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During the past two decades substantial additions have been made
to our knowledge of the Indus civilization. Numerous excavations
have been made to by various archaeological agencies both foreign
and Indian at different sites of the civilization. The discovery of
Naushera in Pakistan has yielded important evidence relating to the
actual process of transformation from the early to mature Harappan
phase.
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Urban-Town Planning:
The excavation undertaken in various places gives clear indication
that the people of Indus valley were primarily urban people. The
Indus cities whether Harappa or Mahenjo-daro in Pakistan or
Kalibangan, Lothal or Sarkotada in India shows Town planning of a
truly amazing nature. In both the places the cities were built on a
uniform plan.
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House drains connected in the main drains running under the main
streets and below many lanes. Drains were made of gypsum, lime
and cement, covered with portable stabs. In regular intervals, there
were inspection traps and main-holes for inspection. Main drains
were feet 2½ to 5 ft. broad. The small drains were connected with
main drains which helped to pull water speedily out of the town.
Every house had an independent soak- pit which collected all
sediments and allowed water to flow to the main drains passing
underneath the main streets of the town.
Proper care was taken to ensure that the house-wives did not throw
refuse and dirt in the drains. The extensive drainage system
adopted by the people of the Indus Valley unhesitatingly proves that
the people of the time had developed a high sense of health and
sanitation. The people of Indus Valley had generally constructed
three types of buildings. Such as dwelling houses, public halls and
public baths. Burnt bricks were used and fixed skillfully with the
help of mud and mortar for the construction of houses and other
different structures of the towns. Buildings were of different sizes
but generally were single or double storied.
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From the existence of a stare case it is evident that double storied
dwelling houses were widely prevalent. The houses were furnished
with paved floors and were provided with doors and windows. The
roofs were made of mud, reed and wood. Every house possessed a
well both room courtyard kitchen and first class drainage network.
The houses were more or less typified the same plan, a square
courtyard round of which a number of rooms. Almost every house
had a bathroom at the ground floor and some even on the first floor.
The bathrooms were connected by a drainage channel to sewers in
the main streets leading to soak-pits. The domestic drainage system
and the bathing structures and the outlets are found to be very
remarkable.
The average size of the ground floor of a house was about 11 square
metres but there existed many bigger houses. There were some
barrack-like groups of single roomed tenements at Mahenjo-daro
and Harappa similar to the coolie lines of Indian tea and other
estates. Many public buildings have come to notice during
excavation. A high pillared hall having an area of 80 sq. feet came to
light which is accepted to have been used as an assembly hall for
transacting matters of common interest. Another notable building
discovered is considered to be the state granary.
It is 200 feet long and 150 feet wide and further sub-divided into
smaller storage blocks for storing different types of grains generally
used during the period of food crisis. A great public bath excavated
in Mahenjo-daro is really significant. It is really thought provoking
how such a massive bath as back as 5000 years could be
constructed. It is 180 feet by 180 feet square.
The statue of a dancing girl with her hands on hip and a dancer
standing on her right leg raising the left leg to the front typified the
standard of the artistic value of the people of the Indus Valley
civilization. The people had made remarkable progress in the art of
pottery. Many beautiful glazed and coloured potteries have been
unearthed during the excavation.
Art of Carving:
The excavation of Mahenjo-daro and Harappa throws a flood of
light that the people of Indus valley did not lag behind in the field of
engraving of animals on many seals that came to our hand. The
engravings were simple but elegant and the variety is also a matter
of surprise. The engraving of bulls, rhinoceros elephants, deer’s etc.
on the seals speaks about their skill in this field.
The carving of a humped bull is a unique specimen and it
symbolizes the realism and simplicity in the process of the
engraving. The figures are generally engraved on ivory, soap stone,
leather, metal and wood. All these exhibits unmistakably prove that
the art of engraving achieved a success during the Indus valley
civilization.
The Indus valley people were also well versed in the art of writing.
The script followed was pictographic. Though in the seals scripts are
plentifully available but in-spite of pain staking endeavor the
scholars are not successful in deciphering the scripts for which
many important information’s still remain under darkness.
Social Life:
The ruins and various evidence of Harappa and Mahenjo-daro
reveal a great deal about social and economic life of the people of
Indus valley. On examination of the skulls and bones discovered
during excavation it is said that the people were either Dravidians
or a branch of Indo-Aryans. Some other scholars are of opinion that
they were from the same stock of the Sumerians or the Cretans.
Food:
The people were taking beef, mutton, pork, poultry, turtles and
tortoises as their main food. Wheat was their main article of food.
Barley and palm-date were also familiar. Fish was commonly used
and vegetables and fruits seem to have been known though there is
no positive evidence.
Dress:
Cotton fabrics were in common use but wool was also used. Their
dress was simple. Men used shawls which were drawn over the left
shoulder and under the right arm so as to leave the right arm free. It
formed the upper garment. The lower garment was like a modern
dhoti. Their hair was combed backwards and was either cut short or
coiled in a knot on the top of the head. Men kept short beards and
sometimes the upper lip was shaved.
Ornaments:
The people were fond of ornaments. Both men and women of all
classes used necklaces fillets, arm lets, finger rings, and bangles.
Girdles nose studs, earrings, and anklets were used by the women
alone. There was a great variety in the shape and design of these
ornaments of the Indus valley people. The rich made the ornaments
of gold, silver, ivory, faience and other semi precious stones like
lapis-lazuli, carnelian, agate and jasper. The poor used ornaments
made of copper bone shell and terra cotta. People knew the art of
toilet and cosmetic.
Toilet jars made of ivory, metal, pottery and stone. Ladies were well
acquainted with the toilet culture. As stones were not available
there it was imported from other places and so was sparingly used.
As no scarp of iron is found in Mahenjo-daro, this metal was not
known to the people. Indus valley people knew the use of gold,
silver, copper, tin, lead and bronze.
Amusements:
Among amusements dancing with the accompaniment of the drum,
and dice playing was very common. Hunting was practiced as a
common game. People were also interested in fishing.
Household Articles:
The earthen ware vessels of rich variety prepared by the potters
with the help of their wheel either plain or painted highly burnished
with the appearance of Chinese lacquer discovered from the
Mahenjo-daro speaks of the high standard skill of the people of
Mahenjo-daro.
Clay models of birds, animals, whistles, rattles, men and women etc.
were also discovered from the region. There were wheeled carts and
chairs. People used a large number of weights of different size. They
ranged from large ones to be lifted with a rope to very small ones
used by jewelers.
Cubical weights were most common. The unit weight had the value
of 8750 grams the largest weight being 10.970 grams. A bronze bar
with suspended copper pans was used as a scale. All these weights
prove that the decimal system was known to the people of the Indus
Valley.
Domestication of Animals:
They had domesticated animals. Humped bull, buffalo, sheep, pig,
dog, elephant and camels were domesticated. Horse was not
domesticated. They used carts in which bullocks were used. The
people had learnt the benefit of domesticating animals and
therefore widely practiced the same. It is evident that the people
were familiar to wild animals mainly tiger, bear, rhinoceros, hair
squirrel and monkey.
Weapons of War:
It is generally accepted that the Indus Valley people were peace
loving. In fact no deadly weapons or defensive weapons like shield
or armor have discovered during excavation. On the contrary
weapons like axe, spear, bows and arrows etc. discovered give
indication that the people were disinterested in warfare. However
the weapons so discovered prove that the people of the age knew the
use of copper, bronze. Incidentally they used to use a type of sharp
pointed and thick sword to protect themselves from external attack.
Disposal of Dead:
During the excavation the remnants discovered suggest that the
dead-bodies used to be disposed of by burning. Some dead-bodies
were buried under the ground and some were left exposed so that
animals or birds could consume its flesh and then the bones were
buried under the earth. Sir John Marshall said that the process of
burning was very common to the people.
Position of Women:
Women in the society were highly respected. The worship of mother
goddess indicates that women enjoyed enormous position in the
society. They were equally treated like their male counter-part in
the society.
Economic Life:
The basic economy of the people was necessarily agricultural.
Cultivation was on an extensive scale facilitated by the presence of
rivers. The principal food grains were wheat, barley, peas, and
sesamum. Cotton was also grown. The general diet consisted of
fruits, vegetables, animal food including beef, mutton, pork and
poultry.
The cuneiform clay tablets speak of the trade through Bahrain have
been amply confirmed by modern excavation. There was an
intermediate trade centre at Magan or Makan identified with Oman
or Some other part of South Arabia. Besides copper peacocks were
exported in exchange of silver and other commodities from
Mesopotamia.
Religion:
From the various articles discovered, one can safely conclude that
the people believed in image worshipping. The image of a female
deity resembles the image of mother goddess which has been
identified as the symbol of “Sakti”. A number of statues have been
discovered. One is a seminude female figure wearing girdle or band-
round her loins. Those figures represent the Mahadevi of the valley.
Apart from the worship of god and goddess the people of Indus
valley used to worship certain trees, birds, and animals. Some of the
animals were regarded as the ‘Vahana’ of the Shiva. The bull usually
depicted with a single horn was associated with god Shiva. It is
strange that the cow so universally worshipped in later Hinduism is
no where depicted in the Indus seals.
The high hill of silt at Budh Takkar as referred by Sri Sahani only
corroborates that such deposits was possible because of
unprecedented flood of high magnitude that prolonged unusually.
The gradual alluvial building at the river mouths right from the
beginning of the civilization was ultimately responsible for sheet-
flooding and consequent sub-emergence of Harappa settlements in
low lying areas.
The fierce tribes living in the hills and jungles gradually mustered
strength and invaded the rich and unguarded cities of the Indus
Valley. They let loose rapine massacre and destruction which
compelled the habitants to quit the dwellings and take to heels to
safer places. As the inhabitants of Indus Valley were neither war like
nor possessed suitable weaponry for their defence, they were unable
to repulse theunslaught of the invading tribes including the Aryans.
The complete ruin of the Indus cities could also have been due to
the wiping out of their system of agriculture. The rivers might have
changed their courses which would make irrigation impossible and
ruin the city. To conclude we can say that the Indus Valley
civilization resembles a great deal with those of Egypt,
Mesopotamia and China.
The developed urban life, the use of the potters wheel, kiln-burnt
bricks, copper and bronze vessels and pictorial writings are some of
the common distinct characteristics of all these civilizations. Indus
Valley civilization thus has contributed many valuable imprints to
the human civilization.