CRANKSHAFT TERMINOLOGY

The parts of a crankshaft may be identified by various words. However, the terms in figure 4-19
are the ones that are most commonly used in the NAVSEA technical manuals for the engines
used by the Navy.

The MAIN JOURNALS serve as the points of support and as the center of rotation for the shaft.
As bearing surfaces, the main journals and the connecting rod journals of crankshafts are
surface-hardened so that a longer wearing, more durable bearing metal can be used without
causing excessive wear of the shaft.

As illustrated in figure 4-19, crankshafts have a main journal at each end of the shaft with an
intermediate main journal between the cranks. Each CRANK (throw) of a shaft consists of three
parts, two webs and a pin, as shown in figure 4-19. Crank webs are sometimes called cheeks or
arms. The cranks, or throws, provide points of attach-ment for the connecting rods, which are
offset from the main journals.

In many crankshafts, especially in large engines, the connecting rod journals and main journals
are of hollow construction. Hollow construction not only reduces weight considerably but also
increases torque capability of the crankshaft and provides a passage for the flow of lubricating
oil (fig. 4-20).

The forces that turn the crankshaft of a diesel engine are produced and transmitted to the
crankshaft in a pulsating manner. These pulsa-tions create torsional vibrations, which are capable
of severly damaging an engine if they are not reduced, or dampened, by opposing forces. Many
engines require an extra dampening effect to ensure satisfactory operation. It is provided by a
torsional vibration damper mounted on the free end of the crankshaft. Several types of torsional
dampers are currently in use.

On some crankshafts, part of the web of the crankshaft extends beyond the main journal to
Figure 4-19.—One-piece, 6-throw crankshaft.

Figure 4-20.—An example of hollow connecting rod journal construction.

form or support counterweights. These counter-weights may be integral parts of the web (fig. 4-
19) or may be separate units attached to the web by studs and nuts, or setscrews (fig. 4-21).
Counterweights balance the offcenter weight of the individual crank throws and thereby
compensate for centrifugal force generated by each rotating crank throw. Without such balance,
the crank action will create severe vibrations, particularly at the higher speeds. If such vibrations
are not controlled, the shaft would become damaged. Excessive vibration may lead to complete
failure of the engine. Counterweights use inertia to reduce the pulsating effect of power impulses
in the same manner as the flywheel.
CRANKSHAFTS AND LUBRICATION

Whether a crankshaft is of solid construction (fig. 4-19) or of hollow construction (fig. 4-20), the
main journals, the connecting rod journals, and the webs of most shafts have drilled passages for
lubricating oil. Two other variations in the interior arrangement of oil passages in crankshafts are
shown in figure 4-22. A study of these two

Figure 4-22.—Examples of crankshaft oil passage arrangement.

Figure 4-21.—Crankshaft with removable counterweights.

oil passage arrangements will give you an idea of the part the crankshaft plays in engine
lubrication. In the system illustrated in view A of figure 4-22, each oil passage is drilled through
from a main bearing journal to a connecting rod journal. The oil passages are in pairs that
crisscross each other in such a way that the two oil holes for each journal are on opposite sides of
the journal. These holes are in axial alignment with the oil grooves of the bearing shells when the
shells are in place. Since the oil groove in a bearing goes at least halfway around the bearing, a
part of the groove will always be aligned with at least one of the holes.

In the oil passage arrangement shown in view B of figure 4-22 (the shaft is shown in fig. 4-19),
the passage is drilled straight through the diameter of each main and connecting rod journal. A
single diagonal passage is drilled from the outside of a crankshaft web to the center of the next
main journal. The diagonal passage connects the oil passages in the two adjoining connecting rod
journals and main journals. The outer end of the diagonal passage is plugged.

Lubricating oil under pressure enters the main bearing and is forced through the diagonal passage
to lubricate the connecting rod bearing. From there it flows through the drilled con-necting rod to
lubricate the piston pin and cool the piston.

In engines that use crankshaft oil passage arrangements such as those just discussed, the
connecting rods are drilled to carry the lubricating oil to the piston pins and piston. (Refer to fig.
4-17.) Not all engines have drilled connecting rods. In some V-type engines, drilled passages
supply oil to the main and connecting rod bearings, but oil for the lubrication and cooling of the
piston assembly may be supplied by centrifugal force or by separate supply lines. Variations in
engine lubricating systems are discussed later in chapter 8.
CRANKSHAFT THROW ARRANGEMENTS

The smooth operation of an engine and its steady production of power depends, to a great extent,
on the arrangement of the cranks on the shaft and on the firing order of the cylinders. For
uniform rotation of the crankshaft in most multicylinder engines, the power impulses must be
equally spaced with respect to the angle of crankshaft rotation. Whenever possible, they must
also be placed so that successive explosions do not occur in adjacent cylinders. (This
arrangement is not always possible, especially in 2-, 3-, and 4-cylinder engines.)

Crankshafts may be classified according to the number of throws—l throw, 2 throws, and so
forth. The 6-throw shaft illustrated in figure 4-19 is for a 6-cylinder, in-line, 2-stroke cycle
engine. Shafts of similar design can be used in V-type engines.

The number of cranks and their arrangement on the shaft depend on a number of factors, such as
the arrangement of the cylinders (in-line or V-type), the number of cylinders, and the operating
cycle of the engine. How these factors influence throw arrangement and firing order can be seen
in a comparison of examples a through e of figure 4-23. The arrangement of throws with respect
to one another and with respect to the circumference of the main journals is generally expressed
in degrees. In an in-line engine, the number of degrees between throws indicates the number of
degrees the crankshaft must rotate to bring the pistons to TDC in firing order. This is not true in
engines where each throw serves more than one cylinder. Figure 4-23 lists the examples of
throws with respect to cylinder arrangement, the number of cylinders served by each throw, and
the firing order of the cylinders. (The sketches are not drawn to scale and do not indicate relative
size, but are for illustrative purposes only.)

In studying the examples in figure 4-23, remember that the crankshaft must make only one
revolution (360°) in a 2-stroke cycle; whereas two revolutions are required in a 4-stroke cycle.
Note the throw arrangement in example a of a 4-stroke cycle engine. Since the 4-cylinder engine
in example a operates on the 4-stroke cycle, throws 1, 3, 4, and 2 (see firing order), must be 180°
apart in order for the firing to be spaced evenly in 720° of crankshaft rotation. Note too, that in
all the other examples, the throws are equally spaced, regardless of cylinder arrangement, cycle
of operation, or number of cylinders.

In examples b and c, the shaft design and the number of degrees between throws are the same.
Yet the shaft in example c fires twice as many cylinders. This is possible because one throw,
through a fork and blade rod, serves two cylinders which are positioned in 60° banks. Thus, even
though both engines operate on the 4-stroke cycle, the 12-cylinder engine requires only 60° shaft
rotation between power impulses.

There are six throws shown in examples b and d, yet they are 120° apart in one and 60° apart in
the other. Why? The cylinder arrangement, the total number of cylinders, and the number of
cylinders served by each throw are the same. In examples b and d, the operating cycle is the
controlling factor in throw arrangement. In examples d and e, other variations in shaft throw
arrangement and firing order are shown. Note that the differences are governed to a great extent
by the cylinder arrangement, the number of cylinders served by the shaft and by each throw, and
the operating cycle of the engine.
BEARINGS

As mentioned in chapter 3, the bearings of an engine make up an important group of parts.

Bearings serve to support rotating shafts and other moving parts and to transmit loads from one
part of the engine to another. Engine bearings consist of two basic types: antifriction bearings
and friction bearings. Both types are used in Navy diesel engines.

ANTIFRICTION BEARINGS

Antifriction bearings can be grouped into six general classifications: ball bearings, cylindrical
roller bearings, needle bearings, tapered roller bearings, self-aligning roller bearings, and thrust
bearings. The use of antifriction bearings is mostly limited to the exterior areas of an engine. You
will find them in use in cooling pumps, fuel-injection pumps, governors, starters, flywheel pilot
bearings, turbochargers, and blowers.

All antifriction bearings employ a rolling element (rollers, balls, or needles) between the inner
and outer rings (races). Either the inner ring or the outer ring will remain stationary. (Refer to fig.
4-24 for cutaway views of two types of antifriction bearings.) Because of the small contact area
between the rolling elements and the inner and outer rings and necessity for the bearing to
withstand the high compression stress, the material used for the construction of roller bearing

is usually carbonized steel alloy and that used for ball bearings is usually heat-treated chromium-
alloy steel.

Figure 4-25.—Main journal bearing shells.

Figure 4-24.—Cutaway view of a ball bearing and roller bearing.

As an Engineman, you will come into contact with various items of equipment that may require
bearing replacement. Bearings that are similar in appearance may not be suitable as replacement
bearings. Ball and roller bearings are identified by a numerical code which indicates the bore in
millimeters or sixteenths of an inch. The internal fit, or tolerance, and any special characteristics
are also coded by number. Letter codes indicate the type of bearing, the outside diameter (OD),
the width of the cage, the seal or shield, the modification, and the required lubricant.

The crankshaft, sometimes abbreviated to crank, is the part of an engine that translates
reciprocating linear piston motion into rotation. To convert the reciprocating motion into
rotation, the crankshaft has "crank throws" or "crankpins", additional bearing surfaces whose
axis is offset from that of the crank, to which the "big ends" of the connecting rods from each
cylinder attach.

It typically connects to a flywheel to reduce the pulsation characteristic of the four-stroke cycle,
and sometimes a torsional or vibrational damper at the opposite end, to reduce the torsional
vibrations often caused along the length of the crankshaft by the cylinders farthest from the
output end acting on the torsional elasticity of the metal.
Design

Components of a typical, four stroke cycle, DOHC piston engine. (E) exhaust camshaft, (I)
intake camshaft, (S) spark plug, (V) valves, (P) piston, (R) connecting rod, (C) crankshaft, (W)
water jacket for coolant flow.
MAN marine crankshaft for 6cyl marine diesel applications. Note locomotive on left for size
reference
Large engines are usually multicylinder to reduce pulsations from individual firing strokes, with
more than one piston attached to a complex crankshaft. Many small engines, such as those found
in mopeds or garden machinery, are single cylinder and use only a single piston, simplifying
crankshaft design. This engine can also be built with no riveted seam.

Bearings

The crankshaft has a linear axis about which it rotates, typically with several bearing journals
riding on replaceable bearings (the main bearings) held in the engine block. As the crankshaft
undergoes a great deal of sideways load from each cylinder in a multicylinder engine, it must be
supported by several such bearings, not just one at each end. This was a factor in the rise of V8
engines, with their shorter crankshafts, in preference to straight-8 engines. The long crankshafts
of the latter suffered from an unacceptable amount of flex when engine designers began using
higher compression ratios and higher rotational speeds. High performance engines often have
more main bearings than their lower performance cousins for this reason.

Piston stroke

The distance the axis of the crank throws from the axis of the crankshaft determines the piston
stroke measurement, and thus engine displacement. A common way to increase the low-speed
torque of an engine is to increase the stroke, sometimes known as "shaft-stroking." This also
increases the reciprocating vibration, however, limiting the high speed capability of the engine.
In compensation, it improves the low speed operation of the engine, as the longer intake stroke
through smaller valve(s) results in greater turbulence and mixing of the intake charge. Most
modern high speed production engines are classified as "over square" or short-stroke, wherein
the stroke is less than the diameter of the cylinder bore. As such, finding the proper balance
between shaft-stroking speed and length leads to better results.

Engine configuration

The configuration and number of pistons in relation to each other and the crank leads to straight,
V or flat engines. The same basic engine block can be used with different crankshafts, however,
to alter the firing order; for instance, the 90° V6 engine configuration, in older days sometimes
derived by using six cylinders of a V8 engine with what is basically a shortened version of the
V8 crankshaft, produces an engine with an inherent pulsation in the power flow due to the
"missing" two cylinders. The same engine, however, can be made to provide evenly spaced
power pulses by using a crankshaft with an individual crank throw for each cylinder, spaced so
that the pistons are actually phased 120° apart, as in the GM 3800 engine. While production V8
engines use four crank throws spaced 90° apart, high-performance V8 engines often use a "flat"
crankshaft with throws spaced 180° apart. The difference can be heard as the flat-plane
crankshafts result in the engine having a smoother, higher-pitched sound than cross-plane (for
example, IRL IndyCar Series compared to NASCAR Sprint Cup Series, or a Ferrari 355
compared to a Chevrolet Corvette). See the main article on crossplane crankshafts.
Engine balance

For some engines it is necessary to provide counterweights for the reciprocating mass of each
piston and connecting rod to improve engine balance. These are typically cast as part of the
crankshaft but, occasionally, are bolt-on pieces. While counter weights add a considerable
amount of weight to the crankshaft, it provides a smoother running engine and allows higher
RPM levels to be reached.

Rotary engines

Many early aircraft engines (and a few in other applications) had the crankshaft fixed to the
airframe and instead the cylinders rotated, known as a rotary engine design. Rotary engines such
as the Wankel engine are referred to as pistonless rotary engines.

In the Wankel engine the rotors drive the eccentric shaft, which could be considered the
equivalent of the crankshaft in a piston engine.

Construction

Continental engine marine crankshafts, 1942

Crankshafts can be monolithic (made in a single piece) or assembled from several pieces.
Monolithic crankshafts are most common, but some smaller and larger engines use assembled
crankshafts.
Forging and casting

Crankshafts can be forged from a steel bar usually through roll forging or cast in ductile steel.
Today more and more manufacturers tend to favor the use of forged crankshafts due to their
lighter weight, more compact dimensions and better inherent dampening. With forged
crankshafts, vanadium microalloyed steels are mostly used as these steels can be air cooled after
reaching high strengths without additional heat treatment, with exception to the surface
hardening of the bearing surfaces. The low alloy content also makes the material cheaper than
high alloy steels. Carbon steels are also used, but these require additional heat treatment to reach
the desired properties. Iron crankshafts are today mostly found in cheaper production engines
(such as those found in the Ford Focus diesel engines) where the loads are lower. Some engines
also use cast iron crankshafts for low output versions while the more expensive high output
version use forged steel.

Machining

Crankshafts can also be machined out of a billet, often a bar of high quality vacuum remelted
steel. Though the fiber flow (local inhomogeneities of the material's chemical composition
generated during casting) doesn’t follow the shape of the crankshaft (which is undesirable), this
is usually not a problem since higher quality steels, which normally are difficult to forge, can be
used. These crankshafts tend to be very expensive due to the large amount of material that must
be removed with lathes and milling machines, the high material cost, and the additional heat
treatment required. However, since no expensive tooling is needed, this production method
allows small production runs without high costs.

Fatigue strength

The fatigue strength of crankshafts is usually increased by using a radius at the ends of each
main and crankpin bearing. The radius itself reduces the stress in these critical areas, but since
the radius in most cases are rolled, this also leaves some compressive residual stress in the
surface, which prevents cracks from forming.

Hardening

Most production crankshafts use induction hardened bearing surfaces, since that method gives
good results with low costs. It also allows the crankshaft to be reground without re-hardening.
But high performance crankshafts, billet crankshafts in particular, tend to use nitridization
instead. Nitridization is slower and thereby more costly, and in addition it puts certain demands
on the alloying metals in the steel to be able to create stable nitrides. The advantage of
nitridization is that it can be done at low temperatures, it produces a very hard surface, and the
process leaves some compressive residual stress in the surface, which is good for fatigue
properties. The low temperature during treatment is advantageous in that it doesn’t have any
negative effects on the steel, such as annealing. With crankshafts that operate on roller bearings,
the use of carburization tends to be favored due to the high Hertzian contact stresses in such an
application. Like nitriding, carburization also leaves some compressive residual stresses in the
surface.
Counterweights

Some expensive, high performance crankshafts also use heavy-metal counterweights to make the
crankshaft more compact. The heavy-metal used is most often a tungsten alloy but depleted
uranium has also been used. A cheaper option is to use lead, but compared with tungsten its
density is much lower.

Stress on crankshafts
The shaft is subjected to various forces but generally needs to be analysed in two positions.
Firstly, failure may occur at the position of maximum bending; this may be at the centre of the
crank or at either end. In such a condition the failure is due to bending and the pressure in the
cylinder is maximal. Second, the crank may fail due to twisting, so the conrod needs to be
checked for shear at the position of maximal twisting. The pressure at this position is the
maximal pressure, but only a fraction of maximal pressure.

Torsional vibration is angular vibration of an object—commonly a shaft along its axis of

rotation. Torsional vibration is often a concern in power transmission systems using rotating
shafts or couplings where it can cause failures if not controlled.

In ideal power generation, or transmission, systems using rotating parts, not only the torques
applied or reacted are "smooth" leading to constant speeds, but also the rotating plane where the
power is generated (or input) and the plane it is taken out (output) are the same. In reality this is
not the case. The torques generated may not be smooth (e.g., internal combustion engines) or the
component being driven may not react to the torque smoothly (e.g., reciprocating compressors),
and the power generating plane is normally at some distance to the power takeoff plane. Also,
the components transmitting the torque can generate non-smooth or alternating torques (e.g.,
elastic drive belts, worn gears, misaligned shafts). Because no material can be infinitely stiff,
these alternating torques applied at some distance on a shaft cause twisting vibration about the
axis of rotation.
Crankshaft torsional vibration
Torsional vibration is a concern in the crankshafts of internal combustion engines because it
could break the crankshaft itself; shear-off the flywheel; or cause driven belts, gears and attached
components to fail, especially when the frequency of the vibration matches the torsional resonant
frequency of the crankshaft. Causes of the torsional vibration are attributed to several factors.

 Alternating torques are generated by the slider-crank mechanism of the crankshaft,

connecting rod, and piston.
o The cylinder pressure due to combustion is not constant through the combustion
cycle.
o The slider-crank mechanism does not output a smooth torque even if the pressure
is constant (e.g., at top dead centre there is no torque generated)
o The motion of the piston mass and connecting rod mass generate alternating
torques often referred to as "inertia" torques
 Engines with six or more cylinders in a straight line configuration can have very flexible
crankshafts due to their long length.
 There is inherently little damping in a crankshaft to reduce the vibration except for the
shearing resistance of oil film in the main and conrod bearings.

If torsional vibration is not controlled in a crankshaft it can cause failure of the crankshaft or any
accessories that are being driven by the crankshaft (typically at the front of the engine; the inertia
of the flywheel normally reduces the motion at the rear of the engine).

This potentially damaging vibration is often controlled by a torsional damper that is located at
the front nose of the crankshaft (in automobiles it is often integrated into the front pulley). There
are two main types of torsional dampers.

 Viscous dampers consist of an inertia ring in a viscous fluid. The torsional vibration of
the crankshaft forces the fluid through narrow passages that dissipates the vibration as
heat. The viscous torsional damper is analogous to the hydraulic shock absorber in a car's
suspension.
 Tuned absorber type of "dampers" often referred to as a harmonic dampers or harmonic
balancers (even though it technically does not dampen or balance the crankshaft). This
damper uses a spring element (often rubber in automobile engines) and an inertia ring
that is typically tuned to the first torsional natural frequency of the crankshaft. This type
of damper reduces the vibration at specific engine speeds when an excitation torque
excites the first natural frequency of the crankshaft, but not at other speeds. This type of
damper is analogous to the tuned mass dampers used in skyscrapers to reduce the
building motion during an earthquake.
Measuring torsional vibration on physical systems
The most common way to measure torsional vibration is the approach of using equidistant pulses
over one shaft revolution. Dedicated shaft encoders as well as gear tooth pickup transducers
(induction, hall-effect, variable reluctance,etc.) can generate these pulses. The resulting encoder
pulse train is converted into either a digital rpm reading or a voltage proportional to the rpm.

The use of a dual-beam laser is another technique that is used to measure torsional vibrations.
The operation of the dual-beam laser is based on the difference in reflection frequency of two
perfectly aligned beams pointing at different points on a shaft. Despite its specific advantages,
this method yields a limited frequency range, requires line-of-sight from the part to the laser, and
represents multiple lasers in case several measurement points need to be measured in parallel.