric power given by,
must lose all the electrical potential energy it W QV
gained from the battery when that carrier returns P= = , Q = It
t t
to the negative terminal of the battery. P = IV @ P = I ε
31 •Unit : watt ( 1 W = 1J/s) 32
18.5 Electrical energy and power 18.5 Electrical energy and power
Example 18.9
• The energy dissipated per second in an electric device
(rate of energy dissipated) is given as Calculate the resistance of a 40 W automobile headlight
designed for 12 V
W VIt
P= = = VI for any device Solution;
t t
• A passive resistor is a resistor which converts all
the electrical energy into heat. For example, a
metal wire.
P = VI but V = IR
V2
P = I 2R or P=
R
33 34
only for resistor
18.5 Electrical energy and power 18.5 Electrical energy and power
Example 18.10 Example 18.11
The current through a refrigerator of resistance 12 An electric iron with a 15-ohm heating element operates
Ω is 13 A. What is the power consumed by the at 120 V. How many joules of energy does the iron
refrigerator? convert to heat in 1.0 h ?
Solution; Solution;
35 36
SUBTOPIC : 18.6 Resistors in series and parallel
18.6 Resistors in series and parallel Resistors in Series
LEARNING OUTCOMES : R1 R2 R3
At the end of this lesson, the students should V1 V2 V3
be able to : I I
V
a) Derive and determine effective resistance of
battery , r = 0
resistors in series and parallel.
• The properties of resistors in series are given
below.
o The same current I flows through each
resistor where
37 I = I1 = I 2 = I 3 38
18.6 Resistors in series and parallel 18.6 Resistors in series and parallel
Resistors in Parallel
The sum of the voltages around a circuit loop (that is,
the gains and losses with + and - ,respectively) is zero. I3 R3 • The properties of resistors in
V − ∑ i (Vi ) = 0 parallel are given below.
V3 • There is the same potential
V = ∑ i (Vi ) R
I 2 2 difference, V across each
V = V1 + V2 + V3 resistor where
V2
total potential difference
I1 R1 V =V1 =V2 =V3
(Assuming that the connecting wires have no • Charge is conserved,
resistance) but V = IR ; V = IR ; V = IR ; V = IR I V1 I
1 1 2 2 3 3 eq therefore the total current
V I in the circuit is given by
IR = IR + IR + IR
eq 1 2 3
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 I = I +I +I
1 2 3
39 40
where Req : equivalent(effective) resistance
18.6 Resistors in series and parallel 18.6 Resistors in series and parallel
Example 18.12
V V V V 12 Ω
but I = ; I = ;
1
R1 2 R2
I 3 = ; I = 2.0 Ω
R R 3 eq 4.0 Ω
V V V V
= + +
Req R1 R2 R3 6 .0 V
Calculate :
1 1 1 1 a. the total resistance of the circuit.
= + +
Req R1 R2 R3 b. the total current in the circuit.
c. the potential difference across 4.0 Ω resistor.
41 42
 18.6 Resistors in series and parallel 18.6 Resistors in series and parallel
Solution 18.12 Solution 18.12
12 Ω b.
2.0 Ω
4.0 Ω
6.0 V c.
a.
43 44
18.6 Resistors in series and parallel.
Exercise 18.13
SUBTOPIC :
For the circuits shown below, calculate the equivalent
resistance between points x and y. 18.7 Kirchhoff’s Laws
8.0 Ω
2.0 Ω LEARNING OUTCOMES :
x 16.0 Ω 20.0 Ω
At the end of this lesson, the students
1.0 Ω 16.0 Ω should be able to :
1.0 Ω 2.0 Ω
x 9.0 Ω y a) State and use Kirchhoff’s Law’s.
3.0 Ω 6.0 Ω
y 18.0 Ω
(0.79 Ω) (8.0 Ω)
45 46
18.7 Kirchhoff’s Laws
18.7 Kirchhoff’s Laws Kirchhoff’s second law (loop/voltage law)
• It states that in any closed loop, the algebraic
Kirchhoff’s first law (junction/current law) sum of e.m.fs is equal to the algebraic sum of
the products of current and resistance.
• It states that the algebraic sum of the currents at any
junction of a circuit is zero,
∑ ε = ∑ IR in any closed loop
• ∑ I = 0 at any junction
or Sign convention
-ε +IR
• ∑I in =∑I out
at any junction R
ε I
- IR
+ε
47 48
across battery across resistor
 18.7 Kirchhoff’s Laws 18.7 Kirchhoff’s Laws
Example 18.14 Solution 18.14
ε1 = 20 V
Using Kirchhoff’s rules, find the current in each
resistor.
R2 = 20 Ω R1 = 10 Ω
ε1 = 20 V
R2 = 20 Ω R1 = 10 Ω
Step ε2 = 10 V
1. Draw current. (arbitrary)
2. Draw loop. (arbitrary)
ε2 = 10 V 3. Apply Kirchhoff’s laws.
49 50
Example 18.15 18.7 Kirchhoff’s Laws 18.7 Kirchhoff’s Laws
Apply Kirchhoff’s rules to the circuit in figure below and find the Example 18.16
current in each resistor.
ε1 = 6.0 V R1 = 3.0 Ω Find the current in each resistor in the circuit shown below.
R2 = 4.0 Ω
R2 = 4.0 Ω
R4 = 2.0 Ω
I R1 = 4.0 Ω ε2 = 5.0 V ε 3 = 5 .0 V
R3 = 5.0 Ω ε2 = 3.0 V
ε1 = 10 V R3 = 4.0 Ω
51 52
18.7 Kirchhoff’s Laws 18.7 Kirchhoff’s Laws
Solution 18.16 Example 18.17
A cell of e.m.f. 4.0 V and internal resistance 1.0 Ω is
connected in series with another cell of e.m.f. 2.5 V internal
resistance 0.5 Ω in a closed loop in such a way that the
current in the loop is minimum. Draw a circuit diagram to
show how the cells are connected and calculate the current.
Solution;
I
ε1 = 4.0 V
ε2 = 2.5 V
r1 = 1.0 Ω r2 = 0.5 Ω
53 54
 18.7 Kirchhoff’s Laws 18.7 Kirchhoff’s Laws
Example 18.18 Solution 18.18
Calculate the currents I1,I2 and I3. Neglect the internal Calculate the currents I1,I2 and I3. Neglect the internal
resistance in each battery. resistance in each battery.
I1 R1 = 1 Ω
ε = 15 V
1
I2 R2 = 0.5 Ω
ε 2 = 10 V
R3 = 0.1 Ω
I3
ε 3 = 3 .0 V
55 56
18.7 Kirchhoff’s Laws
Exercise 18.19
Given ε1=8V, R2=2 Ω, R3=3 Ω,
R =1 Ω and I=3 A. Ignore the internal resistance in
1
each battery. I1 ε1
Calculate
a. the currents I1 and I2. R1
ε2 R2
b. the e.m.f. ε2. I2
Ans. : -1 A, 4 A , 17 V
I R3
57
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