Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Lectures 2017
Janne Järvinen
Professor, Management Accounting and Control Systems
P.O. BOX 4600, 90014 University of Oulu, FINLAND • tel. +358 294 480 000, fax +358 8 553 2906 • www.oulubusinessschool.fi
Course Material
Coursebook:
1. Zimmerman: Accounting for Decision-Making and
Control, chapters 7-11.
2
Course materials
Other
1. Kaplan & Anderson (2004) : Time-driven activity-based costing.
Harvard Business Review
2. Järvinen & Väätäjä (2017) Costing system sophistication and
information systems in SMEs: three interventionist case
studies.
3. Cokins & Paul (2012) Time-driven or driver rate -based ABC?
Strategic Finance, February.
http://sfmagazine.com/post-entry/february-2016-time-driven-
or-driver-rate-based-abc/
4. Cooper & Kaplan, The Design of Cost Management Systems, 2nd
ed., pages 208-217 (Activity-Based Costing: Introduction) and
243-250 (Measuring the Use of Resource Capacity)
P.O. BOX 4600, 90014 University of Oulu • tel. (08) 553 2905, fax (08) 553 2906 • www.oulubusinessschool.fi
Zimmerman: Accounting for Decision-
Making and Control
Chapters 7 and 8 describe some general features of cost
allocation and the trade-offs that arise in using cost
allocation for decision making and decision control.
4
Assignments
P.O. BOX 4600, 90014 University of Oulu • tel. (08) 553 2905, fax (08) 553 2906 • www.oulubusinessschool.fi
EVALUATION
Points Grade
162 5
144 4
126 3
108 2
90 1
P.O. BOX 4600, 90014 University of Oulu • tel. (08) 553 2905, fax (08) 553 2906 • www.oulubusinessschool.fi
Approximate contents
5
Characteristics of activity-based costing. ABC extensions
6 Time-Driven ABC
Future of Management Accounting Systems
7
Lecture 1
Cost allocation
Theoretical considerations
8
Definitions and Glossary
Cost object is a product, process, department, or program that
managers wish to cost.
9
Steps of Cost Allocation
1. Defining the cost objects. Decide what departments,
products, or processes to cost.
10
Surveys of Cost Allocation
Practices by Large Corporations
What corporate-level costs are allocated to profit centers?
Most often: selling and distribution expenses
Least often: income taxes
11
External Cost-based Contracts
Usage: Some institutions without strong profit motives purchased
goods and services with cost-based contracts. Suppliers were paid
for their reported costs plus a stated profit percentage.
Responses of these:
1. Tighter regulation of cost allocation practices.
2. Abandon cost-based contracts in favor of fixed-price contracts.
12
External Reasons for Cost
Allocation
External financial reports:
• Allocate production costs between expenses (expired costs,
such as cost of goods sold) and assets (unexpired costs,
such as ending inventory.
Income taxes:
• Related to external reporting
Third-party reimbursement:
• Some government contracts (e.g. health care) and regulated
industries (e.g. energy grids, telecom networks etc) use cost-
plus contracts
Bookkeeping costs are reduced if the same costs are used for
external and internal reporting.13
Internal Reasons for Cost
Allocation
Decision Making
• Managers will try to reduce their use of common resources
that have relatively high cost allocation rates
Decision Control
• Central executives can control behavior of operating
managers with cost allocation policy. Cost allocation affect
behavior (how much indirect costs are allocated to
departments).
14
Cost Allocations are an internal
Tax System
Cost allocations are economically equivalent to taxes on resource
factors.
Increasing cost allocation rates (or taxes) decrease profits reported
by the cost center bearing the allocated costs.
Increasing the cost allocation rate (or taxes) motivates profit-
maximizing managers to use less of the resources with higher
cost allocation rates.
15
Microeconomic Analysis of Cost
Allocation
Manager’s decision problem:
Minimize cost to produce sales level Q by choosing levels for
two inputs: advertising (A) and salespersons (S) .
17
Choice of Allocation Base
The measurable activity in the allocation base should be closely related to
the hard-to-measure opportunity cost.
Good base: Allocating utility costs with meters for each department.
Worse base: Allocating utility costs based on floor space.
19
Insulating vs. Noninsulating :
Incentives
Insulating cost allocation:
Performance of a division does not influence rewards for others.
Each division bears its own risk of events outside its control.
Noninsulating allocation:
Creates incentives for mutual monitoring and cooperation because
rewards depend on each other
Reduce risk to managers of events outside their control. If random events
are uncorrelated across divisions, then when one division is doing
poorly, the others are probably doing well and bear more of the costs.
20
21
Exercise 1
A sports equipment manufacturer makes to types of balls.
There is no beginning inventory and during the year the
manufacturer makes 20.000 soccer balls and 40.000
footballs. Indirect manufacturing costs during the year are
$100.000. During the year, all soccer balls are sold and
30.000 of the footballs are sold.
The company is considering two possible methods of
allocating indirect manufacturing costs.
• The first method allocates $80.000 to soccer balls and
$20.000 to the footballs.
• The second method allocates $40.000 to the soccer balls
and $60.000 to the footballs.
Which method causes a higher reported profit this period?
22
Exercise 2
A web-page design firm has two types of clients: those
that request a cost-plus 20 % contract and those that
request a fixed fee of $20.000 for design services. The
firm completes 50 designs of each type during the year.
• The average direct costs of each design are $10.000.
• Indirect costs for the design firm are $500.000.
The method of allocating indirect costs assigns $200.000
to the cost-plus design and $300.000 to the fixed-fee
designs. Please calculate the profit for the firm?
23
Lecture 2
Cost allocation: practical considerations
24
Methods of Service Department
Allocation
Methods for complex firms with at least 2 service departments and at least
2 operating departments
Alternative methods:
• Direct allocation (suora kohdistus / vyörytys / allokaatio)
• Step-down allocation (vasemmalta-oikealle –vyörytys)
• Reciprocal allocation (ristiinvyörytys)
25
Service Allocation: 1. Direct
Method
Procedure:
Ignore each service department’s use of other service departments.
Allocate service department costs only to operating departments.
Advantages:
Simple to administer and explain.
Disadvantages:
Allocations are not accurate estimates of opportunity costs when service
departments use other service departments.
Incentives exist for service departments to make excessive use of other
service departments.
26
Service Allocation: 2. Step-down
Method
Procedure:
Start with one service department and allocate all of its costs to the
remaining service and operating departments.
Continue one-by-one through each service department allocating all
direct costs of that department and costs allocated to it.
A good way of choosing the order of allocation is by (1) most reliable
“cause and effect” cost driver, (2) number of other departments
serviced, and (3) finally, as the default, total budget of department.
Advantages:
Considers some of the interdependence of service departments
Disadvantages:
Resulting allocations are inaccurate estimates of opportunity costs.
Allocation less than opportunity cost for first department
Allocation more than opportunity cost for last department
27
Service Allocation: 3. Reciprocal
Method
Procedure:
Write equations defining variable cost relationships among divisions.
Solve system of simultaneous equations with linear algebra.
Allocate fixed costs based on each operating division’s planned use of
the service department’s capacity.
Advantages:
Most accurate method
Disadvantages:
Slightly harder to set up and compute solution
Difficult to explain results to unsophisticated managers
28
Service department allocation vs. fixed-
fee charges
Difference between
(i) allocating costs, and
(ii) charging a predetermined, lump-sum service fee
• internal invoicing
• service departments receive internal revenues, and are
able to calculate a P&L-report
• insulating allocation
29
Reasons to Allocate Service
Department Costs
Encourages reduction of use of costly services
• With no cost allocation (zero transfer prices), management must
use non-price priority schemes to control use.
30
Joint Costs Defined
(jakamattomat yhteiskustannukset,
yhtenäiskustannukset)
Joint cost is incurred to produce two or more outputs
from the same input.
Joint costs occur only in disassembly processes, such
as refining and food processing.
Common costs occur in either disassembly or assembly
processes, such as building cars.
31
Joint Costs: Net Realizable Value
Net realizable value (NRV) is the difference between selling price
and costs that would be incurred after the split-off point.
32
Joint costs: sell or process further
Wings
Joint
Chicken Costs
Pieces Breasts
Separable
Split Off Point Process Costs
What is Relevant?
•Joint costs?
•Separable Processing costs
35
Allocating Capacity Costs:
Depreciation
Depreciation is fixed cost. One way to solve the
death spriral is not to allocate some (or all) of the
FC. For example, only allocate the FC of the
capasity actually being used. If there is 40% of
excess capasity, only allocate 60% of the
depreciation.
36
Allocating Capacity Costs:
Depreciation
Accounting depreciation represents the annual historical cost of
acquired capacity.
37
Absorption cost systems
(täyskatteellinen laskenta)
38
Manufacturing versus
Nonmanufacturing Settings
Manufacturing settings
Product costs: costs of manufacturing goods
Period costs: nonmanufacturing costs
Costs must be allocated between cost of goods sold (expense or
expired costs) and ending inventories (assets or unexpired
costs)
39
Two Types of (traditional) Absorption
Systems
Absorption cost systems ensure that all manufacturing costs are assigned
to products either by direct tracing or by cost allocation.
In practice, many plants use hybrids of job order and process costing.
40
Job Order Costing
Cost object: Distinct job or batch records are maintained for each
job
Direct traceable costs: Raw materials and direct labor costs are
directly assigned to each job.
Cost allocation: Manufacturing overhead costs (fixed and variable)
that cannot be directly traced are allocated to jobs
Allocation base: An input measure such as machine hours or labor
hours
Overhead rate: Overhead rate is set at beginning of year based on
estimated total overhead costs and estimated volume.
41
Cost Flow Sequence
42
Inventory Cost Flow Accounting
Assumptions
1. First In, First Out (FIFO): Oldest items are transferred out first.
When prices are rising, FIFO reports higher net income than
LIFO.
2. Last In, Last Out (LIFO): Newest items are transferred out first.
When prices are rising, LIFO reports lower net income than
FIFO.
3. Specific Identification: Each inventory item is individually
priced.
43
Overhead Rate
”yleiskustannus (yk) -lisä”
46
Flexible Budgets to Estimate
Overhead
Recall that
47
Budgeted Volume: Expected versus
Normal
Expected volume: Volume expected for the coming year.
Decision control: enhanced because transfer prices are adjusted for
changing volume
Decision management: impaired because lower volume raises overhead
rate, and encourages profit centers to raise prices
48
Permanent versus Temporary Volume
Changes
How should overhead rate estimates respond to volume changes?
49
Plantwide versus Multiple Overhead
Rates
Choices of overhead cost allocation disaggregation:
50
Standard costing
51
Backflush costing
• Backflush costing is an approach to costing which
delays recording changes in the status of the product
until the finished goods appear
• Backflush costing uses standard costs to work
backward and flush out costs for the units produced
Finished Cost of
Goods Control Goods Sold
Direct Direct
Materials Sale
Allocated
Conversion
Cost Control
Unallocated Conversion Costs
54