LV42-Electrical and Electronic Systems

kap all phase 2 & 3 6/11/03 11:38 am Page 45
Student Workbook
LV42
Electrical and
Electronic
Systems (3)
LV42/SWB
Student Workbook for Technical Certificates in
Light Vehicle Maintenance and Repair
MODULE LV42
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC
SYSTEMS (3)
Contents
Page Page
Introduction 3 Safety Information: 23

Electronic SRS airbag 23
Revision Exercises 3 Mechanical SRS airbag 24
Connectors 25
SRS Airbag and Seatbelt Airbag activation prevention
Pre-tensioners: 7 mechanism 26
SRS airbag 8 Diagnosis 26
Deployment conditions 8 Progress check 3 27
Overview of operation 9 Storage 28
Types of SRS airbags 9 Electronic type disposal 30
Mechanical type 10 Disposal mechanical type 31
Airbag sensor 10
Safety mechanism 12 Seat Belt Pre-tensioners: 32
Electronic type 13 Piston type 32
Overview of operation 13 Spool type 33
Airbag sensors - external to SRS 14 Safety device (mechanical type only) 33
ECU
Safing sensor - inside SRS ECU 14 Multiplexing: 34
Mercury switch 15 Multiplex communication system 35
SRS electrical circuitry 16 Progress check 4 38
Spiral cable 17 Multiplex faults 39
Fitting a spiral cable 18 Open circuits 39
Progress check 1 19 Daisy chaining 39
Short circuits + B short 40
Other Airbags: 20 Ground short 41
Operation 21 Bus cut relays 41
Progress check 2 22 Types of multiplex 42
(Cont.)
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Copyright © Automotive Skills Limited 2003 LV42: Electrical and Electronic Systems (3) Issue 1
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Page Page
Noise elimination 43 DVD (Digital Versatile Disc) 56
Progress check 5 44
Multiplex diagnosis 45 Speakers: 57
Test equipment 46 Progress check 8 58
Typical wiring diagram 47
Progress check 6 48 Satellite Navigation: 59
Advantages 59
Vehicle Security – Immobiliser: 49 Disadvantages 59
Operation 49
Progress check 7 50 GPS (Global Positioning System): 60
How it works 60
In-car Radio: 51
Broadcasting 53 In-vehicle Communication Systems 62
Cassette Tape Player: 54 Telematics: 63

Tape drive mechanism 54 Applications 63
Progress check 9 64
Compact Disc Player 55
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Introduction
Most vehicle manufacturers fit as standard many advanced features. During
this course of study we will look in detail at the following systems:
• SRS airbag and seatbelt pre-tensioner
• in-car entertainment systems
• satellite navigation systems
• multiplex communication
• diagnosis of such systems.
Revision Exercises
When studying such systems it is easy to overwhelmed by the apparent

complexity. It is important to maintain a focus on the basics, as they will
always apply.
Complete the following exercises on the next few pages to confirm your
understanding of fundamental electrics.
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1. The diagram below shows a simple earth switched lamp circuit.
Consider this circuit as serviceable and in the condition pictured
(switch closed or on).
Mark on the voltages at all the key points.
2. Now consider an open circuit fault in connector B (poor terminal

contact).
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3. Now consider an open circuit fault in connector F (poor terminal
contact).
4. Now consider a high resistance fault in connector D (poor terminal

contact).
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5. Now consider a high resistance fault in connector F (poor terminal
contact).
6. Draw three differing short circuit faults on the circuits below:
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SRS Airbag and Seatbelt Pre-tensioners
All vehicle safety systems fall into one of two categories, passive or active.
A passive safety system is one that acts to limit injury during an accident.
An active safety system is one that acts to prevent the accident from
happening in the first place.
SRS (Supplementary Restraint System) airbags are a good example of a

passive safety system. Airbags are now positioned to protect the driver and
passengers in the event of impact from virtually any direction, with the
exception of rear end shunts (where the head restraint is of primary
importance). Driver’s airbags are housed within the steering wheel pad,
passenger airbags within the dashboard, curtain shield airbags in the roof
runner trim and side airbags in the seat back. Some manufacturers are now
fitting airbags to protect the driver’s knees and also airbags that deploy across
the front screen. Rollover protection airbags can now be found under roof
linings on high specification vehicles.
Seat belt pre-tensioners work in conjunction with frontal protection airbags.

Upon deployment of the front airbags, explosive charges remove any slack
from the seat belt preventing the occupant from adopting a position
dangerously close to the deploying airbag. The importance of wearing
seatbelts in a vehicle equipped with airbags cannot be over stressed. Without
this restraining mechanism, airbags can indeed be lethal. Hence the term
SRS – Supplementary Restraint System.
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SRS airbag
The diagrams above show the underlying principle of the airbag. During
frontal impact the airbag deploys automatically providing a cushioning effect
between the occupant and the vehicle. In an accident, events take place very
quickly and the SRS airbag system must be capable of responding to this. A
vehicle travelling at 30 mph in collision with a non-deformable barrier will
come to a complete standstill in under 100ms (100 thousandths of a second
or 1 tenth). From impact detection to full deployment can take as little as
20ms (20 thousandths of a second).
Without the protection of the airbag, the impact experienced by the occupant
at this speed (30 mph) is the equivalent of a fall from a third floor window.
Deployment conditions
An airbag deploys with considerable force (it has to in order to be effective).

For this reason it is vital that deployment only occurs in the event that the
accident requires it. If an airbag were to deploy during minor collisions (such
as ‘kerbing’ the vehicle or knocking a parking post at low speed) the
deployment could result in serious injury.
To this end, the SRS airbag system will not deploy the airbags until a pre-
determined threshold is reached. This threshold is the equivalent impact
energy released if a vehicle was to collide with a non-deformable barrier at a
speed of 12 to 14 mph.
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Overview of operation
All SRS airbags have at least the following components:
• airbag sensor(s)
• inflator
• bag.
The sensor detects the impact energy and if this exceeds the predetermined
threshold it activates the inflator. The inflator instantly generates nitrogen gas
through the use of a primer, an igniter charge and gas generant pellets. The
nitrogen gas inflates a nylon bag that provides the cushioning affect. The bag
has deflation holes (normally two) that ensure that the bag does not create a
rebound effect or obscure the view of the driver where applicable.
Nitrogen gas is not harmful (the air that you breathe is 78% nitrogen). The
explosive charge that generates the nitrogen gas does generate high
temperatures that can result in superficial burns. The nylon bag itself can
cause minor abrasions to the face. During deployment, ‘smoke’ is generated.
Most of this ‘smoke’ is talcum powder, which is used as a lubricant, but some
compounds of sodium are also generated. These compounds are mostly
harmless but can cause minor skin irritation. Face and hands should be
washed as soon as practicable after deployment is experienced.
Deployment is very loud! During controlled deployment (discussed later) ear

defenders must be used. People involved in accidents where deployment has
occurred often state that the noise of the impact obscures the noise of
deployment, which gives you some idea of the levels of noise that an accident
generates!
Types of SRS airbags
Airbag systems are categorised into two main types:
• mechanical
• electronic.
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Mechanical type
The mechanical type system is completely self-contained within the airbag

assembly itself and is not electrical in anyway.
Airbag sensor
The sensor on the mechanical system consists of a weight that when moved
operates a firing pin mechanism. The firing pin assembly is very similar to
that of a gun, the exception being that the pin is released through the action of
the weight rather than the action of a trigger.
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During impact (the accident) the weight will roll forward when the
predetermined impact threshold is reached. This movement tilts the trigger
shaft, which releases the firing pin. When the firing pin strikes the primer it
ignites; this generates the gas required for inflation.
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Safety mechanism
The mechanical type airbag is particularly dangerous to the technician. The

nature of its deployment mechanism is such that if the airbag was to be
dropped when removed it could deploy. To reduce the likelihood of this
happening, manufacturers design a safety device into the mechanism. The
airbag assembly cannot actually be removed from the car unless this safety
device is engaged; it is not physically possible to do so.
There are two types of safety mechanism but their action is similar. The one
pictured to the right is the pull type. In order to engage the safety device (and
remove the airbag assembly) the rod must be withdrawn fully.
Note: The rod cannot be removed completely from the airbag assembly; it is
captive. The action of withdrawing the rod locks the weight in place. This
makes the assembly safe.
The second type of safety mechanism is shown above. The only difference is
that this rod is withdrawn by rotating it, normally with a tamperproof Torx bit.
Although these safety mechanisms provide a high degree of protection it

should be noted that the greatest of care should be taken with mechanical
airbags. They are explosive devices and must be treated with respect. A rifle
loaded and cocked with the safety catch applied is far from risk free and a
mechanical airbag is very similar in its design and capability.
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Note: Under no circumstances apply force to a mechanical airbag assembly
i.e. with a hammer. The airbag is highly likely to deploy, especially if it is fitted
to the car and the safety mechanism is not engaged.
Electronic type
The electronic type airbag system will deploy when an electric current flows
through the inflator assembly. This flowing current generates heat in the
primer igniting the igniting agent. The igniting agent in turn ignites the igniter
charge and this heat energy spreads to the gas generant generating the
nitrogen gas required to inflate the bag.
Overview of operation
1
Safing
Safing Sensor
Sensor ON
ON
1 Ignition
AND
AND Ignition
Crash
Crash sensor
sensor ON
ON
1
Range of operation
The airbag sensors (crash sensors or impact sensors) are designed to provide
an electrical signal to the SRS ECU (sometimes referred to as a centre airbag
sensor assembly). The receipt of such a signal from an airbag sensor (there
are normally two of them, one mounted on each of the inner wings under the
bonnet) indicates that the vehicle is in a collision and that the impact threshold
has been exceeded.
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The SRS ECU will not deploy the airbag(s) until it receives a confirmation
signal from the safing sensor. This sensor is mounted inside the SRS ECU
itself, hence this is sometimes referred to as the centre airbag sensor
assembly. Deployment will only take place if at least one external sensor and
the safing sensor confirm impact energy is sufficient. There always has to be
a signal from the safing sensor. Once impact is confirmed, the SRS ECU will
allow current to flow through the primer by grounding its supply circuit. This
confirmation approach prevents unnecessary deployment through a fault
which could be disastrous.
Airbag sensors – external to SRS ECU
Airbag sensors are of an eccentric mass design. This eccentric mass rotates
forwards upon collision bringing together two electrical contacts. When
contact is made, current flows to the SRS ECU providing an impact signal.
Safing sensor – inside SRS ECU
The safing sensor is of a different design. Mounted inside the SRS ECU, this
sensor is a strain gauge type. A strain gauge experiences a change in
resistance in accordance to flexing experienced. This flexing of the assembly
is caused by the impact energy and is converted into an electrical signal
through the use of an integrated circuit (IC).
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Mercury switch
Occasionally, the safing sensor is a mercury switch type although these are
rare. In this type, mercury rolls forward to make an electrical contact when the
impact threshold is exceeded.
Note: Upon deployment through impact, eccentric mass airbag sensors must
be replaced. This is because the large amount of current flowing through
them during deployment renders the contacts unserviceable.
Note: If the safing sensor inside the SRS ECU is of the mercury switch type,
the ECU must be replaced in the event of deployment for the same reason.
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SRS electrical circuitry
The diagram above shows a typical SRS airbag circuit configuration. It can be
seen that the SRS ECU receives a power supply via three fuses. This is to
reduce the amount of current that flows through the terminals on the ECU.
The SRS ECU applies a voltage to each of the front airbag sensors and also
controls the operation of the SRS warning lamp on the combination meter.
Upon impact, both or one of the front airbag sensors will make the circuit (it
can be seen that they are simply switches) applying voltage to the SRS ECU.
If the ECU receives a confirming signal from the safing sensor mounted inside
the ECU, it will deploy the airbag by sending a controlled current through the
inflator which is integral with the bag.
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Spiral cable
The driver’s airbag is mounted in the centre of the steering wheel. Because
the steering wheel rotates (on some cars as much as three full revolutions
from lock to lock) a special electrical contact is required to facilitate a
connection to the airbag assembly. Before the advent of airbags, a similar
problem was faced with connecting the horn push when mounted in the
middle of the steering wheel. This problem was overcome through the use of
slip rings and brushes. This type of contact would not be sufficiently reliable
for such a vital system as an airbag so an alternative solution was sought.
The spiral cable is a component that allows rotation to take place without
straining or breaking the cable. It is in effect a spool of cable that has
sufficient length to accommodate the rotation of the steering wheel.
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Fitting a spiral cable
The spiral cable must be centralised before fitting. If this is not done, the
cable will have plenty of movement in one direction but insufficient in the
other, and it will break when the steering is put on full lock in that direction.
New spiral cables are supplied locked in the central position with a small
plastic peg. Ensure that the steering is dead ahead, fit the cable and only
then remove the peg. Spiral cables that have been removed and are to be
refitted can be ‘timed’ through the use of a coloured tooth inside the assembly
and a match mark (usually an arrow).
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Progress check 1
Answer the following questions:
1. Which sensor must always turn on in order for deployment to take

place?
2. What is the purpose of the spiral cable?
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Other Airbags
Manufacturers are now using the benefits of airbag technology to protect the
occupants of the vehicle from impacts received from more than just the head
on direction.
Side impact accidents account for a large proportion of road casualties every
year. Side airbags and curtain shield airbags are designed to reduce injury in
this event.
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Operation
The operation of side and curtain shield airbags is very similar to that of driver
and passenger airbags. The key difference is the provision of additional crash
sensors designed to detect impact from the side. These sensors work in an
identical way to those already discussed but they are normally far quicker in
their ability to react (there is less crumple zone to the side of the vehicle).
These sensors are normally mounted at the bottom of the vehicle’s B posts.
There maybe some differences in the way in which the inflator mechanism
operates with some airbag assemblies.
A slightly different approach taken with a curtain shield airbag is shown above.
This type of airbag is referred to as a microgas type. Rather than relying on

heat and gas generating pellets, the airbag has a compressed gas canister.
The igniter fires a ‘nail’ into the canister, piercing it and releasing the gas into
the bag.
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Progress check 2
1. What type of impact is a curtain shield airbag designed to protect the

occupants from?
2. What gas is used to inflate the airbag assembly?
3. Where are the side impact sensors normally located?
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Safety Information
Electronic SRS airbag
Before carrying out any work on electronic SRS airbag systems (with the
exception of fault code extraction) it is essential that the vehicle battery be
disconnected. Disconnecting the vehicle battery prevents any current flowing
in the system and therefore prevents deployment.
IMPORTANT
ONCE THE VEHICLE BATTERY HAS BEEN DISCONNECTED, YOU MUST

WAIT AT LEAST 90 SECONDS BEFORE CARRYING OUT ANY WORK ON
THE SYSTEM.
This is because the SRS ECU contains large capacitors that are capable of
retaining sufficient charge to deploy the airbags during this time. These are
there to enable deployment to take place in the event that the vehicle’s battery
is destroyed during the collision.
Never use memory keepers when working on SRS airbag systems.
Always follow manufacturers’ specific procedures when working on these

systems.
Before carrying out any repairs on a vehicle, remove the airbag sensors if any
shocks are likely to be applied to or in the vicinity of the sensors.
If carrying out electric arc welding on a vehicle, always disconnect the airbags
and seat belt pre-tensioners.
Always check that all fault codes are clear after work has been completed.
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Never use an ohmmeter to measure the resistance of an airbag or
pretensioner assembly. Ohmmeters create current flow in the circuits they
measure and this will deploy them (very dangerous).
Always replace the SRS ECU if a vehicle collision has resulted in deployment.
Treat SRS ECU’s as toxic waste when disposing of them if they are known to
contain the mercury switch type safing sensor.
Never disconnect/reconnect the SRS ECU if it is not mounted to the vehicles

body; static could cause deployment.
Mechanical SRS airbag
When any work is to be carried out on such a vehicle that could result in
strong mechanical shocks, always engage the safety mechanisms on the
airbags and pre-tensioners.
Do not bring magnets close to mechanical airbag and pre-tensioner

assemblies.
When a vehicle has been involved in a collision, even if the airbags or pre-
tensioners have not deployed, always inspect the airbags and pre-tensioners.
Never use SRS airbag components from a donor vehicle; always use new
parts.
Never attempt to repair SRS airbag assemblies (including sensors, airbags,

pre-tensioners, ECU and loom); always replace the faulty part.
Never expose airbag components to heat.
At any sign of damage of any description to SRS components, replace them

with new ones.
When disposing of airbag or pre-tensioner assemblies, always deploy them

first. This includes scrapping a vehicle with such assemblies in situ.
Never place removed airbags deployment side down; if they deploy they will
take off like a rocket.
Never use grease or cleaning agents on SRS components.
Always follow manufacturers’ specific instructions when diagnosing SRS

airbag faults.
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Connectors
SRS airbag connectors (and loom conduits) are always coloured yellow to aid
identification.
Because of their importance, SRS airbag connectors are always of a most

secure design. Normal ‘push/ pull’ connectors would be insufficient due to the
risk of inadvertent disconnection. Shown above is a typical SRS connector.
To release the connector the lock must be disengaged and the hinged gate
lifted up. Only then can the connector be disconnected.
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Airbag activation prevention mechanism
It has already been stated that there is a very real risk of deployment if an
ohmmeter is used on the system in a way that creates current flow through
the airbag or pretensioner assembly. To reduce the likelihood of this
occurrence, a mechanism is in place that shorts together the connector
terminals on the assembly upon disconnection. This will prevent a potential
difference from being created across the primer and therefore prevent
accidental deployment. However, this mechanism is a last chance device and
no substitute for knowledge!
Diagnosis
Diagnosis of SRS airbag circuits must never be carried out without reference
to specific manufacturers’ instructions. This is because the use of an
ohmmeter to diagnose wiring faults (within the loom only) is often required,
and this presents a very real risk of accidental deployment if procedures are
not followed to the letter.
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Progress check 3
1. What is the purpose of the airbag activation prevention mechanism?
2. What colour are SRS airbag connectors?
3. Why must an SRS ECU never be unplugged unless it is fitted to the

vehicle body?
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Storage
Airbag inflators and seat belt pre-tensioners have now brought many vehicle
workshops under the controls of the Explosives Act 1875.
The air bag inflators and seat belt pre-tensioners contain a pyrotechnic device
that is considered to be an explosive article of Class 6 Division 1 under the
Explosives Act of 1875.
Once an explosive article has been classified as falling within the scope of the
Explosives Act, legal controls are imposed on where and how the articles may
be lawfully kept.
This means that, other than for private use the inflators and tensioners may
only be kept in a store licensed by the local authority or in premises registered
with the local authority.
Whether the articles should be kept in a licensed store or at registered

premises depends on the number of inflators/tensioners that the workshop
proposes to keep in stock.
For most workshops a secure steel cabinet is the most practical method of
storing inflators/tensioners. Provided that the cabinet is used solely for the
storage of inflators/tensioners and is located in a cool dry area well away from
flammable gases/liquids and sources of ignition, no further precautions need
be taken to comply with the law. However, it would be helpful for the fire
service to be aware of the contents of the cabinet as they may have to enter
the building in the event of a fire. This objective can be easily achieved by
simply displaying the orange hazard warning diamond 1.4s on the door of the
cabinet.
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Registration of the premises is simply a matter of completing an application
form (FSG5118) available from local Fire Safety Offices. A small fee is
payable and the registration must be renewed annually.
It may well be the practice of some motor manufacturers to preclude their

dealerships from having to keep a stock of inflators/tensioners by supplying
the units from a central distribution depot on an "as needed" basis. Where
this policy applies and the replacement unit is immediately fitted to the vehicle,
it may not be necessary to register the premises. Any units kept in stock for
future use will be deemed, as being kept for the purpose of sale and
registration is mandatory.
Where any non-deployed units are removed from vehicles undergoing repairs,
they should be placed in the registered store or cabinet until the repaired
vehicle is ready for refitting or until the unit can be safely disposed of where
the vehicle is being dismantled.
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Electronic type disposal
SRS airbags and seatbelt pre-tensioners must never be disposed of without

first deploying them. A typical deployment tool to aid the deployment of an
electronic type airbag is shown above. It is no more than a switched circuit
that enables a standard vehicle battery to be connected to the airbag or pre-
tensioner assembly and current applied.
It is best to use this tool to deploy the airbag or pretensioner whilst the
assembly is still fitted to the vehicle. If this is not possible, the following
procedure should be observed. The airbag should be firmly secured to an old
wheel and tyre assembly, deployment side uppermost. This wheel should
then have at least three tyres (no wheels) stacked on top of it. This will keep
what amounts to a controlled explosion contained.
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Disposal mechanical type
Disposal of the mechanical type requires the suspending of the assembly

inside the tyres and dropping it in order to bring about deployment.
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Seat Belt Pre-tensioners
Seat belt pre-tensioners are designed to work in direct conjunction with the
airbags. They act to tighten the seatbelts, securing the occupant firmly in their
seat. This prevents the occupant from adopting a position too close to the
airbag as it deploys thus preventing injury from the airbag.
Like an airbag, the pre-tensioner is a pyrotechnic device (explosive).

There are two main types, piston and spool, either of which could be
mechanical or electronic. The mechanical type has its own integrated inertial
sensor (similar to the mechanical airbag) and the electronic type is fired using
current supplied by the SRS ECU.
Piston type
The igniting charge generates gas in the same way as a conventional airbag
and the gas pressure forces the piston assembly down the cylinder. The
cable attached to the piston rotates the drum tightening the seatbelt.
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Spool type
The spool type uses a rotor to harness the gas pressure and rotate the drum.
The diagram above shows the assembly in various stages of deployment.
This type is far more common than the piston type due to its compactness.
This makes it far easier to house at the bottom of the vehicle’s B post. Seat
belt pre-tensioners always deploy simultaneously with the front airbags only.
Safety device (mechanical type only)
Like airbags, seatbelt pre-tensioners must be treated with respect.

Remember, they are explosive devices.
Before removing pre-tensioners, they must be made safe through the use of
an integral safety mechanism. These come in a number of different designs
and one type is pictured above.
This type consists of a clip that is pulled out and rotated thus preventing the
integral sensor mechanism from moving and deploying the pre-tensioner
(mechanical type only).
Always observe manufacturers’ instructions when working on such systems.
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Multiplexing
The diagram above shows a typical conventional body electronic system. The
electrical loads such as lights and motors are controlled via separate signal
wires between controlling ECU’s.
In a multiplex communication system (below), these separate signal wires are

replaced by a single wire, which carries encoded information between two or
more ECU's. The receiving ECU interprets this code and carries out an action
based on the instruction that this code represents (it will control an actuator of
some description, such as lights and motors).
This approach means a vast reduction in the wiring necessary, with an

accompanying reduction in weight, cost and complexity.
Think about the number of tasks that you are asked to perform on a daily
basis. If a separate individual were required for each of those tasks because
each person can only do one thing, how many people would your workshop
have to employ?
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Interconnecting computers (ECU's) are also a great way to increase the
power and usefulness of a single computer - the internet is an excellent
example of this. The internet is a WAN (Wide Area Network) and a vehicle's
multiplex system is a LAN (Local Area Network) as the sharing of information
is local to the vehicle only. In the near future, vehicles will also be able to
communicate with the internet. This is already being experimented with and
goes under the generic term of telematics which is discussed later in the
workbook.
For a number of years manufacturers have been designing their electronic

systems in a way that enables them to share sensor inputs. Prior to this, we
had a situation where quite often a number of sensors were used to gather
identical data. For example, we used to have no less than three coolant
temperature sensors - one for the engine ECU, one for the cooling fan and
one for the temperature gauge!
Multiplex communication system
Multiplex has now taken the concept of sharing to a new level. A sensor, no
matter what it is detecting has its data (normally a voltage) fed to the ECU
physically nearest to it. It makes no odds whether that ECU needs to know
that particular piece of information. The receiving ECU then looks at the data
and decides whether it needs to act on it. If it does then it will. It then
encodes the information into hexadecimal (a form of binary 0’s and 1’s) and
places this code onto the network. The network is a single wire connected to
all relevant ECU's on the vehicle. This network is sometimes referred to as a
communication bus. Call it what you like, it is a single wire that is able to
transfer an encoded message.
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Feeding the information to the nearest ECU reduces the length of the wire
required and therefore reduces weight, cost and voltage drop in that wire - this
is known as 'zonal partitioning'.
Every ECU on the communication bus will receive that information and will act
upon it if the information is relevant to its responsibilities.
As the network consists of only a single wire, we could have a situation where
several ECU's try to place information onto the network at the same time. To
prevent data collision, all messages are prioritised in order of importance. For
example, an ABS signal would be of a higher priority than a sunroof signal, so
that data would use the network first. Once the ABS message has been
received by all relevant ECU's and these ECU's have acknowledged the
message, the moon roof signal gets its turn (unless there is now another
message waiting that has a higher priority). It is easy to believe that the
sunroof signal won't be able to get a word in edgeways! When you appreciate
that a modern multiplex network communicates at a speed of approximately
10 million bits (binary digits – 0’s and 1's) every second, the wait is negligible.
Computers speak a unique language. The language is known as binary and

consists of a series of 1’s and 0’s. A sequence or stream of 1’s and 0’s in a
particular order and timed to occur in a particular way is ‘understood’ by a
computer and interpreted as information. Representing a binary 1 on a
multiplex network (just a wire remember) is simply a case of applying a
voltage to it. The presence of a voltage is recognised as a binary 1 and the
absence of a voltage (0 volts) is recognised as a binary 0. Therefore, to
create a stream of binary 1’s and 0’s we have to switch the voltage between
high and low rapidly and in the correct sequence. Now we are talking a
language that the computers (ECU’s) understand!
Response of
Data Length
Message
Receiver
Sending is
Complete
Header
Priority
Address for
ECU
Error Detection
End
Receiver Data Type Data

Code
ECU
These pulsed/timed voltages are interpreted by each ECU as information and

the bar graph in the diagram above indicates what each packet of data
represents.
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The oscilloscope screen above shows a typical multiplex signal.
The high voltages (represented by the peaks) are a binary 1 to any ECU
receiving it and the low voltages (represented by the troughs) are binary 0’s.
In the diagram above, the network configuration can be seen. This example
multiplex circuit has 4 ECU’s. To place a binary 1 onto the bus, (a high
voltage in other words) the Comms IC (communication integrated circuit) must
ground out the base terminal of the PNP type transistor. This will render the
transistor conductive and +B (battery voltage) will now be connected to the
communication bus.
To generate a binary 0 (no volts in other words), the Comms IC takes the
earth away from the PNP type transistor. This makes it non-conductive and
therefore the voltage on the network will be zero. To generate two binary 1’s
(one after the other) +B is connected to the network for twice the normal
duration, this is then interpreted by the receiving ECU's as two binary 1’s (a
series of binary 0’s would be achieved in a similar way).
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Progress check 4
1. What does CAN stand for?
2. Which voltage represents a binary 1, high or low voltage?
3. What is the baud rate of CAN DATABUS?
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Multiplex faults
Open circuits
Multiplex systems are very reliable; it is one of the reasons that manufacturers
use them extensively on a modern motor vehicle.
Daisy chaining
ECU
ECU ECU
ECU ECU
ECU
This is a term used to describe the way in which communication networks are
configured. The diagram above shows that the ECU’s on the network are
connected in a loop. The advantage of this approach is that a single open
circuit fault in the network wire would not create a single symptom! You could
actually sever the wire completely without causing any faults whatsoever. The
reason?
Remember that binary 1’s and 0’s are created on the network bus wire by
switching between high and low voltages. We can still do this for the full
length of the wire even if it is cut.
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ECU
ECU ECU
ECU ECU
ECU
To clarify – if you were to connect a loop of wire to the battery positive post
you would be able to measure battery voltage at any point along that loop.
Open up the loop so you have a length of wire rather than a loop and you will
still be able to measure battery voltage along its full length. Remember,
voltage is applied it does not flow. Current flows and does require a
completed circuit but we are not using current here we are using voltage.
Two open circuit faults are needed on the same network in order for a fault to
be experienced; and then only systems controlled by the ECU isolated
through these faults will display symptoms.
Short circuits + B short
+ +B Short
ECU
ECU ECU
ECU ECU
ECU
Short circuits will cause complete failure of the multiplex network. The fault
illustrated above is known as a +B short. An example of this would be a
damaged loom that has brought a wire inside a harness at battery voltage into
contact with the network bus wire.
This would result in a constant high voltage on the network, which would
represent a continual stream of binary 1’s. This means nothing to an ECU.
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Ground short
ECU
ECU ECU
ECU ECU
ECU
GND Short
The fault illustrated above shows a ground short. This is where the
communication bus wire has become permanently grounded (perhaps through
chafing of the insulation and subsequent contact with the vehicle chassis). It
is now not possible to create a high voltage on the network. A network at a
constant 0 volts represents a continual stream of binary 0’s to the ECU’s and
that makes no more sense to them than a continual stream of binary 1’s.
Bus cut relays

Able to communicate
ECU ECU ECU ECU ECU ECU
ECU ECU ECU ECU ECU ECU
Unable to communicate GND Short
In order to further enhance the reliability of multiplex systems, bus cut relays
are used. These are switching devices placed inside a number of ECU’s on
the network that can ‘open’ in the event of a catastrophic shut down of the
network through short circuit faults. Through this action, the short circuit can
be isolated from a number of ECU’s on the network enabling them to
communicate normally and the fault is effectively ring-fenced.
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Types of multiplex
There are a number of different multiplex systems used by differing

manufacturers:
• CAN – DATABUS (European – Bosch)

Controller Area Network – Databus
All relevant ECU’s on the vehicle grouped logically
• BEAN (Japanese)
Body Electronics Area Network
Primarily consists of the ECU’s that control the body systems
• UART (Japanese)
Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter
Used as dedicated link for control systems
e.g. engine ECU and VSC
• AVC-LAN (Japanese)
Audio Visual Communication – Local Area Network
Consists of the ECU’s that control the audio and visual systems
These systems work in a very similar way, however there are small
differences:
• Voltage
Japanese systems tend to use battery voltage to represent a binary 1,

whereas CAN DATABUS tends to use 2.5 volts for drivetrain networks and
5 volts for body networks.
• Baud rate
This is the speed of communication, in other words how quickly the voltage
is changed from 0 volts to a high voltage.
Each separate network will communicate at one rate and this can be as
little as 10 kbits/sec for a low priority network (AVC-LAN) and 100 kbits/sec
for a high priority network (drivetrain control).
CAN DATABUS has a baud rate of 62.5 kbits/sec.
Note: A bit is a single binary digit (the word is an abbreviation of binary

digit) so if we use a term such as 100 kbits/sec then we are saying that the
voltage on the network changes 100,000 times every second!
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Noise elimination
In an electrical context noise is electromagnetic interference created by

high voltage systems on cars, such as the ignition circuit. Noise can
seriously affect communication bus lines.
CAN DATABUS overcomes this problem by using two communication bus

lines twisted together with an inverse voltage on one. All this really means
is that a high voltage on one bus line is countered by a low voltage on the
other. As a result the mean (average) voltage remains constant eliminating
interference.
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Progress check 5
1. What is the minimum number of open circuit faults needed to create a

symptom on multiplex systems?
2. What effect would a ground short have on a multiplex system?
3. What is the purpose of bus cut relays?
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Multiplex diagnosis
Diagnosis of multiplex systems (for all their apparent complexity) is actually

straightforward.
The diagram above represents a typical multiplex network used to effect a

memory function on the driver’s seat. This circuit enables the driver to ‘store’
his or her preferences regarding seat, steering wheel and mirror positions. A
second driver can then also store their preferences and these can be selected
from a switch inside the vehicle (or even automatically set off two different
ignition keys).
Let us assume that this network has suffered a ground short fault. No
communication can take place on this network because high voltages (and
therefore binary 1’s) cannot be generated.
GND Short
+B
GND
Note: The individual systems on this network will still work i.e. the seat will
move off its switches, the remote mirrors will work off its switch; it is only when
we ask these systems to work together through communication on the
network that nothing will happen.
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Test equipment
Using suitable test equipment, extract the fault codes. For this type of fault
there will always be a code.
In reality there will be multiple codes as shown in the example below:
• B1213 Tilt and Telescopic steering ECU communication stop
• B1215 Communication bus malfunction (short circuit)
• B1272 Power seat ECU communication stop
• B1276 Power mirror ECU communication stop.
These codes are telling you collectively that none of the ECU’s on this
network can communicate with each other and that there is a short circuit
fault. At this point you should run down the list of codes and ask yourself the
question.
Cause or effect?
Could a communication stop fault cause this problem or is this fault a reaction
to another fault?
There is no way that a communication stop fault can cause a short circuit, but
a short circuit can cause a communication stop problem.
Through this process of deduction you can quickly ascertain that it is a short
circuit fault that you are looking for.
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Typical wiring diagram
Working directly from the wiring diagram familiarise yourself with the location
of all the key components.
Disconnect each of the ECU’s in turn and observe the reaction of the fault
code. Note: A multiplex fault code is a live code and will disappear off the
tester screen when the fault is no longer detected.
If when you disconnect the remote control mirror ECU the code disappears
(the short circuit code that is), then the short lies inside that ECU and the ECU
must be replaced. If the code does not disappear when the remote control
mirror ECU is disconnected then it is not faulty. Reconnect that ECU and
check the other ECU’s in the same way. There is one ECU on the network
that you cannot check in this way and it is the ECU that communicates with
the tester via the diagnostic plug (the DLC3).
Once you have confirmed that the checkable ECU’s are serviceable, check
the harnesses. Disconnect a harness between two ECU’s (perhaps between
the remote control mirror ECU and the tilt and telescopic ECU). By doing this
you are isolating that length of harness from the ECU that detects the fault
and relays the information to the tester (the body ECU in this example). If the
short circuit code disappears then the short lies in that length of harness.
Take the same approach to check all harnesses.
Once you have confirmed that it is none of the checkable ECU’s and none of
the harnesses then the fault must lie in the only ECU that you have been
unable to check i.e. the body ECU. Replace it!
Remember to work easily – the ECU’s and harnesses you first check should
be dictated by ease of access and minimum stripping (reducing the likelihood
of trim damage).
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Progress check 6
1. Multiplex fault codes are ‘live’. What does this mean?
2. Which of the following two fault codes indicates the cause of the fault?
B1254 Communication bus malfunction (ground short)
B1267 Engine ECU communication stop
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Vehicle Security – Immobiliser
Vehicle theft is now a major problem worldwide. A vehicle’s immobiliser

system is a very effective way of preventing the vehicle from being driven
away without access to the correct key set.
The system consists of a transponder chip (fitted inside the key fob), a
transponder key coil and a transponder key computer.
Note: These latter two components are now often integrated.
Operation
The transponder chip inside the key fob continually emits a low power signal.
When the key is inserted into the key cylinder the transponder key coil detects
this signal. The key coil amplifies the signal and relays it to the transponder
key computer (immobiliser ECU). On receipt of this coded signal, the
transponder key computer compares the code with a pre-stored code in its
memory. If this code matches then a rolling code is initiated between the
transponder key computer and the engine ECU. The presence of this rolling
code confirms that the key is correct and the engine ECU will allow operation
of the ignition system and the fuel injectors (fuel stop solenoid on VE pump
variant diesels).
Note: The transponder key computer is often fully integrated with the engine
ECU on modern vehicles.
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Progress check 7
1. Where is the transponder chip located?
2. What is the purpose of the transponder key coil?
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In-car Radio
An in-car radio consists of the following components:
• antenna
• tuner
• amplifier
• speaker(s).
The antenna picks up the radio waves and sends them to the tuner section.
The tuner selects one of the multitudes of radio signals that the antenna is
detecting, turns these into sound signals and sends them to the amplifier. The
amplifier increases the strength of the sound signals to a useable volume.
The speaker(s) change the electrical sound signals into sounds that the
human ear can detect.
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Radio waves are transmitted by radio broadcasting stations. These waves
are generated at different frequencies in order for radio tuners to detect
specific waves.
A wave frequency is the speed at which it changes from a high value to a low
value (peaks and troughs) and is measured in Hertz. A frequency of 1 Hz
means that the wave changes from high to low once every second.
1 kHz (kilo Hertz) means it changes one thousand times every second and 1
MHz Mega Hertz) one million times every second. 1 GHz (Giga Hertz) means
it changes one thousand million times every second!
Radio waves are grouped into bands of frequency and they are as follows:
30 kHz to 300 kHz LF (Low Frequency)
300 kHz to 3 MHz MF (Medium Frequency)
3 MHz to 30 MHz MF (High Frequency)
30 MHz to 300 MHz VHF (Very High Frequency)
300 MHz to 3 GHz UHF (Ultra High Frequency)
The earth’s ionosphere reflects medium and long radio waves but short and
ultra short are not reflected. This makes medium and long wave radio signals
easier to detect at very long distances.
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Broadcasting
Sound signals such as those produced by a microphone cannot be

transmitted. Before this can happen the broadcasting station must mix them
with a very high frequency electrical wave known as a carrier wave. This
mixed signal is known as a modulated signal.
There are two main types of broadcast, AM and FM. AM or Amplitude

Modulation changes the amplitude (height) of the carrier wave and FM or
Frequency Modulation changes the frequency of the carrier wave.
AM lends itself well to long and medium bands and FM to short bands; to this
end AM stations can broadcast far greater distances.
FM broadcasting often produces far better sound quality. This is because

signals with better frequency characteristics can be broadcast (higher treble,
lower bass).
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Cassette Tape Player
Professional music tape manufacturers carry out recording music to tape.

The tape itself consists of a plastic strip with a magnetic medium attached.
When recording, this magnetic tape is passed across the recording head and
electromagnetic poles on the head magnetise the tape in different places.
When this recorded tape is then passed under the head in play mode, the
opposite effect takes place. The magnetised portions of the tape create an
electrical signal within the head, which is then amplified by the amplifier. This
signal is then further amplified before being relayed to the speakers.
Tape drive mechanism
The tape drive mechanism is simply an electric motor driven pulley system.
See diagram above.
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Compact Disc Player
A compact disc player uses a laser beam to detect the presence or absence
of pits etched into the surface of a plastic disc (the compact disc or CD).
These pits are 0.5 µm (micro metres) wide, 0.9 to 3.3µm long and 0.11µm
deep. The lengths of the pits represent binary value streams. These are
interpreted by the playback circuit, converted into analogue signals and
amplified before being sent to the speakers.
The pits are ‘read’ in the following way. The laser beam is directed at the
surface of the disc, if it strikes the surface of the disc where there is no pit,
nearly 100% of the light energy will reflect back. This reflected light is directed
at a photo diode. The photo diode will adopt a level of electrical conductivity
dictated by the intensity of light that shines on it. If the laser beam strikes a pit
in the surface of the disc, then only about 30% of the light energy will reflect.
This reduces the conductivity of the photo diode and the signal received from
it alters accordingly.
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DVD (Digital Versatile Disc)
DVD is very similar to compact disc technology. DVD’s are of the same
diameter and thickness as CD’s, and they are made using some of the same
materials and manufacturing methods. Like a CD, the data on a DVD is
encoded in the form of small pits in the track of the disc.
A DVD is composed of several layers of plastic (polycarbonate), in total about

1.2 millimetres thick. This process forms a disc that has microscopic pits
arranged as a single, continuous and extremely long spiral track of data.
Once the clear pieces of polycarbonate are formed, a thin reflective layer is
added to the disc, covering the pits. Aluminium is used behind the inner
layers, but a semi-reflective gold layer is used for the outer layers, allowing
the laser to focus through the outer and onto the inner layers. After all of the
layers are made, each one is coated with lacquer, squeezed together and
cured. This layering creates what is in effect a third dimension to the disc
when compared to a standard CD.
The data track is incredibly small, just 740 nanometres separate one track
from the next (a nanometer is a billionth of a metre). The elongated pits that
make up the track are each 320 nanometres wide, a minimum of 400
nanometres long and 120 nanometres high.
The microscopic dimensions of the pits make the spiral track on a DVD
extremely long. If you could lift the data track off a single layer of a DVD, and
stretch it out into a straight line, it would be almost 7.5 miles long! That
means that a double-sided, double-layer DVD would have 30 miles (48 km) of
data!
This increases its capacity approximately seven fold when compared with a
standard CD. This added capacity makes it an ideal medium for video games
and movies, all of which are finding themselves inside the passenger
compartment of the modern motor vehicle.
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Speakers
A speaker receives audio signal voltages from the amplifier. Current flows
through the moving coil of the speaker due to the application of this voltage.
The current flowing through the moving coil generates an electromagnetic
field, which reacts with the magnetic field created by the permanent magnet of
the speaker. The interaction of these two magnetic fields causes the coil to
move or vibrate (hence its name) and this movement is relayed to the speaker
cone. Any movement of the speaker cone creates sounds waves in the air
(pressure variations).
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Progress check 8
1. What does FM stand for?
2. Why does a DVD have a larger capacity than a CD?
3. What percentage reflection does a CD pit produce?
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Satellite Navigation
Satellite navigation systems are now commonplace on vehicles, most

manufacturers at least offering it as an option but often as standard
equipment.
Advantages
• guides user to unfamiliar destinations
• avoids the use of maps when driving
• accurate and timely instructions.
Disadvantages
• limited use for the majority of journeys
• reduced perceived value
• systems not aware of current traffic problems (unless specifically

equipped).
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GPS (Global Positioning System)
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system
made up of a network of satellites placed into orbit by the U.S. Department of
Defence. GPS was originally intended for military applications, but in the
1980s, the U.S. Government made the system available for civilian use. GPS
works in any weather conditions, anywhere in the world, 24 hours a day.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) comprises three parts:
• 24 satellites that orbit the Earth
• ground control stations, which monitor the satellites
• GPS receiver mounted on the vehicle.
The satellites are synchronised to emit encoded navigational information

(exact positioning and exact time). Any vehicle equipped with a GPS receiver
will be able to intercept these transmissions. Using a simple mathematical
formula derived from triangulation, the receiver is able to calculate its own
longitude, latitude, velocity and even altitude.
Accuracy with these systems for civilian applications is typically 100 metres.
How it works
GPS satellites circle the earth twice a day in a very precise orbit and transmit
signal information to earth. GPS receivers take this information and use
triangulation to calculate the user's exact location.
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Essentially, the GPS receiver compares the time a signal was transmitted by a
satellite with the time it was received. The time difference tells the GPS
receiver how far away the satellite is. With distance measurements from a
few more satellites, the receiver can determine the user's position and display
it on the unit's electronic map.
A GPS receiver must be locked on to the signal of at least three satellites to

calculate a 2D position (latitude and longitude) and track movement. With
four or more satellites in view, the receiver can determine the user's 3D
position (latitude, longitude and altitude).
Once the user's position has been determined, the GPS unit can calculate
other information, such as speed, bearing, track, trip distance and distance to
destination.
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In-vehicle Communication Systems
The pace of the working world has increased beyond all recognition over the
last few decades. People are finding themselves spending far more time in
their cars during the working day than ever before. The importance of being
able to communicate whilst in the car is paramount.
CB (Citizens Band) radio has been available across the globe for many years
now. Its principle of operation is similar to that of the radio as discussed
earlier in this workbook; the primary difference being that the set is both a
transmitter and a receiver and works within a very narrow band of frequency
dictated by the Government.
In-car telephones are now also proving popular. The inherent dangers (and
illegality) of using a mobile phone with no hands-free kit will only increase their
popularity.
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Telematics
The French word télématique was coined in the 1970s to denote the
combination of télécommunications and informatique 'computing'.
Telematics is best defined as the discipline which has emerged from the
coming together of the electronics, communications and information
technologies. The subject matter of telematics extends over a broad area:
from fundamentals of electronics, telecommunications and information
engineering, to the application of these technologies in areas such as the
design, implementation, use and evaluation of services at a distance via
networks.
In a motor vehicle context, telematics is the ability of the vehicle to

communicate with information technology systems external to that vehicle.
Applications
Vehicle telematics at the time of publication is in its infancy. A few examples

of potential applications are as follows:
• fault detection at distance and parts ordering (AA and RAC)
• internet browsing
• electronic traffic avoidance (Traffic Master linked to satellite navigation)
• automatic billing on toll roads
• automatic speed regulation
• logistics communications
• vehicle tracking.
Who knows what the future could hold?
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Progress check 9
1. What does GPS stand for?
2. How many satellites (minimum) are required to ascertain longitude,

latitude and height?
3. What is telematics?
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kap all phase 2 & 3 6/11/03 11:38 am Page 45

Introduction 3 Safety Information: 23

Cassette Tape Player: 54 Telematics: 63

• SRS airbag and seatbelt pre-tensioner

• in-car entertainment systems

• satellite navigation systems

• diagnosis of such systems.

When studying such systems it is easy to overwhelmed by the apparent

Mark on the voltages at all the key points.

2. Now consider an open circuit fault in connector B (poor terminal

Mark on the voltages at all the key points.

Mark on the voltages at all the key points.

4. Now consider a high resistance fault in connector D (poor terminal

Mark on the voltages at all the key points.

Mark on the voltages at all the key points.

6. Draw three differing short circuit faults on the circuits below:

SRS (Supplementary Restraint System) airbags are a good example of a

Seat belt pre-tensioners work in conjunction with frontal protection airbags.

An airbag deploys with considerable force (it has to in order to be effective).

All SRS airbags have at least the following components:

Deployment is very loud! During controlled deployment (discussed later) ear

Types of SRS airbags

Airbag systems are categorised into two main types:

The mechanical type system is completely self-contained within the airbag

The mechanical type airbag is particularly dangerous to the technician. The

Although these safety mechanisms provide a high degree of protection it

Airbag sensors – external to SRS ECU

Safing sensor – inside SRS ECU

1. Which sensor must always turn on in order for deployment to take

2. What is the purpose of the spiral cable?

This type of airbag is referred to as a microgas type. Rather than relying on

Answer the following questions:

1. What type of impact is a curtain shield airbag designed to protect the

2. What gas is used to inflate the airbag assembly?

3. Where are the side impact sensors normally located?

ONCE THE VEHICLE BATTERY HAS BEEN DISCONNECTED, YOU MUST

Never use memory keepers when working on SRS airbag systems.

Always follow manufacturers’ specific procedures when working on these

Never disconnect/reconnect the SRS ECU if it is not mounted to the vehicles

Mechanical SRS airbag

Do not bring magnets close to mechanical airbag and pre-tensioner

Never attempt to repair SRS airbag assemblies (including sensors, airbags,

Never expose airbag components to heat.

At any sign of damage of any description to SRS components, replace them

When disposing of airbag or pre-tensioner assemblies, always deploy them

Never use grease or cleaning agents on SRS components.

Always follow manufacturers’ specific instructions when diagnosing SRS

Because of their importance, SRS airbag connectors are always of a most

1. What is the purpose of the airbag activation prevention mechanism?

2. What colour are SRS airbag connectors?

3. Why must an SRS ECU never be unplugged unless it is fitted to the

Whether the articles should be kept in a licensed store or at registered

It may well be the practice of some motor manufacturers to preclude their

SRS airbags and seatbelt pre-tensioners must never be disposed of without

Disposal of the mechanical type requires the suspending of the assembly

Like an airbag, the pre-tensioner is a pyrotechnic device (explosive).

Safety device (mechanical type only)

Like airbags, seatbelt pre-tensioners must be treated with respect.

Always observe manufacturers’ instructions when working on such systems.

In a multiplex communication system (below), these separate signal wires are

This approach means a vast reduction in the wiring necessary, with an

For a number of years manufacturers have been designing their electronic

Multiplex communication system